410 61 Chapter 4 Wireless Medium Access Control Cdma 3g 4g Communication Mobcom2e Q and A CH 4

1 Raj Kamal: Mobile Computing (2/e)
Chapter 4: Wireless Medium Access Control and CDMA, 3G and 4G Communication

Question Bank
Q1. What is modulation?
Voice is converted to electric signals. The signals are then encoded into bits (1s and 0s) for digital communication.
Carrier frequencies are used for transmission. The signals are transmitted after modulation.
Amplitude ‘s’, frequency’ f’ and phase ‘’ at an instant ‘t’ are three characteristics of a carrier signal.
Analog signal amplitude, sc (t) of a carrier, at an instant t is given by a sinusoidal equation:

sc(t) = sc0 sin [2.fc.t + ]. …(4.1)
Voice converts to analog electric signals. Analog signal amplitude, s(t), at an instant t is given by a sinusoidal equation:
s m (t) = s0 sin [2.fm .t]. …(4.2)
Here fm is the modulating signal frequency. s m (t) varies with time. The fm can be assumed to vary
between 0.1 kHz to 8 kHz for voice.
Modulation is a method using which a characteristic or characteristics of a carrier is modified according to the signal to
be transmitted using the carrier. Modification is done in such a way that a receiver is able to demodulate and recover the
original sequences of bits before the modulation.
Page References:
Modulation and Analog signal: Pages 147 and 148.
Q2. What is meant by 1 and 0 in digital transmission?
Signals are transmitted most of the time digitally. The digital signal is represented by bits. A bit can be represented by
symbol 1 or 0. We can consider bit is 1 in binary phase shifted keying when
sc(t) = sc0 sin [2.fc.t + ] and  = 0. It means sc(t) = sc0 sin [2.fc.t] …(1)
We can consider bit is 0 when

sc(t) = sc0 sin [2.fc.t + ]. and  =  radian (=360˚). It means sc(t) = −sc0 sin [2.fc.t] …(2)
Symbol
The digital signal can also be represented by symbols. A symbol, S, means a specific sequence of bits.
Assume that a digital signal is represented by four symbols S0, S1, S2 and S3. Let S0 is 0000, S1 = 0100, S2=
1000, and S3 = 1100. Also assume that a symbol changes every 31.25 s and that a sequence of four symbols is
S0, S1, S0 and S3 during a transmission interval of 125 s. The successive sequences are S0, S1, S0, S3, S0, S1,
S0, S3, S0, S1, S0, S3, S0, S1, S0 and S3 in 500 s (in four successive cycles).
Page reference:
Bit and symbols: Page 148.
Q3. Explain QPSK modulation.
QPSK stands for quadrature phase shifted keying. Quadrature means a quadrant area between two axes in a
graph. Graph is between x and y axes. One quadrant is between +x and +y axes, second between −x and +y,
third between −x and −y, fourth x and −y.
OXFORD H i g h e r Education
© Oxford University Press, 2012. All rights reserved.
Question Bank
Two bits are grouped. S0, S1, S2 and S3 are four symbols—11, 01, 10 and 00. QPSK is the modulation method
for the symbols S0, S1, S2 and S3 in which phase angle c(t) is advanced by 45 (/4 radian), reduced by 45
(=315 = 7/4 radian), advanced by 135 (3/4 radian) and reduced by 135 (=225 = 5/4 radian),
respectively. Signal transmits as sc(t) = sc0 sin [2.fc.t + ]
 = 45 when symbol S0— 11 transmits. …(1)

A symbol has a pair of odd and even bits. QPSK modulated signal has two components. The odd bits in a bit
stream are called in-phase component (I-component). The even bits in a bit stream are called quadrature phase
component (Q-component).
Assume a bit stream is 1100110011001100. The pair of bits in stream corresponds to symbol. S0S3S0S3S0S3….
When S3 changes to S0 or S0 changes to S3, 11 changes to 00 or vice versa, it means both the odd and even bits
change at the same instance after the period T. I and Q components change at same instance. This causes
change in phase of the modulated wave by 180.
Since the modulated wave is sum of I and Q wave amplitudes, the phase of modulated wave first changes by
180 after the period T, then after interval T by another 180.
Page References:
QPSK: Pages 150 and 151.
Q4. Discuss 16-QAM and 64-QAMs.
QAM modulation facilitates transmission of multiple bits (16 or 64) in the same time and amplitude slots in a
carrier frequency.
16-Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
16-QAM method is that four bits are grouped. S0, S1, …,S14 and S15 are sixteen symbols are— 1111, 1011,
0011, 0111, 1100, 1110,1000, 1010, 0000, 0010, 0100, 0110, 1101, 1001, 0001, and 0101. 16-QAM is
modulation method as follows:
1. Symbols S0, S1, S2 and S3 are 1111, 1011, 0011 and 0111. The phase angles c(t) are /4, 3/4, 
3/4, and /4. The amplitude sc0 = A1. .
2. Symbols S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9, S10 and S11 are 1100, 1110,1000, 1010, 0000, 0010, 0100, 0110.
Phase angles are /8, 3/8, 5/8, 7/8, 7/8, 5/8 3/8, /8 and The amplitude sc0 = A2.
3. Symbols S12, S13, S14 and S15 are 1101, 1001, 0001, and 0101. Phase angles are /4, 3/4, 3/4,
and /4. The amplitude sc0 = A3.
64-Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

When six bits are grouped in a symbol then a 64-QAM modulated signal is generated and transmitted. Assume
transmission rate is 19.2 kSymbol per second. One of the 64 possible distinct sequences is transmitted at a
specific phase angle, frequency, and amplitude. The bit transmission rate is 6 times 19.2 ksymbol/s = 115.2 kbps
when 64-QAM is transmitted at 19.2 ksymbol/s. This is because six bits represent a sequence (Symbol). 64-QAM
bandwidth requirement is thus reduced by a factor of 1/6.
Page references:
QAM : Pages 151 and 152.
Question Bank
Q5. (a) What is the meaning of Multiplexing?

(b) What are meaning of Multiplexed Access using SDMA, TDMA and FDMA?
Multiplexing
Multiplexing means each source is accessing the medium in different space, time or frequency-band or is using
different coding schemes. The multiplexing enables a large number of stations to use the limited spectrum
available for wireless communication in the medium.
Multiplexed Access— SDMA, TDMA and FDMA
SDMA multiplexing is a method in which symbols from radio sources using the same set of frequency components
of same range and at the same time slot can access the medium in different directions or cells.
TDMA multiplexing is a method in which symbols from the sources in same direction or cell can access the
medium in different time slots for the different radio sources using the same set of frequency components of
same range.
FDMA multiplexing is a method in which symbols from the radio sources are allotted to different frequency
channels (bands) and they can access the medium in same direction or cell and in same time slots.
Page Reference:
Multiplexing, SDMA, TDMA and FDMA: Page 153.
Q6. What are the characteristics of a CDMA system?
CDMA System characteristics

A CDMA system has following characteristics:
 CDMA is more robust for multi-path delays and provides higher immunity towards frequency selective fading.
[Frequency selective fading means a specific frequency carrier gets faded much more than the other
frequencies.]
 Each mobile station’s or base transceiver’s signals are coded with two or three codes. An n-symbol code is
assigned for each mobile or base transceiver wireless-station (WS) and each channel of that user. Another m-
symbol code can also be assigned to each user channel, for example, synchronization, paging, traffic, and pilot
channels. Another k-symbol code can also be assigned for each carrier of a user. CDMA systems use a good
set of codes. A good set of CDMA codes is one in which all the codes are orthogonal to each other and which
results in autocorrelation at the receiver.
CDMA systems employ spread spectrum techniques (DSSS and FHSS) for medium access control. These techniques
are described in the Sections 4.4.1 and 4.5.1
A set of n equally spaced frequencies, called chipping when DSSS or hopping frequencies when FHSS is used for
transmission. DSSS means use of direct sequence spread spectrum. FHSS means use of frequency method of using the
spread spectrum. Spread spectrum means n frequency signals given as
s0 (t) = S0  (s0 /n) sin(2  fc0  t + t0),

s1 (t) = S1 (s0 /n) sin(2  (fc0 + fs)  t + t0),
.
.
.
s(n1)(t) = S(n1)  (s0 /n) sin {2  (fc0 + (n1) fs) t + t0} (1)
Question Bank
Total spread in the spectrum is between fc0 and fc0 + (n1) fs. The fs is separation between successive chipping
frequencies in case of DSSS. The fs is minimum separation between successive available hopping frequencies in case
of FHSS.
1. The DSSS (direct sequence spread spectrum) technique uses all the frequencies defined by Eqn (1),
simultaneously, in direct sequence (successive intervals). The frequency spread is between fc0 and fc0 +
(n1)fs.
2. Alternatively, there may be hopping among n equally spaced frequencies defined by Eqn (1) in a particular
sequence. Only one channel frequency is used during a given interval in the FHSS (frequency hopping spread
spectrum). The channel frequency hops among n frequencies in a certain coded order of sequence.
3. A CDMA DSSS receiver (Fig. 4.7) XORs the received signal with the chipping code, which was used for
transmission, thus giving back the original symbol in user data. If XORing gives the result = 0, then the
transmitted symbol is 0, and if it results in a finite large value, then the transmitted symbol is 1. In a given hop
interval, a CDMA FHSS receiver (Fig. 4.10) demodulates the signals of that channel frequency which
corresponds to the code symbol for that hop.
4. A symbol is transmitted in DSSS using the code as such for chipping when transmitting the symbol 0 and
using the code’s complement when transmitting 1. This means XORing between the user-signal symbols and
chips. The chips are used as per the code. Assume that fc0, fc0+ fs, fc0+ 2 fs, …, fc0+ 5 fs six chips transmit with
code 101010 in an interval of 64 s. [It means spread factor is 6.] If Symbol bit = 0 during that interval of 64
s, then transmitted six chips are 101010 during that interval. If Symbol bit = 1 during that interval of 64 s,
then transmitted chips are 010101 during that interval.
5. Alternatively, a symbol in a hop interval is transmitted using FHSS. The channel frequency used for
transmission at a given hop interval is as per the hop sequence defined by the code.
6. CDMA systems give signals of higher voice and data quality and small bit error rates (BERs).
7. CDMA systems have soft handover. Soft handover means that an MS at the boundary of two adjacent cells
does not have to drop calls due to signal break during handover at the boundary region. CDMA systems
provide seamless connectivity to the MS.
8. CDMA systems perform power control by open loop or close loop methods to solve the problem of drowning
of signals from far mobile terminals by those from the near terminals.
.
Page references:
CDMA System characteristics: Pages 188 and 189;
Q7. What are the characteristics of IS-95 CDMA (cdmaOne) system?
IS-95 was developed by QUALCOM, USA in 1991 and was accepted as a standard in 1997. It is now known as
cdmaOne. It is a 2G+ technology, originally called IS-95 (interim standards 95).
Key Features
The key features of cdmaOne MS and BTS processing units are as follows:
 Forward channel base station uses orthogonal Walsch code
 Multi-encoded transmission in traffic channel
 Block interleaving of signals of two or four data sets and 19.2 KSymbol/s transmission low data rates
(between 0.8 kbps to 9.6 kSymbol per s)
 Single-rate transmission by spread factor (64) for data rate of 19.2 KSymbol/s and chipping interval for 1.2288
MChip per second.
 Single carrier FDD transmission by using chipping rate = 1.2288 Mchip/s
 Employing distinct uplink and downlink multiple access, modulation, spreading, and channelization codes
Question Bank
 BTS transmitter band width = 1.5 MHz
Frequency Spectrum
It uses 824-849 MHz and 869-894 MHz with multiple analog channels forming one digital carrier. The standard uses
FDD for forward and reverse links, as in the case of GSM systems.
The forward link (called downlink in GSM) is between the BTS (base transceiver) and an MS (mobile station).
Forward link frequency is 870.000 MHz + 0.030i, where i is the channel number. The channel numbers are between
channel 1 to 777 when 1 ≤ i ≤ n1. Here n1 = 777. Channel numbers are between channel number 1013 to 1023 when
10 ≤ i ≤ 0.
The reverse link (uplink in GSM) is from an MS (mobile station) to the BTS (base transceiver). Reverse link frequency
is 45 MHz less than the forward link and is 825.000 MHz + 0.030i, where i = channel number. The channel numbers
are 1 ≤ i ≤ n1 between 1 and 777 where n1 = 777and are n2 ≤ i ≤ n3. The channel numbers, when n2 is between 10 and
n3 = 0, are called channels 1013 to 1023.
Types of systems
There are two types of systems. System A services are the ones using channels 1 to 311, 689 to 694, and 1013 to 1023.
System B services are the ones using channels 356 to 644 and 739 to 777. There is guard band between the two
services.
Pseudo noise spreading code

Pseudo noise spreading codes PNQ and PNI with 15 degree generator polynomials GQ and GI and 32767 chip sequence
generator using the LFSR based circuit shown in Fig. 4.9 (Section 4.4.1.2 ) are used for spreading. Each BTS adds one
of the 512 offsets to the PN codes, so that each BTS in a cell is identified. During the handover, the offset value
changes when an MS moves from a cell to another cell.
Question Bank
Quadrature and in-phase base-band signals

Quadrature and in-phase base-band signals are then modulated by QPSK in forward channels and OQPSK in reverse
channels.
Forward Link Channels

There are four channels in forward link, called traffic, paging, synchronization, and pilot channels. The forward channel
from the BTS uses orthogonal Walsh codes.
Power Control
It uses open loop power control. A near terminal reduces the power level and a far off terminal raises power after
detecting the strength of the data on a pilot channel from the BTS. Open loop means that only the BTS measures the
signal strength and the BTS transmits information regarding the signal quality to the MS. The MS adjusts its power
level as per the received signal quality and minimizes the transmitted power and still maintains an acceptable quality of
signals
Chipping rate
The IS-95 standard chipping rate of 1.2288 Mchip/s is used. Now, 1.2288 Mbps/14.4 kbps is a fractional number, but
1.2288 Mbps/19.2 kbps is an integer (64).
Multi-encoded Transmission of Signals in a Traffic Channel

IS-95 cdmaOne user data has different data rates. Rate Set RS1 is transmitted at 9.6, 4.8, 2.4, or 1.2 kbps. An optional
rate set RS2 is transmitted at 14.4, 7.2, 3.6, or 1.8 kbps. It requires different type of convolution encoding and error
encoding depending upon considerations of service quality. Low or high service quality means high or low bit error
rates, respectively.
Multi-encoded rate systems transmit signals at variable data rates after convolution coding. In IS-95, the RS1 and RS2
data rate symbols are matched, repeated, and interleaved so that before chipping, the symbol transmission rate is
constant at 19.2 ksymbol/s. Data rate matching with a fixed rate for a channel is used to transmit multi-encoded signals
using a constant spread factor and fixed length codes. If a set of bits is repeated in the same time period (for example,
when matching a preset symbol rate by doubling it), then the symbol transmission rate is doubled. Here, the term
‘symbol’ refers to the symbol to be XORed with the code at a given chipping frequency and the term ‘bit’ is used for
the user signal to be transmitted and extracted at the receiver.
User Symbol Rate

This means that the Walsh code has a code length of 64. Therefore, the rate set for RS2 user symbols is matched with
the RS1 rate of 9.6 kbps by puncturing 2 symbols for every 6 user symbols and then doubled by symbol repetition to
19.2 kbps. This facilitates the use of Walsh code of length 64 for transmitting each user symbol. Puncturing 2 symbols
for every 6 and then repeating gives a signal of 19.2 ksymbol/s. At 14.4 ksymbol/s, a six bit interval = 6  69.44 s =
416.4 s. At 9.6 ksymbol/s, a four bit interval = 4  104.1 s = 416.4 s.
Now, two bits are punctured in this time interval of 416.4 s. The symbol rate now becomes 4/6 times for the purpose
of spreading. 14.4 kbps  4/6 equals 9.6 kbps. The puncturing of 2 symbols out of every 6 still gives a voice signal of
acceptable quality. Symbol repetition doubles the number of symbols in the 416.4 s interval. The symbols for
spreading (coding) appear at double data rates as 19.2 ksymbol/s. The RS2 signal of data rate 14.4 kbps is transmitted
at a rate of 19.6 ksymbol/s. Each symbol is then coded and spread later by 64-symbol long code.
Block Interleaving
Interleaving is a technique which enables the use of idle time-slots in the frames which have a pre-defined bit (or
symbol) transmission rate in a channel. Block interleaving
Read details in Section 8.7.
.
Page references:
IS-95 (cdmaOne): Pages 189 to 195.
Question Bank
Q8. (a) What are the key features of WCDMA?

(b) List the compatibilities between WCDMA and CDMA 2000.
(c) Describe WCDMA.
WCDMA Key Features

The key features of WCDMA processing units are:
 Asynchronous base stations
 Employing the same direct sequencing FDD mode 1 transmission, same channelization codes (OVSF), same
modulation (QPSK), and same carrier modulation (QPSK) for both uplink and downlink
 Chipping rate of 3.84 MHz
 Multi-rate transmission of signals by spread factor control
 Use of variable data rates
Compatibility of WCDMA with cdmaOne and CDMA2000 Systems

WCDMA systems can be made compatible with cdmaOne and CDMA2000 systems by use of synchronous base
stations, employing multi-carrier mode with a chipping rate of 3.6864 Mchip/s (which is an integral multiple of the IS-
95 chipping rate of 1.2288 Mchip/s), and adding a CDMA pilot to the direct spread mode data.
WCDMA
Chipping frequency Chipping frequency used in WCDMA is 3.84 Mchip/s and is, therefore, not compatible with
IS-95 as 3.84 Mchip/s is not an integral multiple of the IS-95 chipping rate of 1.2288 Mchip/s.
Modulation Modulation type used is QPSK for both reverse and forward link frequencies. Timing
synchronization of base stations does not follow GPS system timings (Section 2.7.3).
Question Bank
User Plane
Two sub-layer protocols for the user plane are PDCP (packet data convergence protocol) and BMC (broadcast and
multicast control protocol). These are controlled by the RRC (radio resource control) at the network layer and are
linked to the RLC (radio link control) at the data link layer through a separate service access point. The RLC performs
transparent data transfer (Section 3.1.1.5).
Control Plane
The sub-layers in the control plane are GMM, CC, MM, SM, SS, and SMS. These layers are linked to the RRC. Figure
4.17 shows the operations at the CC, MM, and RRC sub-layers. The MM controls the mobility issues to be resolved
and provides soft handover when the MS moves into other cell (location area). CC, SS, and SMS sub-layer protocols
support services such as call establishment, maintenance and termination, supplementary services, and SMS. The RRC
manages the radio resources. The BTS implements only RRC′ (a part of RRC).
Dedicated and Common Channels

Data link layer MAC protocols between MS and BTS support two types of channels, dedicated channels and common
channels. The common channels are control, paging, broadcast, and shared channels. There are three dedicated
channelsdedicated physical control channel (DPCCH), dedicated physical data channel (DPDCH), and dedicated
physical channel (DPCH). Dedicated channels are assigned to the MSs for uplink. There is also a common channel for
traffic. There are channels called transport channels (like access channel in cdmaOne). The channel code and structure
is different for the uplink DPCCH and for the downlink DPDCH channel.
Short and Long Data Packets

Random access bursts are transmitted in 10 ms slots at fixed rates by a control mechanism and slotted Aloha protocol is
used for access. Short data packets are directly appended to the random access bursts in common (not dedicated)
channel packet transmission. Longer packets are transmitted by dedicated channels at variable power, controlled by a
power control message appended to the user symbols.
Question Bank
Different types of physical channels

WCDMA supports several different types of physical channels. Certain physical channels are defined by special
(distinct) waveforms only. Each pair of spreading and scrambling codes defines the remaining physical channels.
WCDMA uplink employs channelization codes for controlling and synchronizing multiple data rate channels.
UMTS terrestrial radio access network (UTRAN) employs channelization codes for synchronizing the multiple user
terminals (MSs). (The functions of UTRAN are similar to those of the BTS in GSM systems.) WCDMA UTRAN
employs scrambling codes for radio resource planning when downlinking to the MSs and uses channelization codes
when downlinking the user channels to the MSs. WCDMA chipping rates are 3.84 Mchip/s.
DPDCH employs a pair of channelling and scrambling codes. UTRAN (UMTS terrestrial radio access network)
performs code allocation functions for downlink channelization codes and uplink scrambling codes. The MS performs
code allocation functions for uplink channelization code as per the data rate and the BTS performs the code allocation
at the downlink radio-planning layer for the scrambling code.
Power control signals

WCDMA reverse link (mobile terminal uplink) transmits pilot symbols, which are multiplexed with rate information as
well as power control messages. Rate information facilitates coherent detection.
Multi-rate transmission of signals

A single code is used when transmitting small data rate signals multiplexed in time-space and multiple codes are used
when transmitting large data rate signals multiplexed in code-space. WCDMA transmission uses a single code for small
data rates and multiple codes for large data rates.
Use of variable rates by WCDMA processing units

Certain types of data need to be transmitted at fast rates and some other types of data, for example, voice-data, power
control data, and SMS text, require slow transmission rates. Variable rates are required in different types of services to
form a system. Orthogonal coding for channelization is asymmetrical in uplink and downlink.
WCDMA employs a constant chipping rate for spreading but variable spread factors, called OVSF (orthogonal variable
spreading factors).
The concept of variable spread factor was explained in Section 4.6.2.2 by taking an example of Walsh coding.
WCDMA also uses variable spreading codes but ones that are different from the Walsh code.
Use of variable spread factor controls the signals with multiple data rates. The code length used per symbol is 4 when
the downlink user symbol data rate needed is 1.92 Mbps and is 512, when the data rate needed is 15 kbps. Spreading
codes of different lengths are thus used and orthogonality of the codes is maintained.
The source (MS) and channel for these symbols when using orthogonal code spreading then gets uniquely identified on
de-spreading at the receiver.
Reverse channels uses Gold and S(2) codes. The chipping rates for these codes are 38400 and 256 chips, respectively.
Gold codes (Section 4.9) are used for the MS user symbols and S(2) codes identify the user at the receiver.
Spread factor control

Spread factor controls the user data rate. When spread factor = 4, user data rate becomes ¼ of the rate corresponding to
spread factor = 1. OVSF codes support both orthogonality as well as variable data rates for a physical channel. Uplink
OVSF does not separate the users due to different delays expected from the near and far terminals (MSs).
Read details in Section 4.9
Page references:
WCDMA: Pages 196 to 200.
Question Bank
Q9. (a) Define OFDM.
(b) When is the OFDM required?
(c) What are the characteristics of OFDM?
(d) Explain OFDM.
Definition of OFDM
OFDM (orthogonal code division multiplexing) is also called CODFM (code orthogonal code division multiplexing). It
is spread spectrum technique based multiple carrier or discrete multi-tone modulation.
Use of OFDM
3G+ system requires (a) file transfer at 10 Mbps or (b) high resolution 1024  1920 pixel hi-vision picture transfer at
24 MB/s or (c) high resolution video transfer. Three to twelve carriers of CDMA2000 phase shifted in time-space do
not suffice at these required high speeds of data transfer. OFDM (orthogonal frequency division multiplexing) in code-
space offers a new multi-carrier transmission technique for cellular mobile devices.
Characteristics of OFDM
Three most important characteristics of OFDM are high spectral efficiency, strong resiliency to RF inter symbol
interferences, and lower multi-path distortions. As compared to a single carrier system, the peak to average power ratio
(PAR) is high in an OFDM system, but it gives a many carrier system with bandwidth equal to that of a single carrier
system. Digital video broadcasting (Section 8.6) and HyperLAN-2 (Section 12.1) use OFDM systems.
OFDM
OFDM is a spread spectrum based technique for distribution (spreading) of data over large number of sub-carriers that
are spaced at precise frequency intervals with a coding scheme. Multi-carrier transmission in OFDM uses multiplexing
in code-space.
Multiple carriers use mutually orthogonal codes, which enables separation of carriers in case of multi-path
transmissions and interference of signals.
All channel carriers (adjacent channel codes) are using different but mutually orthogonal codes (Section 4.6.2). Each
channel carrier has distinct amplitude (power level) and may have a time guard.
Bandwidth remains equal to that in the single carrier case.
Page references:
OFDM: Pages 205 to 208.
Question Bank
Q10. What is MIMO? How are MIMO antennae used in HSPA?
MIMO (multiple input, multiple output) is a technique in which multiple antennae are used for inputs and
outputs. MIMO-HSPA (multiple input, multiple output OFDM) methods is as follows:
2×2 MIMO Transmitter has 2 separate appropriately spaced antennae outputs from the transmitter and two inputs at
the receiver. A receiver also has 2 appropriately spaced separate antennae. The separations between antennae cannot be
large and are kept small but a special design is used.
The separations between two sets of antennae at the transmitter and the receiver can be made significantly large.
Multiple wavelengths can be used at the transmitting base station with multiple inputs and the multiple outputs.
Each ith receiver (i = 1 and 2) will receive signals from 2 transmitting antennas through 2 paths. Signal propagates
through a matrix of 2 × 2 paths. This arrangement is called 2×2 MIMO. 2×2 MIMO results in double throughput.
MIMO improves the range of communication between the transmitter and the receiver. Figure 4.23 shows the
paths in 2×2 MIMO for doubling the data transfer rates.
Coder and QAM Decoder and QAM

Modulator demodulator
Fig. 4.23 Doubling of Data transfer rate by a 2×2 MIMO
Page References:
MIMO and HSPA: Pages 211 and 212.
Q11. What is meant by LTE?

LTE [long term evolution] developed in 2007, is a network of 3GPP specification. It is a Pre 4G technology and
provides high performance. Figure 4.24 gives the architecture.
Mobility Server Serving HSPA Support Node

Network SGSN to the number of BSCs
Subsystem and SGSN connects to the
NSS HSPA, SGSNs and GGSNs
GSM
LTE
Base Station
Subsystem Gateway LTE, CDMA, HSPA Support Node GGSN
BSS to the packet data network, for example,
Broadband Internet, TCP/IP
CDMA Base Station
Subsystem
BSS
User Plane Packet data network

Node
Fig. 4.24 LTE Architecture
Question Bank
The performance is similar to HSPA+ R8. Features of LTE are listed in Table.
Property Description
Frequency Bands 1.920-1.980 GHz, 2.110-2.170 GHz, 2.500-2.570 GHz, 2.570-2.620 GHz,
2.620-2.690 GHz, Around 700 MHz bands.
BTS and BSC 1. Multi-carrier OFDM
Transmitter
2. Direct Gateway Interface to Packet data network
3. LTE 2007 SIMO (Single Input Multi-output Antenna)
4. LTE 2008 MIMO (Multi-input Input Multi-output Antenna)
Smart MIMO 1. Multi-code word (horizontal) for link adoption per stream and
successive interference cancellation, closed loop and pre-coding
2. MIMO with the units as follows: channel encoder, beam former with pre-
coding, interleaving and rate matcher
Modulation Downlink 64 QAM, Uplink 16-QAM.
Spectrum 1.4 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz and 20 MHz
Flexibility
Support to both FDD for uplink and downlink frequency as well as TDD for
FDD and TDD uplink and downlink frequency
1. Uplink 10 MHz Uplink (Multi-carrier 5 MHz + 5 MHz OFDM); with
LTE uplink peak use of 16-QAM for the peak rate of 25 Mbps
Data transfer 2. Uplink 10 MHz (Multi-carrier 5 MHz + 5 MHz OFDM) with use of 64
rates QAM for the peak rate of 50 Mbps
1. LTE 2×2 (2008) Downlink 40 Mbps; Uplink 5 MHz + 5 MHz
LTE releases for 2. LTE 2×2 (2008) Downlink 154 Mbps; Uplink 20 MHz + 20 MHz
high peak Data
transfer rates 3. LTE 4×4 Rel 8 (2010) Downlink 326 Mbps; Uplink 88 Mbps 20 MHz
+ 20 MHz
Typical Data Downlink 5.9 Mbps to 21.5 Mbps
Rates
Latency 50 ms
Application Seamless interfacing the Broadband Internet, TCP/IP, CDMA, GSM, HPSA
networks
Page References:
LTE: Pages 212 to 213.
Q12. What are the requirements of 4G?
4G is supposed to enable streaming multimedia, HDTV content, Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), and ultra-
broadband Internet access. Peak data rates are required to be more than 100 Mbps for high definition mobile TV and
streaming videos and up to approximately 1 Gbps for local wireless access.
Bandwidths of at least 40 MHz is required. High spectral efficiency should be greater than 1.0 bps per Hz per sector
and should have the ability to operate up to 40 MHz channels. There should be a soft handoff across the heterogeneous
networks.
Seamless connectivity and global roaming across multiple networks are also required features of 4G.
Question Bank
A 4G system design is expected to be based on any one of the following:

1. IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) ITU-R
2. LTE Advanced
3. WiMax 402.16m
Page Reference:
4G Requirements: Page 215.
Q12. What are the requirements of 4G?
Broadband Wireless Access

MIMO-OFDM (multiple input, multiple output OFDM) is a technique in which multiple antennae are used for inputs and
outputs. It provides broadband wireless access (BWA) and performs well in multiple non-line-of-sight multiple-path
environments.
IEEE 802.16 standard defines the standards for wireless broadband (WiBB), also called Broadband Wireless Access
(BWA). Features of BWA are listed in Table.
Property Description
Application 1. Wireless High speed Internet
2.High speed Data network
3. Mobile TV and video calls
Instantaneous Greater than 1 MHz (speed equivalent or greater than a cable modem or
Bandwidth ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber line)
Data transfer IEEE 802.16 standard rate greater than nearly 1.5 Mbps;
rates
Downlink FCC standard 2010, defines data transmission speeds of at least 4 Mbps
(from the Internet to user’s computer or mobile)
Uplink 1 Mbps (from the mobile or user’s computer to the Internet)
High data rate MIMO-OFDM (multiple input, multiple output OFDM) technique in which
Technology multiple antennae are used for inputs and outputs.
Wireless Internet 1. Dishes for communication for 2.400–2.500 GHz or 3.650 GHz,
Services Download speeds greater than 100 Mbit/s; Range 50 km; Example: Three
45 Mbps wireless dishes
2. 902–928 MHz Cellular network transmitters
3. Broadband mobile Internet using HSPA or CDMA EV-DO or WiMax
Rel 2
Page References:
BWA: Pages 214 and 215.
Question Bank
Q14. What does satellites and terrestrial mobile systems integrate?
Satellites and Mobile Systems Integration

Figure 4.31 shows an integrated satellite, Internet, TV, radio, and mobile terrestrial system. The figure shows that a
satellite earth station or a broadcast service (SESBS) station connects to a mobile base station A. A connects to high
speed Internet through DVB-C protocol. The mobile service base station B can directly connect to a satellite. B also
connects to high speed Internet through DVB-C protocol. Using DVB-H+ protocol, the service provider base stations A and B
connect to the mobile handheld devices. The SESBS connects to high speed Internet employing DVB-S protocol.
The handheld devices, therefore, get integrated service through Internet, satellite, and mobile service providers using, GSM
or CDMA. The high speed Internet networks to TV broadcast service and data services using DVB-T and DVB-data,
respectively, through a MUX. Radio service is provided by DAB-S connectivity to the radio broadcast
Details are given in Section 4.18.4.
Fig. 4.31 Integrated DVB-H+ and convergence of mobile, Internet and broadcasting network architecture
Page References:
Integrated Satellites and Terrestrial Mobile Systems: pp. 227 to 230.

410 61 Chapter 4 Wireless Medium Access Control Cdma 3g 4g Communication Mobcom2e Q and A CH 4

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1 Raj Kamal: Mobile Computing (2/e)

Chapter 4: Wireless Medium Access Control and CDMA, 3G and 4G Communication

Q1. What is modulation?

Analog signal amplitude, sc (t) of a carrier, at an instant t is given by a sinusoidal equation:

Q2. What is meant by 1 and 0 in digital transmission?

We can consider bit is 0 when

Q3. Explain QPSK modulation.

 = 45 when symbol S0— 11 transmits. …(1)

Q4. Discuss 16-QAM and 64-QAMs.

16-Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

64-Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Q5. (a) What is the meaning of Multiplexing?

Multiplexed Access— SDMA, TDMA and FDMA

Q6. What are the characteristics of a CDMA system?

CDMA System characteristics

s0 (t) = S0  (s0 /n) sin(2  fc0  t + t0),

Q7. What are the characteristics of IS-95 CDMA (cdmaOne) system?

Pseudo noise spreading code

Quadrature and in-phase base-band signals

Forward Link Channels

Multi-encoded Transmission of Signals in a Traffic Channel

User Symbol Rate

Q8. (a) What are the key features of WCDMA?

WCDMA Key Features

Compatibility of WCDMA with cdmaOne and CDMA2000 Systems

Dedicated and Common Channels

Short and Long Data Packets

Different types of physical channels

Power control signals

Multi-rate transmission of signals

Use of variable rates by WCDMA processing units

Spread factor control

Read details in Section 4.9

Bandwidth remains equal to that in the single carrier case.

OFDM: Pages 205 to 208.

Q10. What is MIMO? How are MIMO antennae used in HSPA?

Coder and QAM Decoder and QAM

Fig. 4.23 Doubling of Data transfer rate by a 2×2 MIMO

Q11. What is meant by LTE?

Mobility Server Serving HSPA Support Node

User Plane Packet data network

Fig. 4.24 LTE Architecture

Q12. What are the requirements of 4G?

A 4G system design is expected to be based on any one of the following:

Q12. What are the requirements of 4G?

Broadband Wireless Access

Satellites and Mobile Systems Integration

Details are given in Section 4.18.4.

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