Final Work

REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE ET
POPULAIRE MINISTERE DE L’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPERIEUR

ET DE LA RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIQUE
UNIVERSITE AKLI MOHAND OULHADJ-BOUIRA
Faculté des Sciences et des Sciences Appliquées

Département : Génie Mécanique
Mémoire de fin d’étude

Présenté par :
HASSANI MOHAMED AMINE

BENANE YOUBA
En vue de l’obtention du diplôme de Master en :

Filière : Génie Mécanique
Option : Énergétique
Thème :
Wall effects in flow past a circular cylinder in a plane

channel: a numerical study
Devant le jury composé de :
Ahmanache Abdennacer Enseignant Chercheur UAMOB Encadreur

Lattari K. Enseignant Chercheur UAMOB Président
Aghbari A. Enseignant Chercheur UAMOB Examinateur
Année Universitaire 2021/2022

Acknowledgements
Année Universitaire 2021/2022
Acknowledgements
This thesis would not have been completed without the help, inspiration and advise of many
individuals. Some of the names I might forget to mention here but each one of them have played
a role in fulfillment of this work.
First of all, I would like to thank to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Ahmanache Nacer very much
because he taught me not only those valuable courses, supervised me, and helped me with
technical problems but also, he taught me how to be endlessly patient.
I would like to thank all the faculty members of Department of Mechanical Engineering,
for their unforgettable encouragement.
Finally, I would like to express my deepest of gratitude towards my parents for the
unconditional love and support they have given me throughout my life. without their love and
encouragement, I would not have been able to come to this place.
ABSTRACT
The work presented in this thesis focuses on the numerical study on the steady flow of an
incompressible Newtonian fluid past a circular cylinder in a plane rectangular channel.
In this work, a detailed study on confined, unconfined cylinder is presented. A bibliographic

review of the most important works found in the literature for the physical configurations
studied is presented.
The numerical study was carried out with the academic and free version of the ANSYS / Fluent
code (refer to the web site) that allowed us to study the effect of different values of the blockage
ratio ( ratio of the channel width to the cylinder diameter) in the range between 1.54 and 20,
and the Reynold numbers in the range between 0.1 and 200.
The total drag coefficient (CD) was found to decrease with an increase in the blockage ratio (λ)
for a fixed value of the Reynolds number (Re) and to decrease with an increasing Reynolds
number for a fixed value of λ. Similarly, for a fixed value of λ, both the angle of separation and
the length of the recirculation zone increase with the increasing Reynolds number.
Keywords: Drag coefficient, Blockage ratio, Newtonian fluids, Incompressible flow, Ansys
Academic fluent, finite volume method.
RESUME
Le travail présenté dans cette thèse se concentre sur l’étude numérique sur l’écoulement
stationnaire d’un fluide newtonien incompressible après un cylindre circulaire dans un canal
rectangulaire plan.
Dans ce travail, une étude détaillée sur les cylindres confinés et non confinés est présentée. Une
revue bibliographique des travaux les plus importants trouvés dans la littérature pour les
configurations physiques étudiées est présentée.
L’étude numérique a été réalisée avec la version académique et gratuite du code ANSYS /
Fluent (voir le site web) qui nous a permis d’étudier l’effet de différentes valeurs du rapport de
blocage (rapport de la largeur du canal au diamètre du cylindre) entre 1,54 et 20, et les chiffres
de Reynold entre 0,1 et 200.
On a constaté que le coefficient de traînée total (CD) diminuait avec une augmentation du
rapport de blocage (λ) pour une valeur fixe du nombre de Reynolds (Re) et diminuait avec une
augmentation du nombre de Reynolds pour une valeur fixe de λ. De même, pour une valeur fixe
de λ, l’angle de séparation et la longueur de la zone de recirculation augmentent avec le nombre
croissant de Reynolds.
Mots clés : Taux de blocage, Coefficient de traînée, Fluide Newtonien, Ansys Académique
fluent, Méthode des volumes finis.
Table of Contents
Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................. 1
List of figures ............................................................................................................................. 2
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER I: Background and Literature Review ..................................................................... 4
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 5
2. Motivation for the work ......................................................................................................... 5
3. Literature review .................................................................................................................... 6
4. Effect of Boundary conditions ............................................................................................... 8
5. Conceptual overview of flow around a circular cylinder ....................................................... 8
5.1 Reynolds number ............................................................................................................ 9
5.2 Vortex shedding and Strouhal number ............................................................................. 9
5.3 Drag, lift and pressure coefficients ................................................................................. 10
6. Regimes of Two-Dimensional Flow Around a Circular Cylinder ....................................... 11
6.1 Creeping Flow, Re < 5 .................................................................................................... 11
6.2 Attached Eddies, 5 < Re < 40 ......................................................................................... 12
6.3 Laminar Vortex Shedding, 40 < Re < 350...................................................................... 12
6.4 Subcritical Regime, 350 < Re < 2x 𝟏𝟎𝟓 ........................................................................ 13
6.5 Critical Regime, 2x𝟏𝟎𝟓 < Re < 7x𝟏𝟎𝟓.......................................................................... 13
6.6 Supercritical Regime, 7x𝟏𝟎𝟓 < Re < 3.5x𝟏𝟎𝟔 .............................................................. 14
6.7 Transcritical Regime, Re> 3.5x𝟏𝟎𝟔 ............................................................................... 14
CHAPTER II: Problem statement and formulation ................................................................ 16
1. Governing equations of fluid flow...................................................................................... 17
1.1 Continuity equation ...................................................................................................... 17
1.2 Momentum equation .................................................................................................... 19
1.3 Navier-Stokes equations for a Newtonian fluid ........................................................ 21
CHAPTER III: Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) ........................................................ 24
CHAPTER III: Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) ...................................................... 25
1. Overview of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) .................................................... 25
1.1 Discretization .................................................................................................................. 26
1.1.1 Equation discretization............................................................................................. 27
1.1.2 Spatial discretization ................................................................................................ 27
1.1.3 Temporal discretization ........................................................................................... 28
2. Presentation of the calculation software ............................................................................... 29
2.1 The academic version of the ANSYS software .............................................................. 29
2.2 Fluent .............................................................................................................................. 29
2.3 Procedure under Fluent ................................................................................................... 30
2.3.1 Single or double precision........................................................................................ 30
2.3.2 Choice of the solver formulation ............................................................................. 31
2.3.3 Discretization schemes............................................................................................. 31
2.3.4 Choice of pressure interpolation schemes ................................................................ 32
2.3.5 Choice of method of coupling Pressure-speed: ....................................................... 32
2.3.6 Relaxation factors .................................................................................................... 33
3. The advantages of numerical simulation .............................................................................. 33
4. Conclusion:........................................................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER IV: Results and Discussion ................................................................................... 35
1.Benchmark computations of laminar flow around a circular cylinder .................................. 36
1.1 Grid sensitivity study ...................................................................................................... 37
2. Unconfined cylinder ............................................................................................................. 39
2.1 Simulation setup ............................................................................................................. 39
2.2 Comparison with the literature ....................................................................................... 40
3. Confined cylinder ................................................................................................................. 44
3.1 For blockage ratio of 1.54 -Re 0.1 .................................................................................. 44
3.2 For blockage ratio of 1.54 Re 10 .................................................................................... 47
3.3 For blockage ratio of 1.54 Re 200 .................................................................................. 48
3.4 For blockage ratio of 5 Re 0.1 ........................................................................................ 50
3.5 For blockage ratio of 5 Re 10 ......................................................................................... 52
3.6 For blockage ratio of 5 Re 200 ....................................................................................... 53
3.7 Blockage ratio of 20 Re 0.1 ............................................................................................ 55
3.8 Blockage ratio of 20 Re 10 ............................................................................................. 57
3.9 Blockage ratio of 20 Re 200 ........................................................................................... 59
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 66
References ................................................................................................................................ 67
Nomenclature
CD total drag coefficient (dimensionless)

CDF friction drag coefficient (dimensionless)
CDP pressure drag coefficient (dimensionless)
CP pressure coefficient (dimensionless)
d diameter of the cylinder (m)
FD drag force on the cylinder per unit length (N/m)
H width of the channel (m)
l distance between the center of the cylinder and the end of the separated region (m)
lw dimensionless length of the recirculation zone
p pressure (Pa)
p(θ) pressure on the surface of the cylinder at position θ (Pa)
p(∞) pressure far away from cylinder (Pa)
r radius of the cylinder (m)
r∞ radius of the faraway fluid envelope (m)
Re Reynolds number, dU∞ρ/μ (dimensionless)
St Strouhal number
U∞ uniform inlet velocity in channel (m/s)
U velocity (m/s)
Vx x-direction velocity (m/s)
Vy y-direction velocity (m/s)
Greek symbols
ρ density of fluid (kg/m3)
λ blockage ratio (H/d)
θ angle measured from the rear stagnation point (◦)
θs angle of separation (◦)
μ viscosity of fluid (Pa s)
ζ dimensionless surface vorticity
1
List of figures
Figure 1.1: Vortex shedding in the wake region of the flow past a circular cylinder [22]. ...... 9
Figure 1.2: Diagram of forces acting around a circular cylinder. ........................................... 10
Figure 1.3: Creeping flow regime at Re < 5............................................................................ 11
Figure 1.4: Attached eddies flow regime at 5 < Re < 40 ........................................................ 12
Figure 1.5: Laminar vortex shedding regime at 40 < Re < 350 .............................................. 12
Figure 1.6: Subcritical flow regime at 350 < Re < 2xl05........................................................ 13
Figure 1.7: Separation bubbles in critical flow at 2x105 < Re < 7x105 ................................ 14
Figure 1.8: Disappearance of vortex shedding in supercritical regime, .................................. 14
Figure 1.9: Resumption of vortex shedding in transcritical regime, Re> 3.5x106 ................ 15
Figure 2.1: (a) Fluid element for conservation laws (b) mass flows in and out of fluid element
.................................................................................................................................................. 17
Figure 2.2: (a) Stress components on three faces of fluid element (b) stress components in the
x-direction ................................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 3.1: Overview of the CFD ........................................................................................... 26
Figure 3.2: Discretization of flow in CFD .............................................................................. 29
Figure 4.1: Geometry of 2D test case with boundary conditions ............................................ 36
Figure 4.2: Drag coefficient for 5 grid sizes............................................................................ 38
Figure 4.3: Schematics of flow past a circular cylinder. ......................................................... 39
Figure 4.4: Variation of CD, CDP, CDF and θs with Reynold number .................................. 42
Figure 4.5: Mesh For blockage ratio of 1.54 ........................................................................... 44
Figure 4.6: Mesh close up for blockage ratio of 1.54.............................................................. 45
Figure 4.7: (a)Velocity magnitude, (b) Static Pressure ........................................................... 45
Figure 4.8: Stream function ..................................................................................................... 46
Figure 4.9: Stream lines........................................................................................................... 46
Figure 4.10: (a) Velocity, (b)Pressure coefficient ................................................................... 47
Figure 4.11: Stream function ................................................................................................... 47
Figure 4.12: Stream lines......................................................................................................... 48
Figure 4.13: (a) Velocity, (b) Pressure coefficient .................................................................. 48
Figure 4.16: Mesh.................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 4.23:(a) Velocity, (b)Pressure coefficient .................................................................... 53
Figure 4.26: Mesh.................................................................................................................... 55
2
Figure 4.27: Mesh close up ..................................................................................................... 55
Figure 4.28: Vilocity magnitude ............................................................................................. 56
Figure4.30: Stream lines.......................................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.31: (a)Velocity, (b) Pressure coefficient ................................................................... 57
Figure 4.34: Vilocity magnitude ............................................................................................. 59
List of Tables
Table 1: Drag and Lift coefficient for 5 grid sizes for Re=20 ................................................. 37
Table 2: Comparison between the present results and of the benchmark [37] ........................ 38
Table 3: comparison between the present values of CD, CDP, CDF and θs with those of
Kawaguti and Jain [4], Chakraborty and Verma [36] for different values of the Reynolds
number. ..................................................................................................................................... 41
Table 4: Variation of CD, with Reynolds number and blockage ratio (λ). .............................. 60
Table 6: Variation of CDP with Reynolds number and blockage ratio (λ). ............................ 61
Table 5: Variation of CDF with Reynolds number and blockage ratio (λ). ............................ 61
Table 7: Effect of blockage and Reynold on lw ...................................................................... 64
Table 8: Effect of blockage and Reynold on θs ....................................................................... 64
3
CHAPTER I: Background and Literature Review
4
CHAPTER I: Background and Literature Review
1. Introduction
Flow past a cylinder is a very interesting problem which has been studied extensively by several
researchers experimentally and numerically. It has many industrial applications like in
structural designing, aerodynamics, wind engineering and electronics cooling. In everyday life,
we see several examples of flow past rectangular, circular or other irregularly shaped objects
like air flow past buildings, skyscrapers and buses, water flow past dams and bridge supporting
structures, soup flowing past beans and carrot pieces, and computer fan blowing air past the
electronic circuits. A thorough understanding of these kind of flows is very important and
sometimes even critical to the performance of many real-life systems and processes, as is
obvious from the examples cited here. These kinds of flows may be steady or unsteady, which
may generate a constant or a time-varying force on the body, respectively. One such example
is uniform flow past a rectangular cylinder, for which the flow becomes unsteady above Re =
40.Creating a variable force on the body(Cylinder which is kept in a uniform flow) flow
dynamics, is also important in determining the characteristics, acoustics as well as the structural
integrity of the system.
2. Motivation for the work

Neglecting the flow dynamics past bodies may result in poor performance of the system or in
worst cases it may even lead to disasters like the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapsed that
happened in 1940. The Tacoma Narrows Bridge was the first suspension bridge in the U.S. state
of Washington that spanned the Tacoma Narrows strait of Puget Sound between Tacoma and
the Kitsap Peninsula. It opened to trac on July 1, 1940, and dramatically collapsed on November
7, 1940. This bridge fell down due to the effects of resonance. Resonance is the tendency of a
structure to respond at an increased amplitude when the frequency of its oscillation matches its
natural frequency of vibration. In this case, due to high speed of air which is blowing at 45
kmph, natural frequency of the bridge matched with the vortex shedding frequency and then
bridge started oscillating in the vertical direction. As the vibrations became more and more
violent, the stresses crossed the maximum load limit, resulting in the collapse of the bridge.
Not always does the ignorance of vortex shedding lead to tragedies, but it does affect the
performance or efficiency of the systems involving fluid flows at Reynolds numbers in the
regime where vortex shedding may take place. For instance, airplane and glider wings may
flutter due to the vortex shedding and it is important to take care of the geometry and the
material of the component to avoid a match with the shedding frequency. On the other hand,
sometimes it may be desirable to allow vortex shedding. Vortex shedding frequency is
measured in Vortex shedding flow meters to measure the flow rate. Also, it is desirable in
waving flags and decorative papers in front of a fan.
5
3. Literature review
While much attention has also been paid to understanding the precise structure of the flow field,
wake phenomena, and the transition from one flow regime to another, the majority of these
studies have attempted to develop adequate methods of predicting drag and heat transfer
characteristics over a wide range of conditions. It is widely acknowledged that the existence of
restricting walls has a significant impact on the drag force. The boundary requirements must
theoretically be met at limited boundaries in order for confining walls to exist. On the other
hand, no matter how minor, finite wall effects are always present when determining drag force
experimentally. The faraway flow conditions are also specified by numerical simulations at
small distances. As a result, the confining walls contribute to the drag force that is created. The
blockage ratio and Reynolds number have a significant impact on the amount of this
contribution (wall effects). In spite of such an extensive literature on the flow past a circular
cylinder. limited information is available on wall effects [1–3].
For the two-dimensional steady and incompressible flow past a circular cylinder positioned
along the axis of a planar channel, the current work intends to investigate the interactions
between drag, blockage ratio, and Reynolds number. Even though this research has recently
been reviewed elsewhere [2,3], it is educational and beneficial to first quickly recapitulate the
key aspects of the prior relevant studies.
In an unconfined domain for Re = 1-100, Kawaguti and Jain (1966) [4] investigated the flow
of a viscous incompressible fluid past a circular cylinder. The limit of the steady-state solutions,
Re = 50, was reached by numerically obtaining the steady-state solutions. Despite extensive
testing, their results for Re-60 did not come close to the steady state values. As functions of
time and Re, the streamlines and iso-vorticity contours, drag coefficient, angle of separation,
standing vortex length, and surface pressure distribution were calculated. Additionally, it is
unclear if the grid independence of these results was examined.
Hamielec and Raal (1969) [5] expanded these findings to Re=500 while utilizing a more
precise mesh with variable size. They noticed that the standing vortex length anticipated by
Kawaguti and Jain [4] at a Reynolds number of 50 was excessive, possibly because of the
coarse grid, particularly in the angular direction. However, due to the non-attainment of the
steady-state solution, it is also thought that the findings obtained by Hamielec and Raal [5] for
Re = 500 are erroneous.
Dennis and Chang (1970) [6] used the stream function vorticity formulation to use the finite
difference approach to find the steady state solution. They used a grid of the same size all
throughout the domain. Sucker and Brauer (1975) [7] also statistically determined the drag
coefficient for a cylinder channel.
Numerous numerical findings on the steady viscous flow over a cylinder up to Re = 600 have
been published by Forenberg (1980) [8,9]. He has published figures for the drag coefficient in
the range 20 ≤ Re ≤ 600, despite the fact that the majority of his work concentrated on the
numerical aspects of such simulations.
6
Up to Re = 5000 and 300, respectively, Franke et al. (1990) [10] numerically addressed the
issue for a circular cylinder and a square cylinder. Values for the drag coefficient, lift
coefficient, angle of flow separation, etc. were reported. These findings showed that the
Reynolds number influences the Strouhal number, which is a measurement of the frequency of
vortex shedding. It was graphically proven that there was a transient periodic vortex shedding
as the flow gradually developed in the domain using a series of streamline plots made from the
numerical data.
A vorticity-based method was also developed by D'Alessio and Dennis (1994) [11] to
investigate the flow past a circular cylinder in an unconfined domain. For sufficiently large
values of Re, as well as for low Re, at great distances from the cylinder, their findings seem to
be in agreement with the boundary-layer flow approximation. Additionally, for Re up to 100,
these authors estimated the different flow parameters.
Through a numerical analysis of the impacts of wall proximity, Huang and Feng (1995) [14]
showed that the drag coefficient decreased as the blockage ratio (λ) increased and that the wall
closeness reduced the wake length for a given value of Re. However, this study was limited to
Re ≤ 10.
The loss of stability for the flow via a long cylinder contained between two parallel plates was
quantitatively examined by Chen et al. (1995) [15]. The major goal of this research was to
clarify the functions of the Reynolds number and the blockage ratio (cylinder diameter to
channel width ratio). While their research covers blockage ratio values from 0.1 to 0.95, the
majority of their findings are related to a blockage ratio of 0.2.
In a non-confined domain, the flow of power-law fluids past a cylinder has been studied by
D'Alessio and Pascal (1996) [12]. They have provided limited results on drag, the angle of
separation, and the surface vorticity in the range 1 < Re < 40 in the limiting case of the power
law index being unity, i.e., Newtonian behavior. However, a factor of (n-1) missing from one
of their calculations makes it look as though their conclusions are incorrect [13]. However, this
omission has no impact on their findings for Newtonian fluids.
The onset of vortex formation and the loss of stability for a cylinder confined between two walls
(blockage ratio = 0.2) have also been explored by Zovatto and Pedrizzetti (2001) [16]. Both
of these studies are based on the liquid's parabolic velocity profile at the channel's inlet.
Through comprehensive two- and three-dimensional simulations, Persillon and Braza (1998)
[17] investigated the physics of the wake zone for an unconfined cylinder, particularly the
beginning of turbulence. This work unequivocally demonstrates that even at Re = 100, the
macroscopic engineering parameters such as drag coefficient, separation angle, and
recirculation length differ only little between two- and three-dimensional calculations. The
value of the critical Reynolds number, which varies from study to study depending on the
characteristic velocity used in the definition of the Reynolds number, is frequently mentioned
7
[2,3,14,16], despite the fact that there is considerable confusion in the literature regarding the
limit of the stable flow past an unbounded cylinder. As the space between the cylinder and the
wall gets smaller, the crucial Reynolds number (based on channel width) and, therefore, the
value of the cylinder Reynolds number, both rise quickly. It is commonly believed that up to
roughly the cylinder Reynolds number of 190–200, despite the loss of steady flow, the values
of drag coefficient and Nusselt number derived from steady state computations and those from
time-dependent computations do not considerably vary [2,3,17,18]. Furthermore, no further
results are known that clarify the impact of blockage ratio on drag coefficient for the cross flow
over a cylinder, other from the few data on drag coefficient reported in [14–16].
4. Effect of Boundary conditions

For an unbounded flow, it is very important to choose an optimum domain size so that there
should not be any influence of boundaries and should not be computationally expensive as well.
Behr et al. (1995) [19] found that lateral boundaries should be distanced from the cylinder by
at least 8 cylinder diameters in order to vanish the effect of lateral boundaries. He also observed
that Strouhal number, drag coefficient and lift coefficient increases as lateral boundaries come
closer to cylinder.
Sen et al. (2009) [20] observed that the blockage (ratio of diameter of the cylinder to the domain
width) should be less than 0.01, for the flow to behave as an unbounded flow. The effect of
blockage on the Reynolds number at which vortex shedding starts is termed as critical Reynolds
number. They observed that critical Reynolds number reduces with increase in blockage
initially but up to a certain limit and then decreases with further increase in blockage. They also
observed that at critical Reynolds number Strouhal number increases with increase in Blockage.
Muralidhar et al. (2011) [21] performed experiments on cylinders with super-hydrophobic

surface coating in order to study the effect of surface properties on vortex shedding dynamics.
They observed the delay in the onset of vortex shedding and increase in length of recirculation
region as compared to uncoated cylinders on which no-slip condition holds. They also observed
that even the orientation in which coating is done has lot of significance on vortex shedding
dynamics. When the ridges were made to be parallel to the flow direction, an increase in
shedding frequency was observed and the separation point was found to move further upstream
(towards the front stagnation point of the cylinder) but when the ridges were kept in the
perpendicular direction of the flow, the trend reversed i.e. there was a decrease in shedding
frequency and separation point moved downstream. They also observed almost 30% reduction
in drag as compared to an uncoated cylinder.
5. Conceptual overview of flow around a circular cylinder

To begin with, the basic overview of the flow around a circular cylinder and the flow
characteristics such as the Strouhal number, vortex shedding, drag, lift, and pressure
coefficients are introduced.
8
5.1 Reynolds number
Flow past a circular cylinder varies with the Reynolds number. Small Reynolds number corresponds
to slow viscous flow where frictional forces are dominant. When Reynolds number increases, flows
are characterized by rapid regions of velocity variation and the occurrence of vortices and
turbulence. Mathematically, Reynolds number of the flow around a circular cylinder is
represented by:
𝜌𝑢𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
where D is the diameter of the cylinder, u is the inlet velocity of the flow, ρ is a densityof fluid
and µ is the dynamic viscosity of fluid.
5.2 Vortex shedding and Strouhal number
The separation of flow past a circular cylinder causes pairs of eddies to form alternately on the top
and bottom part of the cylinder and travel into the wake region resulting in vortex shedding.
Vortex shedding is very common in engineering applications. Figure1.1 shows vortex shedding
phenomenon in the wake region of the flow past a circular cylinder. Laminar vortex shedding
known as the von Karman vortex street has been observed in the wake region of the flow past a
circular cylinder at low Reynolds number between 40 to 250. For Reynolds number that is greater
than 250, the laminar periodic wake becomes unstable and the eddies start to become turbulent.
Further increase of Reynolds number turns the wake region into turbulent flow. Within certain
range of Reynolds number (250 < Re < 10,000), the frequency at which vortices are shed in the
flow around a circular cylinder tends to remain almost constant.
Figure 1.1: Vortex shedding in the wake region of the flow past a circular cylinder [22].
Strouhal number is a dimensionless parameter which describes the shedding of the vortices in the
wake region of a flow. It relates the frequency of vortex shedding to the incident wind speed,
𝑓𝑠 𝐷
𝑆𝑡 =
𝑢
where D is the diameter of the cylinder and u is the velocity of the flow. fs is the shedding
9
frequency of vortices equal to 1/T and fs is called the Strouhal frequency or the vortex shedding
frequency where T denotes for period.
5.3 Drag, lift and pressure coefficients
The drag force acts in a direction that is opposite of the relative flow velocity (i.e., it opposes
the relative flow). It depends on shape and orientation of a body. Drag coefficient, Cd is
calculated as follow:
𝐹𝑑
𝐶𝑑 =
1/2𝜌𝑢2 𝐴
where A is the projected area in the flow direction and Fd is the sum of the pressure force and
the viscous force components on the cylinder surface acting in the horizontal direction. Lift
coefficient, CL is calculated similarly but vertical force is considered rather than horizontal force
which is shown in Figure 1.2.
𝐹𝑙
𝐶𝑙 =
1/2𝜌𝑢2 𝐴
The Strouhal number is related to the Cd of the flow. In sub-critical Reynolds number region
(100 < Re < 10,000), increase in the Strouhal number is generally accompanied by a decrease
of the Cd.
Figure 1.2: Diagram of forces acting around a circular cylinder.
Theoretically, the drag force is changing at twice the frequency of the lift force for the flow past a
circular cylinder or generally flow involving separation. When a vortex is shed from the top of the
cylinder, a suction area is created and the cylinder experiences lift. Half acycle later, an alternate
vortex is created at the bottom part of the cylinder. Throughout the process, the lift force changes
alternately in a complete cycle of vortex shedding but the cylinder experiences drag constantly.
It is important that any turbulence models can simulate all the forces coefficient correctly for
the analysis of the flow past circular cylinder.
10
Apart from the Cd and CL, the pressure coefficient, Cp, distribution around the surface of the
cylinder is important. Near to the surface of the cylinder, flow momentum is quite low due to viscous
effects and thus is sensitive to the changes of the pressure gradient. Cp plot of the flow around a
circular cylinder starting from the stagnation point (zero velocity) where Cp takes a value of one
according to Bernoulli’s Theorem. The flow speed then starts to increase accompanied by a drop
in the Cp to a negative value.
The speed of flow then starts to reduce near θ = 80◦ , [2] along with an increment of pressure in the
direction of the flow, which results in the adverse pressure gradient situation. The flow now has to
move against the pressure force in addition to the viscous force. This leads to a reduced gradient
of the velocity profile and the wall shear stress. Separation of flow occurs when the shear stress
cannot overcome the adverse pressure gradient, this usually happens at 80◦ < θ < 120◦ [2] for
sub-critical flow. After the separation point, pressure remains fairly constant in the wake.
Accurate prediction of Cp distribution around a cylinder means a turbulence model performs well
at predicting the flow separation.
6. Regimes of Two-Dimensional Flow Around a Circular Cylinder

The phenomenon of vortex shedding from a circular cylinder occurs for a wide range of
Reynolds numbers; however, at certain Reynolds numbers, vortex formation may cease and
other changes in the flow patterns occur. The flow has been divided into different Reynolds
number regimes by various authors, such as Coutanceau and Defaye (1991) [23], Williamson
(1996) [24], and Zdravkovich (1997) [2], according to the boundary layer characteristics on
the cylinder, aerodynamic forces, vortex formation, and flow structure. In the following
sections, each of these regimes is briefly reviewed.
6.1 Creeping Flow, Re < 5
When the Reynolds number is very low, viscous forces dominate and the boundary layer on the
cylinder wall does not separate. As a result, the flow is nearly symmetrical upstream and
downstream and no vortex shedding occurs (Figure 1.3). As the Reynolds number increases
throughout the regime, the wake region is stretched downstream.
Figure 1.3: Creeping flow regime at Re < 5
11
6.2 Attached Eddies, 5 < Re < 40
In this regime, the flow begins to separate from the wall of the cylinder with the separation
point moving upstream with Reynolds number to approximately 80° from the front stagnation
point. A recirculation zone is formed composed of two oppositely signed attached steady
vortices (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4: Attached eddies flow regime at 5 < Re < 40
6.3 Laminar Vortex Shedding, 40 < Re < 350
As the Reynolds number is increased further, the attached eddies become unstable and an
oscillation in the shear layers develops. The oscillation magnitude grows with Reynolds number
until the sudden commencement of alternate vortex shedding. Then the shear layers roll up
alternately into vortices. These vortices are shed into the wake forming two rows of oppositely
signed vortices known as a Karman vortex street (Figure 1.5). The Reynolds number at which
this occurs is sensitive to experimental conditions such as surface roughness and perturbations
in the incoming flow. As the Reynolds number increases past Re = 150, the shear layers begin
to transition to turbulence before they roll up and some authors have sub-divided the regime at
this point. This results in a discontinuity in the strouhal frequencies at Re = 180 - 190, which
may depend on whether the Reynolds number is increasing or decreasing. A second
discontinuity occurs at Re = 230 - 260, depending on experimental conditions, as a result of
three-dimensional flow structures in the wake (Williamson, 1996) [24].
Figure 1.5: Laminar vortex shedding regime at 40 < Re < 350
12
6.4 Subcritical Regime, 350 < Re < 2x 𝟏𝟎𝟓
Coutanceau and Defaye (1991) [23] identified ten flow regimes in the range 0 < Re < 107.
They described the range from 2,000 < Re < 1.5-2x105 as Regime 7, characterized by a laminar
boundary layer before separation and a quasi-constant separation angle of approximately 80°
measured from the front stagnation point (Figure 1.6). This is considered part of the subcritical
regime, which can extend from 350 < Re < 2x105 •
In the subcritical regime, the transition waves in the two shear layers that border the wake
become adequately large and roll up into small-scale vortices. The small-scale vortices are
carried downstream by a fully turbulent Karman vortex street with a nearly constant strouhal
number of St ~ 0.20. As the Reynolds number increases, the small-scale vortices gain strength
resulting in a decreasing vortex formation length. A shorter vortex formation length is
associated with a larger vortex shedding frequency and slightly increased drag. The drag
coefficient (Cd) is typically 1.2, where Cd and Fd is the mean drag force and A is the cylinder
frontal area. For a smooth cylinder, skin friction drag contributes 1-2% to the total drag while
pressure drag is responsible for the remaining 98% (Achenbach, 1968) [25].
Willamson (1996) designated the region from Re = 1,000 to 2x105 as the shear layer
transition regime in which the vortex shedding behavior remains relatively constant. While this
flow is nominally two-dimensional, in practice there exist three dimensional structures in the
separated shear layers as well as three-dimensional structures on the scale of the Karman vortex
street (Williamson, 1996).
Figure 1.6: Subcritical flow regime at 350 < Re < 2xl05
6.5 Critical Regime, 2x𝟏𝟎𝟓 < Re < 7x𝟏𝟎𝟓
In the vicinity of Re = 2x105 , known as the critical Reynolds number, transition to a turbulent
boundary layer occurs after separation. The fluid is then able to reattach to the cylinder as
mixing in the boundary layer is increased, providing momentum transfer to the near-wall fluid.
The flow behavior then changes rapidly and is sensitive to perturbations in the flow caused by
surface roughness, freestream turbulence, and other disturbances. As such, the separation
bubbles that form on the cylinder's surface may become unstable and asymmetrical leading to
an angled wake and a small lift force (Figure 1.7). The separation point moves downstream
resulting in a decrease in wake width and drag. The minimum wake width occurs near Re =
13
3x105 (known as the critical Reynolds number) with a corresponding decrease in the drag
coefficient from Cd = 1.2 to 0.3 and an increase in the strouhal number from St = 0.20 to 0.46.
Figure 1.7: Separation bubbles in critical flow at 2x105 < Re < 7x105
6.6 Supercritical Regime, 7x𝟏𝟎𝟓 < Re < 3.5x𝟏𝟎𝟔
At the lower end of this regime, the flow is symmetric with a separation-reattachment bubble
on either side of the cylinder. Organized vortex shedding ceases and as the Reynolds number is
increased, the separation bubbles burst. The drag coefficient increases to Cd = 0.5 to 0.7
(Coutanceau and Defaye, 1991). At higher Reynolds numbers, the flow becomes turbulent
before the initial separation and separation bubbles no longer exist (Figure 1.8).
Figure 1.8: Disappearance of vortex shedding in supercritical regime,
7x105 < Re < 3.5x106
6.7 Transcritical Regime, Re> 3.5x𝟏𝟎𝟔
In this regime, the boundary layer is fully turbulent before separation. No separation bubbles
exist and the separation point occurs at Ɵs = 110° from the leading stagnation point. The wake
width increases slightly with a corresponding increase in drag. coefficient to Cd = 0.50 - 0.70.
Turbulent vortex shedding commences with a quasiconstant strouhal number St = 0.30. The
flow is sensitive to disturbances and thus there is a large amount of scatter in the data for this
regime (Figure 1.9).
14
Figure 1.9: Resumption of vortex shedding in transcritical regime, Re> 3.5x106
15
CHAPTER II: Problem statement and formulation
16
CHAPTER II: Problem statement and formulation
This chapter is a review of general theory of the governing equations for fluid flow. The governing
equations of fluid flow are called the Navier-Stokes equations.
1. Governing equations of fluid flow
In mid 18th century, the French engineer Claude Navier and the Irish mathematician George
Stokes derived the well-known equations of fluid motion, known as the Navier- Stokes equations.
These equations have been derived based on the fundamental governing equations of fluid
dynamics, called the continuity, the momentum and the energy equations, which represent the
conservation laws of physics [26].
1.1 Continuity equation
Figure 2.1: (a) Fluid element for conservation laws (b) mass flows in and out of fluid
element
In Figure 2.1(a), the six faces are labeled N, S, E, W, T and B, which stands for North, South,
East, West, Top and Bottom. The center of the element is located at position (x, y, z). The
derivation of the mass conservation equation is to write down a mass balance for the element:
Rate of increase of mass in fluid element = Net rate of flow of mass into fluid element
[27]
The rate of increase of mass in the fluid element is
17
∂(𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧) ∂𝜌
= 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 (1)
∂𝑡 ∂𝑡
Next, we need to account flow rate across a face of the element, which is given by the product
of density, area and the velocity component normal to the face. From Figure 2.1(b) it can be seen
that the net rate of flow of mass into the element across its boundaries is given by:
∂(𝜌𝑢) 1 ∂(𝜌𝑢) 1
(𝜌𝑢 − 𝛿𝑥) 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − (𝜌𝑢 + 𝛿𝑥) 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 2
∂(𝜌𝑣) 1 ∂(𝜌𝑣) 1
+ (𝜌𝑣 − 𝛿𝑦) 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 − (𝜌𝑣 + 𝛿𝑦) 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 (2)
∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑦 2
∂(𝜌𝑤) 1 ∂(𝜌𝑤) 1
+ (𝜌𝑤 − 𝛿𝑧) 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 − (𝜌𝑤 + 𝛿𝑧) 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧
∂𝑧 2 ∂𝑤 2
The rate of increase of mass inside the element from equation (1) is now equated to the net rate
of flow of into the element across its faces from equation (2). All terms of the resulting mass
balance are arranged on the left hand side of the equals sign and the expression is divided by the
element volume δxδyδz [2]. This yields
∂𝜌 ∂(𝜌𝑢) ∂(𝜌𝑣) ∂(𝜌𝑤)

+ + + =0 (3)
∂𝑡 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
Or in vector notation
∂𝜌
+ div(𝜌𝐮) = 0 (4)
∂𝑡
Equation (4) is the unsteady, three-dimensional mass conservation or continuity equation at a point
in a compressible fluid [27].
For an incompressible fluid the density ρ is constant and equation (4) becomes
div 𝐮 = 0 (5)
18
1.2 Momentum equation
Newton’s second law states that [27]:

Rate of increase of momentum of fluid particle = Sum of forces on fluid particle
The rates of increase of x-, y- and z-momentum per unit volume of a fluid particle are given
by:
𝐷𝑢 𝐷𝑣 𝐷𝑤
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 (6)
𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡
Now, the state of stress of a fluid element is defined in terms of the pressure and the nine
viscous stress components which is shown in Figure 2.2(a).
Figure 2.2: (a) Stress components on three faces of fluid element (b) stress components in the x-
direction
The pressure, a normal stress, is denoted by p. Viscous stresses are denoted by τ. The suffix notation
τij is applied to indicate the direction of the viscous stresses. The suffices i and j in τij indicate that
the stress component acts in the j - direction on a surface normal to the i -direction. First, we consider
the x -components of the forces due to pressure pand stress components τxx, τyx and τzx which is
shown in Figure 2.2(b). Forces aligned with the direction of a co-ordinate axis get a positive sign
and those in the opposite direction a negative sign. The net force in the x -direction is the sum of
the force components acting in that direction on the fluid element.
On the pair of faces (E, W) we have
19
∂𝑝 1 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑥 1
[(𝑝 − 𝛿𝑥) − (𝜏𝑥𝑥 − 𝛿𝑥)] 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 2 (7)
∂𝑝 1 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑥 1 ∂𝑝 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑥
+ [− (𝑝 + 𝛿𝑥) + (𝜏𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)] 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 = (− + ) 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 2 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥
The net force in the x -direction on the pair of faces (N, S) is
∂𝜏𝑦𝑥 1 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑥 1 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑥

− (𝜏𝑦𝑥 − 𝛿𝑦) 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 + (𝜏𝑦𝑥 + 𝛿𝑦) 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 = 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 (8)
∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑦 2 ∂𝑦
And the net force in the x -direction on faces T and B is given by
∂𝜏𝑧𝑥 1 ∂𝜏𝑧𝑥 1 ∂𝜏𝑧𝑥

− (𝜏𝑧𝑥 − 𝛿𝑧) 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 + (𝜏𝑧𝑥 + 𝛿𝑧) 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 = 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 (9)
∂𝑧 2 ∂𝑧 2 ∂𝑧
The total force per unit volume on the fluid due to these surface stresses is equal to the sum of
equations (7), (8) and (9) divided by the volume δxδyδz.
∂(−𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑥 ) ∂𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑧𝑥

+ + (10)
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
In addition, the body forces are not considered in the above explanation. In further detail their
overall effect can be included by defining a source SMx of x -momentum per unit volume per unit
time. The x -component of the momentum equation is found by setting the rate of change of x -
momentum of the fluid particle in equation(6) equal to the total force in the x -direction on the
element due to surface stresses in equation(10) plus therate of increase of x -momentum due to
sources
𝐷𝑢 ∂(−𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑥 ) ∂𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑧𝑥
𝜌 = + + + 𝑆𝑀𝑥 (11)
𝐷𝑡 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
Similarly, we can verify the y -component of the momentum equation is given by
𝐷𝑣 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂(−𝑝 + 𝜏𝑦𝑦 ) ∂𝜏𝑧𝑦

𝜌 = + + + 𝑆𝑀𝑦 (12)
20
And the z -component of the momentum equation by
𝐷𝑤 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧 ∂(−𝑝 + 𝜏𝑧𝑧 )

𝜌 = + + + 𝑆𝑀𝑧 (13)
The source terms SMx, SMy and SMz in above equations include contributions due to body
forces only.
1.3 Navier-Stokes equations for a Newtonian fluid
The most useful forms of the conservation equation for fluid flows are obtained by introducing
a suitable model for the viscous stresses τij. In many fluid flows the viscous stresses can be
expressed as functions of the local deformation rate or strain rate [27]. In three dimensional flows,
the local rate of deformation is composed of the linear deformation rate and the volumetric
deformation rate. The rate of linear deformation of a fluid element has nine components in three
dimensions, six of which are independent in isotropic fluid. they are denoted by the symbol sij.
In a Newtonian fluid the viscous stresses are proportional to the rates of deformation [28]. The three-
dimensional form of Newton’s law of viscosity for compressible flows involves two constants of
proportionality:
1) dynamic viscosity, µ, to relate stresses to linear deformation, and 2) viscosity, λ, to relate
stresses to the volumetric deformation. The viscous stress components, of which six are
independent, are
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
𝜏𝑥𝑥 = 2𝜇 + 𝜆 div 𝐮 𝜏𝑦𝑦 = 2𝜇 + 𝜆 div 𝒖 𝜏𝑧𝑧 = 2𝜇 + 𝜆div 𝐮
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑤
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜇 ( + ) 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜇 ( + )
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥
∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 𝜇 ( + ) (14)
∂𝑧 ∂𝑦
The second viscosity λ is not known much because of its effect is small in practice. Substitution
of the above shear stresses equation (14) into equations (11), (12) and (13) yields the so-called
Navier-Stokes equations.
21
𝐷𝑢 ∂𝑝 ∂ ∂𝑢 ∂ ∂𝑢 ∂𝑣
𝜌 =− + [2𝜇 + 𝜆div 𝐮] + [𝜇 ( + )]
𝐷𝑡 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥
(15)
∂ ∂𝑢 ∂𝑤
+ [𝜇 ( + )] + 𝑆𝑀𝑥
∂𝑧 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥
𝐷𝑣 ∂𝑝 ∂ ∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂ ∂𝑣
𝜌 =− + [𝜇 ( + )] + [2𝜇 + 𝜆div 𝐮]
𝐷𝑡 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑦
(16)
∂ ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
+ [𝜇 ( + )] + 𝑆𝑀𝑦
∂𝑧 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑦
𝐷𝑤 ∂𝑝 ∂ ∂𝑢 ∂𝑤 ∂ ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
𝜌 =− + [𝜇 ( + )] + [𝜇 ( + )]
𝐷𝑡 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑦
(17)
∂ ∂𝑤
+ [2𝜇 + 𝜆div 𝐮] + 𝑆𝑀𝑧
∂𝑧 ∂𝑧
Now, rearrange the viscous stress terms as follows:
∂ ∂𝑢 ∂ ∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂ ∂𝑢 ∂𝑤
[2𝜇 + 𝜆div 𝐮] + [𝜇 ( + )] + [𝜇 ( + )]
∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥
= div(𝜇grad 𝑢) + [𝑠𝑀𝑥 ]
the viscous stresses in the y - and z -component equations can be rearrange in a similar manner.
And defining a new source terms by
𝑆𝑁 = 𝑆𝑀 + [𝑠𝑀 ] (18)
Finally, the Navier-Stokes equations can be written in the most useful form is
𝐷𝑢 ∂𝑝
𝜌 =− + div(𝜇 grad 𝑢) + 𝑆𝑁𝑥 (19)
𝐷𝑡 ∂𝑥
𝐷𝑣 ∂𝑝
𝜌 =− + div(𝜇 grad 𝑣) + 𝑆𝑁𝑦 (20)
𝐷𝑡 ∂𝑦
𝐷𝑤 ∂𝑝
𝜌 =− + div(𝜇 grad 𝑤) + 𝑆𝑁𝑧 (21)
𝐷𝑡 ∂𝑧
22
Here the source terms SNx, SNy and SNz in above equations include contributions due to body
forces. By solving these equations, the pressure and velocity of the fluid can be predicted
throughout the flow.
23
CHAPTER III: Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
24
CHAPTER III: Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
In this section, concisely we will discuss the principles of the CFD with its components.
1. Overview of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Fluid dynamics is the science of fluid motion. The study of the fluid flow can be possible in three
various ways as 1) Experimental 2) Theoretical and 3) Numerically. The numerical approach is
called Computational fluid dynamics. CFD uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and
analyze problems that involve fluid flows by using computers [29]. The working principle of CFD
based on three elements as the pre-processor, the solver and the post-processor.
• Pre-processor: Pre-processor consists of the input of the flow problem to a CFD program
by means of an operator friendly interface and the subsequent transformation of this input
into a form suitable for use by the solver. The region of fluid to be analyzed is called the
computational domain and it is made up of a number of discrete elements called the mesh
(or grid). After the mesh generation, to define the properties of fluid and to specify
appropriate boundary conditions [27].
• Solver: Solver calculates the solution of the CFD problem by solving the governing
equations. The equations governing the fluid motion are Partial Differential Equations
(PDE), made up of combinations of the flow variables (e.g. velocity and pressure) and the
derivatives of these variables. Computers cannot directly produce a solution of it. Hence
the PDEs must be transformed into algebraic equations [29]. This process is known as
numerical discretization. There are four methods for it as 1) Finite difference method 2)
Finite element method and 3) Finite volume method and 4) Spectral method. The finite
difference method and the finite volume method both produce solutions to the numerical
equations at a given point based on the values of neighboring points, whereas the finite
element method produces equations for each element independently of all other elements. In
the present work we have used ANSYS ACADEMIC which is based on finite volume
method.
• Post-processor: It used to visualize and quantitatively process the results from the solver
part [27]. In a CFD package, the analyzed flow phenomena can be presented in vector
plots or contour plots to display the trends of velocity, pressure, kinetic energy and other
properties of the flow.
In CFD study, another aspect of consideration of a simulation is the residual of the solutions.
The equations describing fluid flow are solved iteratively so residuals appear.
In engineering application, a residual is usually targeted between four to six orders of
magnitude of the actual values [30] to achieve convergence of the solution to an acceptable
level.
The following figure shows the schematic view of the CFD.
25
Figure 3.1: Overview of the CFD
1.1 Discretization
When solving fluid flow problems numerically, the surfaces, boundaries and spaces around and
between the boundaries of the computational domain have to be represented in a form usable
by computer. This can be achieved by some arrangement of regularly and irregularly spaced
nodes around the computational domain known as the mesh.
Basically, the mesh breaks up the computational domain spatially; so that calculations can be
carried out at regular intervals to simulate the passage of time, as numerical solutions can give
answers only at discrete points in the domain at a specified time. The process of transforming
the continuous fluid flow problem into discrete numerical data which are then solved by the
computer is known as discretization. Generally, there are three major parts of discretization in
solving fluid flow:
• Equation discretization
• Spatial discretization
• Temporal discretization
26
Figure 3.2 shows the procedures of performing discretization on a typical fluid flow problem.
1.1.1 Equation discretization
The governing equations consist of partial differential equations. Equation discretization is the
translation of the governing equations into a numerical analogue that can be solved by
computer. In CFD, equation discretization is usually performed by using the finite difference
method (FDM), the finite element method (FEM) or the finite volume method (FVM).
The FDM employs the concept of Taylor expansion [31] to solve the second order partial
differential equations (PDE) in the governing equations of fluid flow. This method is
straightforward, in which the derivatives of the PDE are written in discrete quantities of
variables resulting in simultaneous algebraic equations with unknowns defined at the nodes of
the mesh. FDM is famous for its simplicity and ease in obtaining higher order accuracy
discretization. However, FDM only applies to simple geometries because it employs a
structured mesh.
Unlike FDM, unstructured mesh is usually used in FEM. The computational domain is
subdivided into a finite number of elements. Within each element, a certain number of nodes
are defined where numerical values of the unknowns are determined.
In FEM, the discretization is based on an integral formulation obtained using the method of
weighted residuals, which approximates the solutions to a set of partial differential equations
using interpolation functions. FEM is famous for its application around complex geometries
because of the application of unstructured grid. But numerically, it requires higher computer
power compared to FDM. So, the finite volume method (FVM), which is mathematically
similar to FEM in certain applications, but requires less computer power, is the next
consideration in CFD applications.
In FVM, the computational domain is separated into a finite number of elements known as
control volumes. The governing equations of fluid flow are integrated and solved iteratively
based on the conservation laws on each control volume. The discretization process results in a
set of algebraic equations that resolve the variables at a specified finite number of points within
the control volumes using an integration method. Through the integration on the control
volumes, the flow around the domain can be fully modelled. FVM can be used both for the
structured and unstructured meshes. Since this method involves direct integration, it is more
efficient and easier to program in terms of CFD code development. Hence, FVM is more
common in recent CFD applications compared to FEM and FDM.
1.1.2 Spatial discretization
Spatial discretization divides the computational domain into small sub-domains making up the
mesh. The fluid flow is described mathematically by specifying its velocity at all points in space
and time. All meshes in CFD comprise nodes at which flow parameters are resolved. Three
main types of meshes commonly used in computational modelling are structured, unstructured
and multi-block structured mesh.
27
A structured mesh is built on a coordinate system, which is common in bodies with a simple
geometry such as square or rectangular sections. This method enables the accessing of
neighboring points easily and quickly, just by adding or subtracting an integer value. For
slightly more flexibility, the mesh can also be generated following the boundaries of the
computational space using a curvilinear or body-fitted mesh. The advantage of the curvilinear
method over traditional structured mesh is that flow near the boundary can be accurately
represented especially in the case of shear layers flow along solid bodies. However, a structured
mesh performs badly when the geometry is complex, which is quite common in industrial
applications. In the view of this, unstructured meshes were introduced.
In an unstructured mesh, the nodes can be placed accordingly within the computational domain
depending on the shape of the body, such that different kinds of complex computational
boundaries and geometries can be simulated. Since the arrangement of nodes has no particular
order, neighboring points cannot be directly identified. A numerical approach has to be imposed
to describe how each node is connected to the control volumes. An unstructured mesh works
well around complex geometries but this requires more elements for refinement compared to a
structured mesh on the same geometry, leading to higher computing cost. To compensate
between computing cost and flexibility, we turn our attention to the multi-block structured
mesh.
In a multi-block structured mesh, the computational domain is subdivided into different blocks,
which consists of a structured mesh. The purpose is to avoid sharp changes in the grid direction
around complex boundaries, which might reduce the accuracy of the results. A multi-block
structured mesh is more complicated to generate compared to a structured and an unstructured
mesh but it combines the advantages of both. It is more computer efficient than an unstructured
mesh and yet provides ease of control in specifying refinement needed along certain surfaces
or walls, especially for meshing around complex geometries.
1.1.3 Temporal discretization
The third category of discretization is the temporal or time discretization. Generally, temporal
discretization splits the time in the continuous flow into discrete time steps. In time-dependent
formulations, we have an additional time variable t in the governing equations compared to the
steady state analysis. This leads to a system of partial differential equations in time, which
comprise unknowns at a given time as a function of the variables of the previous time step.
Thus, unsteady simulation normally requires longer computational time compared to a steady
case due to the additional step between the equation and spatial discretization.
Either explicit or implicit method can be used for unsteady time-dependent calculation. In an
explicit calculation, a forward difference in time is taken when calculating the time tn+1 by
using the previous time step value (n denotes state at time t and n+1 at time t+t) [32]. An
explicit method is straight forward, but each time step has to be kept to a minimum to maintain
computation stability and convergence. On the other hand, implicit method computes values of
time step tn+1 at the same time level in a simulation at different nodes based on a backward
difference method. This results in a larger system of linear equations where unknown values at
time step tn+1 have to be solved simultaneously.
The principal advantage of implicit schemes compared to explicit ones is that significantly
larger time steps can be used, whilst maintaining the stability of the time integration process
28
[33]. A smaller time step t in an explicit method implies longer computational running time
but it is relatively more accurate.
Figure 3.2: Discretization of flow in CFD
2. Presentation of the calculation software
we will introduce the Ansys software. Then we will present our findings and compare them to
the literature.
2.1 The academic version of the ANSYS software
We performed a numerical with Ansys Academic. [34]

Thousands of universities around the world use Ansys Academic engineering simulation
software to help undergraduate students learn the principles of physics; researchers solve
complex engineering problems; and students produce data for their master’s or doctoral
theses.
The academic program also offers unique educational resources, which support the teaching
of engineering, science and design programs. In addition, students benefit from our free
software downloads for synthesis projects, student competitions and more.
2.2 Fluent
"Fluent" is a computational code for modeling fluid flows and thermal transfers in complex
geometries. It can solve flow problems with unstructured meshes, which can be produced for
complex geometries, with relative ease. Supported mesh types are 2D, triangular or
quadrilateral, or 3D tetrahedral/hexahedral/pyramidal, and mixed (hybrid) meshes. Fluent" is
written in C programming language and makes full use of the flexibility and power offered by
this language (dynamic memory allocation). In addition, it uses an architecture that allows it to
run as several simultaneous processes on the same workstation or on separate workstations for
more efficient execution.
29
"Fluent" is used through a graphical interface. The advanced user can adapt or increase the
interface by writing macros and menu functions, in order to automate certain procedures.
Thus, on a non-exhaustive basis, it has the following modelling capabilities:
• 2D or 3D scans.
• Permanent or transitional states.
• Incompressible or compressible flows including any speed of regimes (subsonic,

transsonic, supersonic and hypersonic).
• Non-viscous, laminar or turbulent discharge.
• Sounds Newtonian or not.
• Forced heat transfer, by conduction, convection or radiative.
• Flows with phase changes
• Discharge in porous medium.
This calculation code uses the finite volume method as a discretization process. The integral
equations that govern the flow, such as the continuity equation, the mass conservation equation,
the energy equation and other scalars, such as turbulence, are solved by this statistical method.
Using this volume-based control technique, "Fluent" goes through the following steps:
Division of the domain into discrete control volumes using a computational grid (mesh).
Integration of governing equations on individual control volumes, in order to construct
algebraic equations for discrete dependent variables, (unknowns), such as velocities, pressure,
temperature...
Linearization of discretized equations and resulting system of linear equations solution, to be
able to update the values of dependent variables (unknown).
2.3 Procedure under Fluent
When loading the mesh under "Fluent", first of all, we have to scale the geometry, (millimeter,
meter...). The software also makes it possible to reorder the nodes, surfaces and cells in
memory, so that they have the same layout in the grid and in the memory, to improve the
performance of the calculation and the efficiency of the access to the memory.
2.3.1 Single or double precision
"Fluent" offers two modes of calculation, the "double precision" mode and the "single
precision" mode.
30
In the "double precision" mode, floating-point numbers are represented using 64 bits, while the
"single precision" mode uses a 32-bit representation.
The flip side of this is that the first mode requires much more memory. In addition, the "double
precision" mode is recommended, among other things, for flows involving very disparate scale
lengths.
2.3.2 Choice of the solver formulation
By starting "Fluent" one can choose between several formulations of the solver,
• The formulation "Segregated", or isolated (implicit), This formulation solves the

equations of continuity, quantity of movement and when necessary that of energy,
sequentially, that is to say isolated from each other (implicit by default). The
isolated solver is typically used for incompressible to moderately compressible
flows.
• The formulation "Coupled", or coupled either implicit or explicit, this option

allows governing equations to be solved simultaneously, that is to say coupled
with each other. However, other scalars, such as amounts of turbulence, are treated
• Iso element. Initially, this mode was designed for compressible flows at high
speeds. This gives it an advantage for the treatment of highly coupled flows (strong
interdependence between density, energy and moments) with forces of volumes
(e.g. buoyancy and rotational forces). It should be noted that the implicit coupled
solver requires almost twice the memory that the isolated solver would use, while
the explicit coupled solver comes to the medium, in terms of resource
requirements, but will converge more slowly than the implicit formulation and is
advised only for unsteady flows.
2.3.3 Discretization schemes
Under "Fluent", the variables stored in the center of the cell must be interpolated to the faces of
the control volume. It is possible to choose between different discretization schemes for
convective terms of governing equations, while viscous terms are automatically discretized in
the second order for greater precision. The fact remains that first-order discretization provides
better convergence. While the "Second Order Upwind Scheme" is the norm for flows not
aligned to the mesh.
There are also other discretization schemes:
• The "QUICK" scheme (Quadratic Upwind Interpolation for Convective Kinetics):

It provides better precision than the second-order scheme for rotational and vortex
flows (Swirling) with regular mesh. However, it does not apply to a triangular
mesh.
31
• The "Power Law" scheme is more accurate than the "First Order Upwind Scheme"
for flows at very low Reynolds numbers (< 5). Otherwise, it generally provides the
same degree of accuracy.
2.3.4 Choice of pressure interpolation schemes
For most cases, the "Standard" scheme is acceptable. For specific flows, you can choose from
the following options:
• The "Body-Force-Weighted" weighted volume force scheme is recommended for

flows involving large volume forces (e.g. high Rayleigh number natural
convection).
• The "PRESTO!" diagram (Pressure Staggering Option): is suitable for high-speed,

high-speed or high-curvature flows. The second-order diagram is to be used for
compressible flows and to improve precision in incompressible flows.
• The "Liner" linear diagram is available as an alternative in case the other options
have convergence difficulties or would generate non-physical behaviors.
2.3.5 Choice of method of coupling Pressure-speed:
If velocities are defined at the nodes of an ordinary control volume (like other scalars: pressure,
temperature), it is shown that a highly non-uniform pressure field will act as a uniform field on
discretized motion quantity equations, Versteeg (1995). The solution is to define the speeds on
a staggered grid and to use algorithms such as "SIMPLE" to solve this link or coupling between
pressure and speed. The "SIMPLE" family of algorithms is essentially an "estimation and
correction" procedure for calculating the pressure on the "offset grid" of the velocity
components.
"Fluent" offers three methods for pressure-velocity coupling (only with the "isolated"
formulation):
• The first two, very similar, are the "SIMPLE" method (Semi-implicit Method for
a Pressure Linked Equations) and the "SIMPLEC" (SIMPLE Consistent) method.
This last method differs from the first by the fact that it can be assigned a relaxation
factor (correction) of pressure close to 1, which accelerates the convergence in
most cases, but can lead to instabilities of the solution.
• Method "PISO" (Pressure-Implicite with Splitting of Operators), This method is

part of the algorithms of the "SIMPLE" family. It is recommended for
instantaneous flows or for meshes containing very oblique "highly skewed" cells.
32
2.3.6 Relaxation factors
In order to control and reduce the change produced during each iteration of a flow variable φ;
"Fluent" allows to act on the relaxation factors assigned to a number of variables as follows:
∅ = ∅0 + α.Δ∅
Δ∅ = ∅cc − ∅0
Or ∅0 : Old value of ∅.
Δ∅: Change in the value of ∅.

cc: Calculated value of ∅.
α: Relaxation factor.
The calculation code offers the best values of relaxation factors for a wide range of flows.
However, if we see that during the calculation the residues start to increase, it is better to reduce
them. On the other hand, if we observe a very slow but sure convergence there, we can increase
them cautiously, especially the relaxation factor linked to the continuity equation.
3. The advantages of numerical simulation
The numerical simulation allows the reduction of the time of the design (design) and the
development of a given project. The experimental study in wind tunnel goes through the design
of a model that consumes an enormous amount of time and money, whereas in numerical
simulation it is possible to quickly, easily and for a lesser cost to test several geometric
configurations, a wide range of Reynolds numbers, Mach numbers, etc. etc. the only limitation
being the researcher’s ability to analyze the huge flow of data from the calculation.
It is also possible to test a wide range of very difficult, if not impossible, experimental
conditions such as some combustion problems, the case of very high temperatures, and certain
categories of non-stationary flows.
While in an experimental study it is very difficult to measure a global field of pressure or
temperature, in numerical simulation the obtaining of all the variables in the entire field of
calculation is carried out with a minimum of effort.
The spectacular progress of the computer has made that the computers become more and more
efficient in the speed of calculation and data storage capacity without forgetting that the prices
of such machines are in constant decline. On the experimental side, however, the necessary
equipment is becoming increasingly complicated and expensive. In conclusion, the conduct of
a digital study is becoming more and more affordable in contrast to experimental studies. [35]
Digital investigation is becoming less and less energy-consuming as computers become faster
and more sophisticated and efficient. The availability of multi-processor and vector-type
machines only reduces the time required for increasingly complex processor simulation. The
33
development of such machines has made it possible to use more precise and memory-intensive
methods such as direct simulation for the treatment of turbulence.
Some areas of application
• Aviation: aerodynamic wing profiles used in aviation (drag lift)
• Naval industry: hull hydrodynamics and submersible craft.
• Energy production, combustion, C.I engines and gas turbines (loss of loads, etc.)
Turbomachines,
• Cooling of electrical equipment: rotating machines and electrical circuits.

Chemical engineering: mixing, separation, polymers, etc.
• Environnements : dispersion of pollutants (air and sea)
• Architecture and security: air conditioning, ventilation, wind etc.
• Civil Engineering: Major structure, bridge, tunnel, etc.
• Bio-medical: prostheses, blood flow, air conditioning, etc.
• Automotive industry: design optimization, air conditioning, etc.
• Ballistics: aerodynamics of projectiles (missile)
• Industrial jets: injectors, film cooling, combustion chamber and chimneys.
4. Conclusion:
Through this chapter, we perceive better the difficulties that can be encountered during the
numerical modeling of a problem in fluid mechanics even very simple, be it during the creation
of the geometry, the generation of the mesh, the implementation of the problem under "Fluent",
the control of convergence and even the processing of simulation data.
Moreover, the analysis of the various parameters to be adjusted offered by the "Fluent" software
has allowed us to adopt the right method of resolution by making judicious choices that have
been systematically justified.
34
CHAPTER IV: Results and Discussion
35
CHAPTER IV: Results and Discussion
1.Benchmark computations of laminar flow around a circular
cylinder
The benchmark calculations for 2D steady laminar flow around a circular cylinder are
described.
A thorough analysis of the obtained results is provided, along with a comparison to a reference
experiment. Discussion of the benchmarks' primary goal and formulation of some broad
conclusions based on the findings follow.
An incompressible Newtonian fluid is considered for which the conservation equations of mass
and momentum are
∂𝑈𝑖
=0
∂𝑥𝑖
∂𝑈𝑖 ∂ ∂ ∂𝑈𝑖 ∂𝑈𝑗 ∂𝑃
𝜌 +𝜌 (𝑈𝑗 𝑈𝑖 ) = 𝜌𝜈 ( + )−
∂𝑡 ∂𝑥𝑗 ∂𝑥𝑗 ∂𝑥𝑗 ∂𝑥𝑖 ∂𝑥𝑖
The notations are time t, cartesian coordinates (x1, x2, x3) = (x, y, z), pressure P and velocity
components (U1,U2,U3) = (U, V,W).
The kinematic viscosity is defined as μ = 10−3 m2/s, and the fluid density is ρ = 1.0 kg/m3.
The geometry and the boundary conditions are indicated in Fig. 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Geometry of 2D test case with boundary conditions
36
Some definitions are introduced to specify the values which have to be computed. H = 0.41m
is the channel height and D = 0.1m is the cylinder diameter. The Reynolds number is defined
by Re = UD/μ with the mean velocity U(t) = 2U(0,H/2, t)/3. The drag and lift forces are
∂𝑣𝑡 ∂𝑣𝑡
𝐹𝐷 = ∫𝑆 (𝜌𝜈 𝑛𝑦 − 𝑃𝑛𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑆 , 𝐹𝐿 = − ∫𝑆 (𝜌𝜈 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑃𝑛𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑆
∂𝑛 ∂𝑛
with the following notations: circle S, normal vector n on S with x-component nx and y-
component ny, tangential velocity vt on S and tangent vector t = (ny,−nx). The drag and lift
coefficients are
2𝐹𝑤 2𝐹𝑎
𝑐𝐷 = ̅2𝐷
, 𝑐𝐿 = ̅2𝐷
𝜌𝑈 𝜌𝑈
The length of recirculation is La = xr−xe, where xe = 0.25 is the x-coordinate of the end of the
cylinder and xr is the x-coordinate of the end of the recirculation area. As a further reference
value the pressure difference _P = _P(t) = P(xa, ya, t)−P(xe, ye, t) is defined, with the front and
end point of the cylinder (xa, ya) = (0.15, 0.2) and (xe, ye) = (0.25, 0.2), respectively.
The inflow condition is U(0, y) = 4Um.y(H − y)/H2, V = 0
with Um = 0.3m/s, yielding the Reynolds number Re = 20. The following quantities should be
computed: drag coefficient CD, lift coefficient CL, length of recirculation zone lw and pressure
difference ΔP.
1.1 Grid sensitivity study

In order to find out the best grid size for our cases, grid sensitivity study has been done for the
Reynolds number, 20.
Figure 4.2 shows the drag coefficient for five grid sizes. For the two last grids the diagram
converges to the value of 2.83, Therefore the grid size of 27003 nodes is sufficient to reach
convergence for Reynolds number, 20.
Element Mesh
Name Mesh Nodes lift drag
Size Elements
Units m
1 108642 0.0025 215070 0,0121 5,5839
2 27003 0,005 52899 0,0120 5,5785
3 11981 0,0075 23222 0,0096 5,5643
4 7002 0,01 13415 0,0237 5,5405
5 1143 0,025 2063 0,0265 5,1002
6 320 0,05 527 0,7422 4,3417
Table 1: Drag and Lift coefficient for 5 grid sizes for Re=20
37
6
4
Cd
0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
Number of mesh nodes
Figure 4.2: Drag coefficient for 5 grid sizes
The results obtained with the selected mesh for Cd, Cl, lw and ΔP are compared to the
benchmark [37] as shown in table 2.
Present Benchmark results [37]
Cd 5.5528
5,5785
Cl 0.0118
0,0120
lw 0,0846 0.0857
ΔP 0.1180 0.1199
Table 2: Comparison between the present results and of the benchmark [37]
According to the results obtained by the current study which are displayed in the table above
compared to the results of the benchmark[37] we notice that the error and the order of 2.7% to
0.46% which leads us to conclude that the simulation is successful and the calculation code is
validated.
38
2. Unconfined cylinder
2.1 Simulation setup

Consider the steady, two-dimensional and isothermal flow of a viscous incompressible
Newtonian fluid past an infinitely long circular cylinder placed in a uniform stream, as shown
schematically in Figure 4.3
The plane-constricting walls, AB and CD, define the flow's boundary. We consider these as
solid walls.
while AC and BD are the flow inlet and outlet planes.
The outer cylindrical boundary was chosen to be H = 224d in order to replicate the unconfined
flow condition.
A circular cylinder with a fixed diameter of d is positioned evenly apart from the walls and
symmetrically with regard to the z-axis.
The cylinder is placed 150d and 250d from the inlet and outflow, respectively, to provide for
adequate upstream and downstream distances. A uniform velocity of U∞. is applied to the fluid
when it enters the plane AC.
Figure 4.3: Schematics of flow past a circular cylinder.
Physical properties of the fluid

Density of fluid ρ =1 (kg/m3)
Viscosity of fluid μ=0.001 (kg/m-s)
39
The boundary conditions used for the numerical simulations can be defined as follows:
• Inlet boundary AC: The fluid was assumed to enter the inlet plane at a uniform
velocity
𝑉𝑥 = 𝑈∞ ; 𝑉𝑦 = 0
• Exit boundary at BD: The outflow boundary was given to the exit plane BD. In this
case, it was assumed that all flow variables had a zero-diffusion flux. In essence, it
indicates that the upstream flow is unaffected by the outflow plane conditions, which
are projected from the domain. This is in line with the concept of a fully developed flow.
• Confining walls AB and CD: In most cases, a solid wall is subject to the no-slip
boundary condition. This may be accomplished from the perspective of a numerical
simulation by maintaining the wall either (1) immobile or (2) flowing at the uniform
fluid velocity, U. The second condition was used in this investigation at both the top
and lower walls. As a result, if the fluid's inlet velocity profile is flat throughout the inlet
plane, it stays flat throughout the domain with the exception of an area near to the
cylinder where the cylinder causes the local velocity profile to change. In order to
validate the numerical solution method employed in this study, it was also necessary to
compare the current results with the published studies. Additionally, this condition more
accurately describes the phenomena connected to the free fall of circular cylinders in a
quiescent medium from a practical standpoint. As a result, under the second condition
of no slip,
𝑉𝑥 = 𝑈∞ ; 𝑉𝑦 = 0
• Cylinder surface: At the surface of the stationary cylinder, the usual no-slip boundary
condition is applied
𝑉𝑥 = 0 ; 𝑉𝑦 = 0
Discretization:
Flow over cylinder is assumed as an incompressible Newtonian laminar fluid in steady-state
so, for space discretization, a second order upwind scheme is used.
2.2 Comparison with the literature

The results from the current study are compared with those from Kawaguti and Jain [4] and
Chakraborty and Verma [36] for the flow past an unconfined circular cylinder for Re = 10-50.
The unconfined flow condition was approximated by selecting the outer cylindrical boundary
at 112-cylinder radius away.
Table 2 compares the present values of CD, CDP, CDF and θs (angle of separation) with
those of Kawaguti and Jain [4], Chakraborty and Verma [36] for different values of the
Reynolds number.
40
Present work Chakraborty and Vrma [36]
Re CD CDF CDP ϴS CD CDF CDP ϴS
10 2,9096 1,2737 1,6358 28,41 2,7896 1,2248 1.5648 29.74

20 2,0855 0,8272 1,2584 43,95 2,0223 0,8044 1.2179 42.49
30 1,7441 0,6399 1,1042 49,35 1,7027 0,6264 1.0763 48.22
40 1,5440 0,5311 1,0129 53,17 1,5172 0,5229 0.9943 53.37
50 1,4089 0,4585 0,9504 56,19 1,3923 0,4537 0.9386 56.24
Present work Kawaguti and jain [4]
Re CD CDF CDP ϴS CD CDF CDP ϴS
10 2,8352 1, 4701 1, 3651 28,41 2.87 1.252 1.618 30.71

20 2,0855 0,8272 1,2584 43,95 2.09 0.854 1.236 43.57
30 1,7264 0, 7234 1, 0030 49,35 1.76 0.651 1.109 50.00
40 1,5479 0, 5997 0,9482 53,17 1.529 0.527 1.0015 53.70
50 1,4300 0, 5182 0, 9117 56,19 1.44 0.450 0.990 58.57
Table 3: comparison between the present values of CD, CDP, CDF and θs with those of
Kawaguti and Jain [4], Chakraborty and Verma [36] for different values of the Reynolds
number.
3,5 60
3 50
2,5
40
2
ϴs
30
Cd
1,5
20
1
10
0,5
0
0
0 20 40 60
0 20 40 60
Re Re
41
1,4 1,8
1,2 1,6
1,4
1
1,2
0,8 1
Cdf
Cdp
0,6 0,8
0,6
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Re Re
Figure 4.4: Variation of CD, CDP, CDF and θs with Reynold number
Examining this data reveals great agreement between the two investigations, with the values of
pressure drag coefficient and the friction drag coefficient having the largest range of variation
(2.6–26.5 %).
Table 3 compares the present values of lw and θs (angle of separation) with those of
Chakraborty and Verma [36].
Re lw ϴS lw ϴS
20 1,72 44,42 1,81 43,59

40 4,24 53,17 4,21 53,60
100 11,51 66,106 7,86 65,75
Table 3: comparison between the present values of lw and θs with those of, Chakraborty and
Verma for different values of the Reynolds number
Table 3 examination demonstrates that there is generally good consistency between the current
and literary values of θs and lw. However, the degree of match degrades as the Reynolds
number rises, especially in relation to the values of lw.
42
Table 4 compares the present values of Cp (θ = 0), Cp(θ = π) with those of Chakraborty and
Verma [36].
Re -Cp (0) Cp (π) Cp (0) Cp (π)
5 0,92 2,11 1,01 1,7301
20 0,53 1,34 0,6041 1,2043

40 0,44 1,23 0,5356 1,1026
100 0,37 1,11 0,4753 1,0404
Table 4: comparison between the present values of Cp(θ = 0), Cp(θ = π) and with those of
Chakraborty and Verma [36] for different values of the Reynolds number
an inspection of Table 4 reveals that in general good correspondence is seen to exist between
the present and literature values of CP(θ = 0), CP(θ = π); however, as the value of the Reynolds
number increases, the degree of match deteriorates especially with regard to the values of Cp(0)
and lw.
43
3. Confined cylinder
As was already indicated, the primary goal of the current study is to investigate how λ affects
CD, CDP, CDF,lw, θs. Here are the latest findings, which cover Reynolds number values up to
200 and those between 1.54 and 20. However, it is typical to add the value of CD as a limiting
curve in order to clarify the role of λ. Such CD values are available in the literature, for example
in [7].
3.1 For blockage ratio of 1.54 -Re 0.1
Figure 4.5: Mesh For blockage ratio of 1.54
44
Figure 4.6: Mesh close up for blockage ratio of 1.54
Figure 4.7: (a)Velocity magnitude, (b) Static Pressure
45
Figure 4.8: Stream function
Figure 4.9: Stream lines
46
3.2 For blockage ratio of 1.54 Re 10
Figure 4.10: (a) Velocity, (b)Pressure coefficient
47
3.3 For blockage ratio of 1.54 Re 200
Figure 4.13: (a) Velocity, (b) Pressure coefficient
48
49
3.4 For blockage ratio of 5 Re 0.1
Figure 4.16: Mesh
50
51
3.5 For blockage ratio of 5 Re 10
52
3.6 For blockage ratio of 5 Re 200
Figure 4.23:(a) Velocity, (b)Pressure coefficient
53
54
3.7 Blockage ratio of 20 Re 0.1
Figure 4.26: Mesh
Figure 4.27: Mesh close up
55
Figure 4.28: Vilocity magnitude
56
Figure4.30: Stream lines
3.8 Blockage ratio of 20 Re 10
Figure 4.31: (a)Velocity, (b) Pressure coefficient

57
58
3.9 Blockage ratio of 20 Re 200
Figure 4.34: Vilocity magnitude
59
10
Re
λ 0,1 1 20 100 200
113,1209
1,54 7743,9484 780,2337 78,4034 13,5369 10,7159
62,1462
2 1075,4206 208,1311 22,0432 9,2738 4,0265
40,1674
3,03 983,7717 98,5821 11,3045 3,2851 2,6981
22,1843
5 485,7334 49,0744 7,0056 2,2844 1,8448
19,5896
10 252,4883 26,6677 5,2200 1,8501 1,4399
18,3450
20 181,1374 21,3047 4,5953 1,4015 1,1025
Table 4: Variation of CD, with Reynolds number and blockage ratio (λ).
60
10
Re
λ 0,1 1 20 100 200
90,6008
1,54 6063,6263 610,8532 61,4965 11,5712 9,5430
43.8403
2 644,5168 87.6079 12,6549 7.6958 3,2968
23.4388
3,03 596,3020 59,7906 7,1378 2,5794 2,2574
8.5019
5 134,3322 13,734608 4,2023 1,7600 1,5192
8,1310
10 121,9130 13,3837 3,1002 1,5486 1.1849
7,4992
20 90,6672 10,8085 2,6561 1,0462 0,8838
Table 6: Variation of CDP with Reynolds number and blockage ratio (λ).
10
Re
λ 0,1 1 20 100 200
22,5201
1,54 1680,3222 169,3804 16,9068 1,9657 1,1729
18,3059
2 430,902 120,5232 9.3883 1.3080 0,7297804
16,7286
3,03 387,4697 38,7914 4,1667 0,7057 0,4406
13,6824
5 219,5056 22,1069 2,8032 0,5243 0,3256
11,4586
10 130,5753 13,2840 2.1198 0,3015 0,2550
10,8521
20 90,4701 10,4961 1,9391 0,3552 0,2186
Table 5: Variation of CDF with Reynolds number and blockage ratio (λ).
61
The influence of CDP, CDF and CD on the Reynolds number and λ is seen in Figure 4.20.
10000
1000
1,54
100 2
3,03
5
10 10
20
1
0,01 0,1 1 10 100 1000
0,1
Figure 4.37: Cd
10000
1000
1,54
100 2
3,03
5
10
10
20
0,1
0,01 0,1 1 10 100 1000
Figure 4.38: Cdp
62
10000
1000
1,54
100
2
3,03
5
10
20
10
0,1
0,01 0,1 1 10 100 1000
Figure 4.39: Cdf
A closer look at these findings reveals that the wall effects are more pronounced at low
Reynolds numbers than they are at high Reynolds numbers. When the value of swings from
1.54 to 20, for example, the value of CD falls almost by a factor of 42 (from 7743.95 to 181.14)
at Re = 0.1, but the comparable variation is less than a factor of 9 at Re = 100.
This is in line with the tendencies discovered for spheres [37,38] as well. Furthermore, there
are slight variations even though CDP and CDF exhibit qualitatively comparable dependences
on λ and Re. The contribution of the pressure drag is larger than that of frictional drag at low
Re (about below 10) and the smaller the value of (indicative of wall proximity to the cylinder),
as shown in the corresponding values of drag coefficient.
In terms of quality, it was discovered that the values of CDP and CDF were around 6063 and
1680, respectively, for Re = 0.1 and for λ = 1.54. However, it was determined that the equivalent
values for λ = 20 were 90.66 and 90.47, respectively.
The values of CDP, on the other hand, were computed to be 9.54 and 0.88 at λ = 1.54 and 20,
respectively, at high Re (=200), as opposed to the comparable values of 1.17 and 0,22 for CDF
at the two extreme values of used in this work.
63
The fluctuation of the dimensionless length of the recirculation zone, lw, and the angle of
separation, θs with λ, for various values of Re are shown in Table 7 and Table 8. The boundary
of the separated zone is deduced in the current study from a location on the x-axis where the x-
velocity disappears. In other words, here is where Vx switches from a negative to a positive
sign.
λ Re
10 20 50 100 200
1,54 - 0,31 1,76 3,14 4,09
2 - 0,80 2,45 4,80 5,79
3,03 - 1,27 2,79 6,25 9,64
5 0,20 1,45 4,04 8,78 12,50
10 1,84 2,26 4,93 9,59 13,58
20 1,72 2,61 5,55 11,07 16,56
Table 7: Effect of blockage and Reynold on lw
Re
20 50
λ 10 100 200
35,79 55,95
1,54 - 57,20 65,19
37,85 52,27
2 - 60,68 71,30
42,45 58,46
3,03 - 65,23 72,26
46,17 59,11
5 30,02 67,84 75,13
48,19 60,10
10 32,84 68,42 76,40
49,75 61,69
20 35,13 69,73 77,84
Table 8: Effect of blockage and Reynold on θs
64
90
80
70
60
20
50
50
40 100
200
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 4.40: Effect of blockage and Reynold on θs
18
16
14
12
20
10
50
8 100
200
6
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 4.41: Effect of blockage and Reynold on lw
65
As a result, the fluid separates from the cylinder's surface, where the pressure gradient has
already turned negative. This point coincides with the separating point, θs. On the other hand,
it is also noted that for a fixed Re, lw decreases roughly linearly with λ. For instance, when λ
is dropped from 20 to 1.54 at Re = 100, lw drops by around 63%.
For a fixed value of λ, it is discovered that lw increases practically linearly with Re. For
instance, for λ = 20, lw almost doubles when Re is raised from 50 to 100. It should be noted
that the point of zero pressure gradient on the surface of the cylinder changes from the rear
stagnation point as the inertial forces rise.
Conclusion
The steady-state numerical computations for the flow past a circular cylinder in a planar channel
have been done in this study over a range of blockage ratios (1.54 ≤ λ ≤ 20)) and Re values
between 0.1 and 200.
These findings demonstrated that, given a certain value of, the drag coefficient, CD, dropped
as Re increased. As a result of the walls' additional retardation force on the cylinder, it was also
discovered that CD increased with a reduction in for a fixed Re. However, the pressure drag
increased more significantly than the friction drag did.
For a fixed value of λ, it was discovered that the length of the recirculation zone and the angle
of separation both increased with an increase in Re because the boundary layer separated at
higher Re.
On the other hand, because of the increased pressure drag at lower λ, these two parameters
decreased with a decrease in λ for a fixed Re.
66
References
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cylinder: dependence of the computed flow field on the location of the lateral boundaries.
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Reynolds numbers. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 620, 89–119.
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flow past superhydrophobic circular cylinders. J. Fluid Mech 680, 459–476.
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Benchmark Computations of Laminar Flow Around a Cylinder
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE ET

POPULAIRE MINISTERE DE L’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPERIEUR

Faculté des Sciences et des Sciences Appliquées

Mémoire de fin d’étude

HASSANI MOHAMED AMINE

En vue de l’obtention du diplôme de Master en :

Wall effects in flow past a circular cylinder in a plane

Devant le jury composé de :

Ahmanache Abdennacer Enseignant Chercheur UAMOB Encadreur

Année Universitaire 2021/2022

In this work, a detailed study on confined, unconfined cylinder is presented. A bibliographic

CD total drag coefficient (dimensionless)

2. Motivation for the work

4. Effect of Boundary conditions

Muralidhar et al. (2011) [21] performed experiments on cylinders with super-hydrophobic

5. Conceptual overview of flow around a circular cylinder

5.2 Vortex shedding and Strouhal number

5.3 Drag, lift and pressure coefficients

Figure 1.2: Diagram of forces acting around a circular cylinder.

6. Regimes of Two-Dimensional Flow Around a Circular Cylinder

6.1 Creeping Flow, Re < 5

Figure 1.3: Creeping flow regime at Re < 5

Figure 1.4: Attached eddies flow regime at 5 < Re < 40

6.3 Laminar Vortex Shedding, 40 < Re < 350

Figure 1.5: Laminar vortex shedding regime at 40 < Re < 350

Figure 1.6: Subcritical flow regime at 350 < Re < 2xl05

6.5 Critical Regime, 2x𝟏𝟎𝟓 < Re < 7x𝟏𝟎𝟓

6.6 Supercritical Regime, 7x𝟏𝟎𝟓 < Re < 3.5x𝟏𝟎𝟔

Figure 1.8: Disappearance of vortex shedding in supercritical regime,

7x105 < Re < 3.5x106

6.7 Transcritical Regime, Re> 3.5x𝟏𝟎𝟔

1. Governing equations of fluid flow

1.1 Continuity equation

∂𝜌 ∂(𝜌𝑢) ∂(𝜌𝑣) ∂(𝜌𝑤)

Newton’s second law states that [27]:

The net force in the x -direction on the pair of faces (N, S) is

∂𝜏𝑦𝑥 1 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑥 1 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑥

And the net force in the x -direction on faces T and B is given by

∂𝜏𝑧𝑥 1 ∂𝜏𝑧𝑥 1 ∂𝜏𝑧𝑥

∂(−𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑥 ) ∂𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∂𝜏𝑧𝑥

Similarly, we can verify the y -component of the momentum equation is given by

𝐷𝑣 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑦 ∂(−𝑝 + 𝜏𝑦𝑦 ) ∂𝜏𝑧𝑦

𝐷𝑤 ∂𝜏𝑥𝑧 ∂𝜏𝑦𝑧 ∂(−𝑝 + 𝜏𝑧𝑧 )

1.3 Navier-Stokes equations for a Newtonian fluid

Now, rearrange the viscous stress terms as follows:

1. Overview of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

1.1.1 Equation discretization

1.1.2 Spatial discretization

1.1.3 Temporal discretization

Figure 3.2: Discretization of flow in CFD

2. Presentation of the calculation software

2.1 The academic version of the ANSYS software

We performed a numerical with Ansys Academic. [34]

• Permanent or transitional states.

• Incompressible or compressible flows including any speed of regimes (subsonic,

• Non-viscous, laminar or turbulent discharge.

• Sounds Newtonian or not.

• Forced heat transfer, by conduction, convection or radiative.

• Flows with phase changes

• Discharge in porous medium.

2.3 Procedure under Fluent

2.3.2 Choice of the solver formulation