See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/330821040

Effect of saline intrusion on the properties of cohesive soils in the Red River
Delta, Vietnam

Article  in  Marine Georesources and Geotechnology · February 2019

DOI: 10.1080/1064119X.2018.1550827

CITATIONS READS

9 700

4 authors:

Nguyen Ngoc Truc Lena Mihova

Vietnam National University, Hanoi University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy
15 PUBLICATIONS   43 CITATIONS    9 PUBLICATIONS   13 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Toshifumi Mukunoki Do Minh Duc

Kumamoto University Vietnam National University, Hanoi
108 PUBLICATIONS   860 CITATIONS    48 PUBLICATIONS   540 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Research group in Vietnam View project

Study to stabilize and reducing sedimentation for fishing harbors in Phu Yen province, case study in Tien Chau fishing harbor View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Nguyen Ngoc Truc on 05 May 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Marine Georesources & Geotechnology

ISSN: 1064-119X (Print) 1521-0618 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/umgt20

Effect of saline intrusion on the properties of

cohesive soils in the Red River Delta, Vietnam

Nguyen Ngoc Truc, Lena Mihova, Toshifumi Mukunoki & Duc Minh Do

To cite this article: Nguyen Ngoc Truc, Lena Mihova, Toshifumi Mukunoki & Duc Minh Do (2019):
Effect of saline intrusion on the properties of cohesive soils in the Red River Delta, Vietnam, Marine
Georesources & Geotechnology, DOI: 10.1080/1064119X.2018.1550827

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2018.1550827

Published online: 01 Feb 2019.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 13

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=umgt20
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2018.1550827

Effect of saline intrusion on the properties of cohesive soils in the Red River
Delta, Vietnam
Nguyen Ngoc Truca,b, Lena Mihovac, Toshifumi Mukunokid and Duc Minh Dob
a
VNU School of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam; bVNU University of Science, Vietnam National
University, Hanoi, Vietnam; cDepartment of Geotechnics, Faculty of Transportation Engineering, University of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy, Sofia, Bulgaria; dX-Earth Center, Faculty of Advanced Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study conducted a series of laboratory experiments and established numerical models on Received 26 August 2018
selected undisturbed soil samples in the Red River Delta (RRD) to determine the effect of change Accepted 18 November 2018
in soils intruded by saline water. The variation in the technical parameters of soils was verified in
KEYWORDS
soils fully saturated by solution of four salt concentrations, that is, 0.0, 9.9, 19.8, and 33.0 g/L.
Red River Delta; saline
Results show that the content and composition of clay minerals in cohesive soils before and after intrusion; salt-affected soil;
saline intrusion are unchanged. The same finding is obtained for clay after removing absorbed physical property;
water layer by using a centrifuge apparatus. The zeta potential and settlement velocity of soils in deformation modulus;
the RRD increase when salt is added to the saturated solution. Similarly, the deformation of soils bearing capacity
increases proportionally with the salt concentrations of that solution. This result is attributed to
the linear decrease in deformation modulus. The decrease in modulus versus salinities is nearly
consistent for pressure stages from 100 to 400 kPa. The safety factor of bearing capacity also
decreases linearly with salinities. The decrease reaches 12.5–16.3% when soils are in the maximum
saline solution. All these changes are considered as the degradation of soils in saline media.

Introduction state. Previous studies have proven that the properties of

Global warming causes the rise in sea levels, especially for
regions near the equator. According to the monitoring
report of National Hydro-Meteorological Service of
Vietnam, the average rising velocity of sea level of the entire
Vietnamese coastal zone is 2.9 mm/year in the period of
1993–2010. Its velocity is large in the East side (East Sea)
with a rate of 4.7 mm/year. The sea level rise in Vietnam is
predicted to be approximately 49–103 cm in maximum at
the end of the twenty-first century (Ministry of Natural
Resource and Environment [MONRE] 2009, 2016).
Sea level rise with extreme climates is facilitated by the
increase in saline intrusion, especially in low land areas, for
example, the Red River Delta (RRD) and Mekong River
delta. Sea level rise will extend the saltwater wedge in the
river mouth and intrude further into the inland areas. Sea
level rise will increase the pressure head and result in forced
permeability of saltwater into the body of dikes and then
into the soil strata inside dikes. Thus, saline intrusion can
be divided into (1) intrusion onto surface water and (2)
intrusion into the underground water and sedimentary strata
(Truc and Granie 2008; Komine 2007a, 2007b).
Saline intrusion becomes highly sensitive as salt in water
contacts with clay particle in young sediments. The cohesive
soils in very soft, soft, or medium state are normally more
sensitive to salt than that in stiff state. Cohesive soils of
young sediment in the RRD are nearly in soft to medium
soil change when soil is affected by saline water. The change
depends on clay mineral type and saline solution concentra-
tion (Truc and Mihova 2015; Komine 2007a, 2007b). The
changes in the properties of subsoil directly influence the
stability of coastal infrastructure, for example, the founda-
tion of river dikes and sea dike systems, road embankment,
and civil constructions. The intrusion of saltwater into soil
layers, that is, the existence of salt in cohesive soil, may lead
to the reactions between cations in seawater and clay miner-
als in sedimentary soil.
Clay adsorbs specific types and number of cations under
each given set of environmental conditions. Exchange reac-
tions may occur in response to the change in environmental
conditions. These reactions involve the replacement of a part
or all the adsorbed ions of one type with ions of another type.
Although the exchange reactions do not affect the structure of
the clay particles, important changes in the physical and mech-
anical properties of soil may occur (Mitchell and Soga 2005).
Research by Germanov and Kirov (1985), Kirov (1989)
found that the deformation of saturated loess decreases
under the action of saline water and increases under the
action of water containing detergent. This finding is attrib-
uted to the presence of carbonates in the mineral compos-
ition of the tested soils. The cation Ca2þ in soil reacts with
the anion Cl in saline water; as a result, the bond in soil
structure becomes strong, thereby improving the soil

CONTACT Nguyen Ngoc Truc trucnn@vnu.edu.vn Building G7, No. 144 Xuan Thuy str., Cau Giay dist., Hanoi, Vietnam.
ß 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 N. T. NGUYEN ET AL.

Figure 1. The Red River Delta location with the distribution of young sediment of the Thai Binh formation (light yellow).

properties. Soils dominated by smectite-clay minerals are
easily degraded by brine water and thus present low water
retention and liquid limit and high hydraulic conductivity;
on the contrary, soils dominated by allophane-clay minerals
exhibit high water retention and liquid limit and low
hydraulic conductivity in seawater (Komine 2007a).
The role of saline solution is obviously expressed in sab-
kha soils. They consist mainly of loosely cemented sandy silt
to silty clay and are highly compressible (Al-Shamrani and
Dhowian 1997). The collapse of sabkha soils induced by per-
meation with seawater is greater than that produced by per-
meation with freshwater because of the high concentration

Figure 2. Sampling locations in the RRD area; map was adapted from
Ky (1978).
Figure 3. Eleven research sites in the Hanoi area.
of Naþ and Cl ions in seawater (Azam 2000). The remark-
able part of sabkha soils on the compression curves of 1D
consolidation test occurs as a secondary consolidation
(Dhowian 1991). For frozen salinity soils in the arctic zone,
the underestimation of bearing capacity and the change in
temperature regime after construction are the main reasons
for the deformation and cracking of buildings (Brouchkov
2003). Sabkha saline soils present different origins from fro-
zen ones, but they exert a similar negative impact on the
construction and are apart correlative to deposited soils in
the delta.
Yukselen-Aksoy, Kaya, and Oren (2008) found that sea-
water affects the physical properties of clay significantly.
Liquid limit, plasticity, and shrinkage indices are increased
by 110, 70, and 104%, respectively, when clay is saturated
with brine. The permeability of an aquifer affected by sea-
water intrusion is also changed during remediation. When
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 3
seawater is replaced with freshwater, the decrease in perme-
ability reaches 70% (Zhou et al. 2009). Meanwhile, for Boom
and Ypresian clays in stiff state, the existence of salt in pore
water increases oedometric modulus, permeability, and con-
solidation coefficient and decreases compression slope, swel-
ling slope, and secondary compression coefficient. The effect
of salt in pore water is obvious in low-stress range owing to
that the hydro-mechanical behavior is kept in the upper part
by the physico-chemical effect (Nguyen et al. 2013).
Previous studies (Kirov and Truc 2012; Truc and Kirov
2014; Mihova and Truc 2015; Truc 2017) have proven that
the properties of cohesive soils in the RRD are decreased in
general module and shear strength because of saline intru-
sion. Inverse results are found for weathering soils (Truc
and Granie 2008). The change is attributed to the inter-
action between cation in saline water and anion in clay min-
erals of soils.
Considerable discussion has expressed the significance
of understanding the effect of saline water on the phys-
ico-mechanical properties of different types of soils. The
studies have been conducted with different soil types in
different localities. The variation in their characteristics
in saline environment only reflects soil in a particular
area. Several individual studies on the RRD soils in
saline media have been conducted, but they have
focused only a few simple physico-mechanical parame-
ters. No study has experimentally investigated the
behavior of cohesive soils in the RRD under the impact
of different salt concentrations of saturated solution,
particularly investigating with many aspects of soil sci-
ence, geotechnics, and modeling. Therefore, this study
was the first to investigate the variation in the proper-
ties of cohesive soils saturated by saline solutions con-
taining four salt concentrations, that is, 0.0, 9.9, 19.8,
and 33.0 g/L. Soils located in the inland area, where soil
strata were unaffected by saline water, in the RRD were
chosen. The considered parameters included the change
in clay minerals in saline solutions and physico-mechan-
ical properties including zeta potential, settlement vel-
ocity, deformation, and safety factor of bearing capacity
of an assumed embankment on salt-affected subsoil. The
obtained results can be applied to the calibration of
building codes or the design of constructions in places
experiencing sea level rise and saline intrusion.
Study site and methods
Study site
This study explored the undisturbed samples of young
deposited soils in the RRD, Vietnam. Figure 1 shows the
study area. The young sediment belonging to the Thai Binh
formation (Q23 tb) mostly covers this delta plain. This for-
mation has formed about 3000 years ago and originated
mainly from shallow sea, alluvial, or lacustrine sediments.
This formation appears all over 11 provinces and cities of
the RRD with a thickness varying from 5.0 to 35.0 m (Ky
1978). The sampling location is based on geological maps to
ensure that the samples are not saline. Accordingly, the
4 N. T. NGUYEN ET AL.
Table 1. Sampling sites and general description of soil samples.
Investigating site
Thai Thuy District, Thai Binh Province
Giao Thuy District, Nam Dinh Province
Kim Son District, Ninh Binh Province
Dinh Vu, Hai Phong City
Hai An District, Hai Phong City
Thuy Nguyen District, HaiPhong City
11 sites in Hanoi area
study sites were located inside the delta far from the
saline sources.
In situ procedures for sampling
The in situ procedures were aimed at collecting soil samples
from boreholes. The cohesive soils in medium state at 17
sites in five provinces of the RRD, that is, Ninh Binh, Nam
Dinh, Thai Binh, Hai Phong, and Hanoi City, were investi-
gated. Figure 2 reveals the investigated sites in the RRD, and
Figure 3 shows the 11 investigated sites in Hanoi City. The
field work included sampling and Standard Penetration
Test (SPT).
In the RRD area, the groundwater table appears close to
ground surface. The samples collected from boreholes were
below groundwater level. Sampling was conducted for undis-
turbed and disturbed samples from drilling core.
Undisturbed samples were obtained using a thin-wall sam-
pler with a diameter of 76 mm and a length of 20–60 cm.
The depth of sampling varied not more than 13.0 m where
medium state cohesive soils were found. The depth of sam-
pling was not large to limit the impact of pre-consolidation
pressure. The general description of the sites is briefly
depicted in Table 1.
SPT was applied in the borehole parallel with drilling
process and was conducted at 1.5 m intervals for all bore-
holes. The value of N30 and the number of disturbed sam-
ples were obtained from the split spoon sampler. SPT was
mainly used in the study to estimate the relative stiffness
and strength of soils. SPT can be used to determine the state
of soil in the stratigraphy and select the research samples.
SPT is not ideal for cohesive soils. However, the obtained
results are appropriate for the considered soils of medium
state, that is, the values of N30 vary from 4 to 8. These val-
ues are found on the boring log of each site.
Figure 4 shows the representative boring logs of the
studied sites. The stratigraphy of the sites in the considered
depth is simple. The arrangement of layers follows the order
of sediment rules, that is, fine sand is located under cohesive
soils. Most of the investigated soils are silty clay sediment;
several sites in Hanoi, for example, Gia Lam 2 (GL2) and
Yen So (YS), are made of clay. A few places show organic
matter in soil with a negligible content, thereby showing a
dark gray color of cohesive soil.
Sample preparation
All the studied soils were collected under the groundwater
table in a Holocene aquifer. The groundwater is partially
Sampling depth (m) Description
2.2–3.0 Clay mixed with organic, medium
2.0–2.8 Clay contained shell, medium
0.0–1.0 Silty clay, medium
4.0–4.8 Muddy clay, soft
12.0–12.8 Clay, medium
6.0–6.8 Clay, medium
1.5–8.0 Clay, silty clay, medium
infected by domestic wastewater or chemical substance of
industrial and agricultural activities on the surface. Table 2
shows chemical composition of river water and groundwater
in the RRD. The predominating cations in the two types of
water are NH4þ, Mg2þ, Mn2þ, Ca2þ, Fe2þ, and Kþ. The
ions of Naþ and Cl are at a low concentration. In other
words, the soil under water table has not been infected by
salt yet. The data in the table also imply that the interactions
of sediment and pore water significantly influence the
groundwater composition (Postma et al. 2007).
Soil specimens with height of 20.0 mm, diameter of
63.5 mm, and cross area of 3166.9 mm2 were saturated to
simulate the saline contamination process of ground in
studying the effects of salt on subsoil properties. The process
of saline intrusion occurs gradually when saline water mixes
with freshwater and ground is saturated by the brackish
solution. The salinity of groundwater is approximately zero
first and then the salinity of mixed water rises but at a low
level. When seawater increasingly predominates, the salinity
of brackish water also increases. This process usually occurs
over a long time at the boundary zone of freshwater and
saline water or at the near-surface subsoil strata where the
interference of rainy and groundwater is observed. To a cer-
tain stage, freshwater is pushed back and seawater occupies
the entire space of groundwater. At that time, the salinity of
underground water is similar to that of seawater.
The average salt concentration of seawater in Vietnam is
reported to be 33& or 33.0 g/L. When seawater is not rising,
the salt concentration of groundwater in inland area is 0&
or 0.0 g/L. To simulate the saline intrusion process, soil
specimens were saturated with saline water in the laboratory
at four designated salt concentrations, that is, 0.0, 9.9, 19.8,
and 33.0 g/L. These concentrations corresponded to 0, 30,
60, and 100% salinity of seawater. The saline solution was a
mixture of pure water and sea salt. This solution could be
considered artificial seawater. The basic chemical compo-
nents and contents of sea salt were NaCl (92%), SO42
(2.7%), Mg2þ (1.3%), and Ca2þ (0.65%).
Soil specimens were saturated in a closed process with
two phases, that is, capillary and pressure saturations. Each
saturation phase was conducted at least 5 days to ensure
that soil specimens would be fully intruded by saline water.
The capillary saturation phase is executed first. Soil speci-
mens are put into the rings like that in 1D consolidation
test. The filter papers were laid on two faces of soil speci-
mens. The porous stones that were soaked are centered on
the faces of the test specimens. The testing sets were
lowered carefully into the water reservoirs. Each testing set
is placed in one reservoir and marked in order of 0.0, 9.9,
19.8, and 33.0 g/L. The water reservoirs were filled with
 MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 5

Figure 4. Boring logs of the Yen So (YS) and Gia Lam 2 (GL2) sites.

solution of different salinities in correspondence with the Table 2. Water composition in the RRD and in the Holocene aquifer close to
the research sites (Con et al. 2013; Postma et al. 2007; Norrman et al. 2008).
above marks until the specimens are submerged in half.
Parameter River water Groundwater
Load was placed directly on the upper porous stone to pre-
EC (mS/cm) 290 880
vent soil specimen from being swollen due to saturation of Temp. ( C) 30 26.4
saline solution. This procedure is expected to saturate speci- pH 7.18 6.95
mens naturally. Fe2þ (mmol/L) <0.001 0.27
Ca2þ (mmol/L) 0.53 2.76
After 5-day capillary saturation, specimens are moved to Mg2þ (mmol/L) 0.18 1.91
pressure saturation section on the 1D compression equipment Naþ (mmol/L) 0.2 0.23
of oedometer. Pressure is applied on the specimen by hydro- Kþ (mmol/L) 0.04 0.1
NH4þ (mmol/L) <0.006 0.17
static head from saline water in the standpipe. The level of Alkalinity (meq/L) 2.38 10.2
saline water column in standpipe is limited at <10 cm from SO42– (mmol/L) 0.06 0
Cl– (mmol/L) 0.11 0.08
specimen surface to make sure that the head does not disturb NO3– (mmol/L) 0.01 0
specimen. Saline water impacts the soil specimen from the PO43– (mmol/L) <0.001 0.01
bottom to push air and pore water in the void out. The con- Si4þ (mmol/L) 0.27 0.57
stant load is also applied, but restricted at the specimen sur-
face. The application of load must be ensured so that weight
of load does not induce the deformation of specimen. This
aims at preventing soil from swelling. Specimen is absolutely
saturated when saline solution appears on its surface.

Saline intrusion analysis

X-ray diffraction
The clay mineral composition of all samples of cohesive soils
in the RRD was analyzed with an X-ray diffractometer to
assess the quantity of and change in clay mineral as the
result of the effect of salt. Before analysis, soil specimens
were absolutely saturated by artificial seawater during at
Figure 5. Soil specimens at different salt concentrations after centrifuging.
least 10 days at four salt concentrations mentioned above.
6 N. T. NGUYEN ET AL.
Then the centrifuging procedure was applied on the speci-
mens. These experiments were conducted at the X-Earth
Center, Kumamoto University, Japan. Figure 5 shows repre-
sentative specimens at different salt concentrations after cen-
trifuging. Centrifuging procedure aimed to remove the
water-diffused layer surrounding the clay particles and thus
ensure the complete reaction between salt and clay particles.
Soil specimens at different salt concentrations after centri-
fuging were used for the X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis.
The obtained result was used as the value of the quantitative
change in the clay mineral composition of each soil owing
to the impact of different salt concentrations.
The analyzed method of qualitative mineral phase is
relied on comparison of value of unit cell spacing (d) and
value of the peak intensity (J) obtained on the diffraction
diagram with the standard data. The analysis was conducted
on X-ray diffractometer D8-ADVANCE apparatus. Error of
method is ±3%. Steps of performance are as follows:
 Specimen preparation: Two grams of soil powder passing
sieve No.200 or 74 mm is placed in a bowl, then gently
press the powder by a 4.5  5.0 cm size glass to create
the plane surface and equal to the bowl surface.
 Measuring: Scan speed is 2 deg/min with increment of
0.02. Scan type is locked coupled.
 Qualitative phase analysis (identifying the mineral name):
The steps comprise of opening evaluation program for
processing results, choosing a sample, measuring spacing
within unit cell (d), determining the relative peak intensity
by measuring height of peak. Maximum intensity of peak
is 10, and other peaks are taken in correlative scale. Based
on the obtaining results of J and d, they should be com-
pared to the standard values of each mineral to identify
name minerals present in the specimen. Mineral compos-
ition in the specimen is exactly defined based on X-ray
analysis result and the symbiosis probability of minerals.
 Quantitative phase analysis: The steps comprise of creat-
ing the compounds of each single mineral in the com-
position of the specimen with standard specimen of
corundum ratio of 1:1 (for ratio Xi/Xs ¼ 1); creating the
measuring samples for the mixed samples, schematic cap-
ture X-ray, and each sample taken seven times; measur-
ing the integral intensities of the peaks; and calculating
coefficient of Kis by the formula:
Xi JS
Kis ¼ : (1)
XS Ji
where XXSi is the ratio of single mineral to a standard samples
in the compound sample; JS is intensity of peak d ¼ 2.085
Ao (of corundum); Ji is specific intensity of finding mineral;
Kis is mean value of 7 measuring times.
Zeta potential
Zeta potential (f) is the potential difference between the dis-
persion medium and the stationary layer of fluid attached to
the dispersed particle. This potential difference is caused by
the net electrical charge contained within the region
Figure 6. Determination of transmission coefficient by cuvette.
bounded by the slipping plane and is commonly applied for
the quantification of the magnitude of the charge of particle.
The sample was spread slightly, and 40 mg samples were
placed in 20 mL of twice distilled water. The solution con-
taining the sample was transferred to the PCD Teflon tube
and attached to the PCD machine, which was connected to
the automatic titration module. The zeta potential f of the
sample would be automatically recorded using two electro-
des in Teflon tubes when piston was active. At each study
site a representative sample is taken to carry out this experi-
ment. The final result was used as the average value during
the measurement procedure.
Assessment of particle settlement velocity with dynamic
light scattering
The settlement velocity of clay particles was evaluated by the
time of the transmittance of light scattering. A light ray with
an intensity I0 of 600 nm wavelength was projected through
a cuvette, and an emergent ray was attained with intensity
I1. The cuvette was designed to ensure that the intensity of
reflection and refraction rays was zero. Four cuvettes were
used for four suspensions of clay (i.e. saline solutions) and
one reference sample with distilled water. Figure 6 shows a
representative picture of this experiment among 17 studied
sites. The settlement velocity of clay particles was expressed
by transmission coefficient T (%) in the ratio between I1
and I0. The transmission of suspension was determined by
time-resolved dynamic light scattering. This method has
been applied to monodisperse model colloids, including clay
colloids (Mori, Togashi, and Nakamura 2001; Minh et al.
2013). The experimental procedure was conducted as fol-
lows: each 20 mg clayey powder was saturated in each 20 mL
artificial seawater for 10 days, and the mixed solution was
stirred and 3 mL of it was placed into the cuvette. The trans-
mittance (T, %) was automatically monitored every 30 s for
500 min (30,000 s). Spectrophotometer L-VIS-400 (Labnics
Company, Fremont, CA) was used to conduct dynamic
light scattering.
Analysis of deformation and bearing capacity of salt-
affected soils
The soils after saturation with saline water present changes
in properties not only before and after saline intrusion but
also under different salinities. 1D consolidation test was car-
ried out for all salt-affected soil specimens to investigate the
causing mechanism of the changes. The consolidation equip-
ment of CONTROLS (Italy), with electronic measurement,
datatronic 128-channels automatic data acquisition, and
0.0001 mm-accuracy displacement transducer was used. The

Figure 7. Assumed embankment on saline subsoil.
Figure 8. Representative diffraction diagrams comparing the variation in the
clay mineral composition among four salt concentrations; (a), (b), and (c) corres-
pond to soil at GL2, D5, and YS site.
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 7
test applied five pressure stages, that is, 25, 50, 100, 200, and
400 kPa. Each stage of pressure lasted at least 24 h until
deformation of specimen, which was recorded by transducer,
stabilized. The parameters determined from this experiment
were used to estimate the characteristics of the deformation
and bearing capacity of the studied soil.
The experiment was simultaneously executed in four
apparatuses corresponding to four salt concentrations. The
deformation e (%) of soils was denoted by the correlative
curve of specimen settlement by time with pressure range.
The deformation of salt-affected soils can be estimated from
their modulus. In this study, deformation modulus, which
depends on the level of stress in soil, was evaluated.
From the experimental curve pressure (r)/void ratio (e)
can be calculated confined modulus, Eoed, with the expres-
sion:
r2 r1
Eoed ¼ ð1 þ e0 Þ (2)
e1  e2
where e0 is the initial void ratio; e1 and e2 are the void ratio
corresponding to pressure stages r1 and r2.
By using Poisson’s ratio, l, it can be evaluated uncon-
fined modulus (Young’s modulus), E0, with the formula:
 
2l2
E0 ¼ 1  Eoed (3)
1l
A case study on a 5-m high embankment located on a
three-layer subsoil was performed to clarify its bearing cap-
acity in saline intrusion conditions. The top and bottom
layers were sand and the middle one was soft soil layer with
a thickness of 5.4 m. The consolidated deformation was
expected to occur in the soft soil. The precise parameters of
embankment and ground are given in Figure 7.
The safety from bearing capacity failure is expressed by
P/A  qult/F, where qult is the ultimate bearing capacity of
the foundation, P is the structural loads at the footing level,
A is the footing area, and F is the appropriate safety factor
that accounts for the uncertainties involved in the determin-
ation of the total load (P) and the ultimate bearing capacity
(Manjriker 2006). This study focused on the safety factor of
subsoil under an embankment not on the bearing capacity
value of subsoil. A finite element method with u, c – reduc-
tion technique was carried out with the PLAXIS program to
implement the task setup. To evaluate the quantitative
change of the safety factor of bearing capacity, the gradient
of the “safety factor–salinity” function DFs was used. This
function is expressed by the following equation:
Fs;i Fs;i1
DFs ¼ (4)
Sa;i  Sa;i1
where the index i is a serial step of calculation and corre-
sponds to a given value of salinity Sa and safety factor Fs.
Determination of additional parameters for modeling
The 1D consolidation test was precisely and carefully exe-
cuted. To a certain extent, permeability of the studied soils
can be indirectly determined from coefficient of consolida-
tion. Equation (5), which is the definition of consolidation
8 N. T. NGUYEN ET AL.
Figure 9. Diffraction diagrams of pattern saturated by ethylene glycol (YS site):
raw pattern (Sa ¼ 0.0 g/L) and treated pattern (Sa ¼ 9.9, 19.8, 33.0 g/L).
coefficient, is appropriate to define the calculated permeabil-
ity coefficient of those soils. It is useful for finite element
method analysis. Nevertheless, only the permeability of soils
in GL2 and HD1 was considered
k Fundamental properties
Cv ¼
mv :qw
where k is coefficient of permeability, qw is the density of
water, mv is coefficient of volume compressibility and deter-
mined from consolidation test data.
Parallel to the consolidation test, the direct shear test was
also performed with the similar sample set. This test was to
determine shear strength parameters of the salt-affected
cohesive soils, which was used for modelling analysis.
However, direct shear test was not conducted on all soil
samples. Only the cohesive soil in GL2 and HD1 sites were
measured for the strength parameters of c and u.
Results
Clay mineral composition of cohesive soil in
saline media
The clay mineral composition of cohesive soils in the RRD
was investigated after processing with saline solution. The
XRD analytical results indicate that the common point of
the experimented soils is the domination of illite (from 15
to 29%), followed by kaolinite (up to 27%) and chlorite (up
to 10%). The swelling clay mineral of montmorillonite
appears in a small rate (approximately 5–8% in maximum)
and in a negligible rate at some places (under 1%). The
quantitatively prevailing non-clay minerals include quartz,
feldspar, goethite, and some other minerals with low con-
tent. The clay mineral composition of the soils stated above
Table 3. Average value of fundamental properties of the studied soils.
Parameter Value
Moisture content (%) 47.26
Specific gravity 2.61
Unit weight (kN/m3) 18.5
Liquid limit (%) 45.68
Plastic limit (%) 27.33
Organic matter content (%) 9.11
truly reflects the formation condition of sediment in the
lacustrine and shallow sea environment.
Figure 8 shows the representative diffraction diagrams of
the soils taken into account. The raw and treated patterns
show similar XRD spectrum. There is almost no change in
the content and composition of the minerals of cohesive
soils before and after saline intrusion. The similar results are
found for clay minerals after removing absorbed water layer
by centrifuge apparatus. In other testing batches, the clay
mineral component in the specimens is separated by gravity
settling and saturated with ethylene glycol. The XRD ana-
lysis of patterns shows similar results. The transformation of
clay minerals in the treated samples is unobserved by the
XRD analysis (Figure 9). These results agree well with the
findings of Van Hoorn and Van Alphen (1994) and Mitchell
and Soga (2005), among others.
Physical properties of the RRD soil in salt-
affected conditions
(5) The experiments for determining the physical properties of
cohesive soil were conducted for all the studied soil samples.
The derived results comprised moisture content, unit weight,
specific gravity, consistency limits, and organic matter con-
tent, which were then used for evaluating other characteris-
tics of soils including their behavior with salt. Table 3 shows
the average value of those parameters.
The studied soils in natural state were wet and rich in
organic matter. Their moisture and organic matter contents
were 47.26 and 9.11%, respectively. The values of specific
gravity and unit weight were at around 2.61 and 18.5 kN/
m3, respectively.
Zeta potential
The experimental results show that the zeta potential on the
surface of clay particles increases significantly with the salin-
ity of solution. This finding indicates that high values of
zeta potential correspond to high salinities. The zeta poten-
tial increases quickly with the highest level from 600 to
230 mV when salinity increases from 0.0 to 9.9 g/L. In this
period, the reaction between saline solution and clay particle
occurs intensively. The value of the potential continuously
increases to an asymptotic value of 0.0 mV but in a slow
level when salinity is high. As salinity increases from 9.9 to
19.8 g/L, the zeta potential of clay rises to 100 mV, which
can be considered as a transitional stage. This value grows
slowly at approximately 40 mV when the salinity of

Figure 10. Average line of zeta potential of clay mineral surface of the RRD
soils versus salinity.
Figure 11. Relationship between transmission coefficient T (%) and times (s).
solution reaches 33.0 g/L. At this stage, the reaction moves
toward equilibrium.
Figure 10 shows the average zeta potential of the RRD
soils versus salinity. The change in zeta potential of clay par-
ticle right when the soil is exposed with saline solution is
rapid. Then, the change becomes slow as the salt concentra-
tion of solution increases. This finding is caused by the neu-
tralization process of negatively charged ions on the surface
of clay minerals by the positively charged cation in the
saline solution, for example, Naþ. The pH value at the end
of experiment is obtained as 7, thereby reducing the electro-
static repulsion between clay particles. Therefore, the par-
ticles gather together and may form largely sized particles to
gradual settlement.
Settlement velocity
In all experiments, a clear difference in the transmittance
of light ray through the mixed solution is observed when
clay powder is stirred in the solution of different salt con-
centrations. When the light ray passes through the mixed
solution with 0% salinity, the transmittance is very low. By
contrast, the transmittance improves significantly when
the light ray passes through the saline solution. In other
words, the settlement velocity of clay particle is fast when
salt exists in solution. This phenomenon can be recognized
by the naked eyes as present in Figure 6. When salt is
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 9
Figure 12. Deformation curves of salt-affected soils in the RRD (Sa
means salinity).
present in the solution with a concentration of 9.9 g/L, the
clay particle is suddenly settled. However, when salinity is
high, the change becomes slow. This result is also found
for natural conditions, for example, freshwater from inland
area flowing in the river to the sea. At the river mouth,
fluvial water of around 0.0 g/L is stirred with seawater.
The flocculation of clay particles occurs suddenly as two
water blocks meet each other. This condition is dominant
in estuaries rather than in offshore areas. This finding is
in accordance with the results of previous studies, for
example, Allen and Posamentier (1993), Guan, Kot, and
Wolanski (2005), Hauck et al. (2009), and Sutherland,
Barrett, and Gingras (2015).
Figure 11 shows the obtained results of transmission coeffi-
cient T (%) over times (s). The settlement characteristics of
soil particles fluctuate during the early stage of measurement.
This fluctuation is expressed by the zigzag curves in the time
interval from 0 to 5000 s. Thereafter, the curves become
smooth, which indicates a stable settlement regime. The trans-
mission value of salt-affected specimens is higher than that of
non-saline soils. Evidently, the transmission of soil specimens
saturated in the saline water of a concentration of 33.0 g/L
reaches more than 80% in 30,000 s. This value is only near 2%
for soil specimen that is saturated with pure water. The
increase in the settlement velocity of clay particles in saline
solution is also in agreement with the zeta potential of clay
mineral versus salinity mentioned above. The purpose of
settlement velocity in this test is different from that of the test
to plot the grain size distribution curve.
Deformation of cohesive soil in salt-affected conditions
Stress–strain and deformation modulus
The consolidation test was simultaneously executed in four
apparatuses corresponding to four salt concentrations, that
is, 0.0, 9.9, 19.8, and 33.0 g/L. The deformation, e (%), of
soils is denoted by the correlative curve of specimen settle-
ment by time with pressure range. Figure 12 shows the
10 N. T. NGUYEN ET AL.

Figure 13. Deformation modulus, E0, versus pressure stages of silty clay (HD1 and HK) and clay (GL2 and YS).

representative plot of the stress–strain relation (r’, e), which

reflects the deformation of soils saturated with four salt con-
centrations. The deformation of these soils is proportional
to the concentration of salt in the saturated solution. It
increases as salinity increases from 0.0 to 33.0 g/L in the fol-
lowing order; deformation becomes small when soils are
saturated by pure water and then reaches a high value when
salinity is equivalent to seawater, that is, equal to 33.0 g/L.
In the strain–stress plot, the curve of Sa ¼ 0.0 g/L is always
located at the top whereas the curve of Sa ¼ 33.0 is located
at the bottom. The curves of 9.9 and 19.8 g/L are located at
intermediate positions.
The increase in deformation depends not only on salinity
but also on pressure range. At pressure stages of 25, 50, and
100 kPa, the distinction among the deformation curves of
different salt concentrations is negligible even if the curves
are tangled in the first stage. When pressure is over 100 kPa, Figure 14. Change in deformation modulus at pressure stage between 100 and
200 kPa versus salinity of clayey soils in the RRD.
the difference becomes significant. At a pressure of 200 kPa,
the deformation growth rates of specimens at salinities 9.9,
19.8, and 33.0 g/L compared with the original case are 3.1, The result of 1D consolidation test provides the parame-
7.8, and 10.8%, respectively; the increase rates are 2.9, 10.5, ters for calculating the deformation modulus (Equation 3).
and 13.0% at a pressure of 400 kPa. The variation in this module versus pore water salinity of
 MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 11

Table 4. Properties of the soil at site HD1. corresponding to four salt concentrations cross one another.
Silty clay (HD1) The deformation moduli of four salt-affected soils do not
Parameter Dimension Sa ¼ 0.0 g/L Sa ¼ 9.9 g/L Sa ¼ 19.8 g/L Sa ¼ 33.0 g/L follow any order. Discrepancies arise and become increas-
c kN/m3 18.20 18.12 17.95 18.08 ingly apparent as compression pressure becomes increasingly
e0 – 0.996 0.999 1.027 1.037 high. From pressure levels of 100  400 kPa, the changing
u deg. 12.42 11.97 11.53 10.93
C kPa 14.72 13.92 13.13 12.07
rule is coherently established. The deformation modulus
Eoed kPa 3717 3515 3390 3234 curves corresponding to small salt concentrations show less
 – 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 deformation and are located at the top. Meanwhile, the
Cc kPa–1 0.179 0.189 0.199 0.209
k  105 m/day 5.79 5.31 5.20 4.99
curves corresponding to high salt concentrations exhibit sig-
nificant deformation and lie at the bottom.
The general modulus value of a soil type is the deform-
Table 5. Properties of the soil at site GL2. ation modulus at a pressure stage from 100 to 200 kPa. The
Clay (GL2) value is shown on the small graph in each soil type in
Parameter Dimension Sa ¼ 0.0 g/L Sa ¼ 9.9 g/L Sa ¼ 19.8 g/L Sa ¼ 33.0 g/L Figure 13. In fact, linear lines in the four small graphs are
c kN/m3 19.20 19.15 19.19 19.10 the lines that appeared in Figure 14. They are given again to
e0 – 0.824 0.825 0.831 0.846 illustrate the general modulus values in a range of salinities.
u deg. 3.50 3.31 3.12 2.87
C kPa 32.47 31.20 29.94 28.25
From the graphs, the curves are found to fall into two
Eoed kPa 4742 4495 4256 3992 separate groups. The first group is composed of curves with
 – 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 shape of branch of hyperbola. The deformation modulus
Cc kPa-1 0.128 0.135 0.143 0.154
k  10–5 m/day 1.01 0.950 0.959 0.942
reduces gradually as compression pressure increases from 25
to 400 kPa. This group represents the clay samples. The
second group is composed of zigzag curves. After the first
level of compression load, that is, 25 kPa, deformation
modulus rises to the next pressure level, that is, 50 kPa,
before gradually decreasing with the increase in load from
100 to 400 kPa. This group represents the silty clay samples.
The deformation modulus curves against pressure stages of
all silty clay samples are in such zigzag form.
In general, the obtained results of the deformation modu-
lus of cohesive soils in the RRD are small. The moduli last
from over 1000 kPa to under 3200 kPa. The largest values of
E0 are at a salinity of 0.0 g/L or when soils are saturated
with pure water. The smallest values are at soils fully satu-
rated by a saline solution of 33.0 g/L. The deformation
modulus of all soil samples decreases. The changing trend of
E0 present in Figure 14 denotes a good linear reduction
through four salt concentrations. The significant change in
modulus is reflected by the slope of the trend lines.
Therefore, the deformation modulus of the studied soils
decreases after saturation with saline water.
A comparison between the change in modulus against
salinities among Sa ¼ 0.0–9.9, 0.0–19.8, and 0.0–33.0 g/L was
Figure 15. Model of 1D consolidation analysis. conducted to obtain a quantitative assessment. The results
show that the variation in modulus when salinity changes
from 0.0 to 9.9 g/L is the smallest, but it also increases by
salt-affected soils helps define the behavior, particularly the
14.5% in maximum. The variation is 16.8% when salinity
deformation, of the studied soils in saline media.
reaches 19.8 g/L and is more than 22% when salinity reaches
Deformation modulus is assumed to be constant during a
33.0 g/L. The changes are small in the D5 and HD sites. The
loading interval but depends on the level of stress in soil.
change in deformation modulus confirms the increase in the
Therefore, in this research, the variation in deformation of deformation of soils as a result of saline intrusion.
salt-affected soils was firstly investigated in the range of
pressure stages. Particularly, this research clarified the
deformation characteristics of clay and silty clay, which is Deformation of an assumed salt-affected subsoil
shown in Figure 13. Settlement estimation for an embankment with a subsoil
Similar to the four stress–strain curves of soils saturated intruded by different salt concentrations was conducted to
by four salt concentrations as mentioned above, the intersec- investigate the deformation in salt-affected soils. The soil
tion curves are very tangled at the early stage of the types mentioned above were assumed to be intruded by
compression process. At pressure levels of 25 and 50 kPa, saline water with salt concentrations similar to those in the
they do not separate clearly. Specifically, the curves laboratory. The properties of the soils taken into account are
12 N. T. NGUYEN ET AL.
Figure 16. Relationship between salt concentrations and pore water pressure and settlement over time: (a) silty clay of the Hoai Duc-1 (HD1) site; (b) clay of the
Yen So (YS) site.
shown in Tables 4 and 5. In these tables, shear strength
parameters of c, u and the coefficient of permeability, k, are
restrictively determined for HD1 and GL2 only; the values
of Eoed is specified for the range of compressive pressure
between 100 and 200 kPa. The soil’s properties express their
changing trend with increasing of the salinity.
The assumed embankment in the field (Figure 7) was
investigated by conducting a full coupled consolidation ana-
lysis with the linear theory of Biot (1941, 1956) using a
finite element method through the GeoStudio program. The
finite element equilibrium and the flow equations were sim-
ultaneously solved using a backward difference scheme for
the time integration (Mihova and Truc 2016). The width of
the embankment was over four times as great as the thick-
ness of the soft soil layer; thus, the model of 1D
consolidation analysis could be applied (Schlosser 1973). A
5.4-m high soil column with a structural load of 100 kPa,
which was modelled by eight-node quadrilateral finite ele-
ments, was considered as in Figure 15. The limit of horizon-
tal node displacements and the zero value of excess pore
pressure on the top and bottom surfaces of column were
specified as the boundary conditions. The changes in settle-
ment and pore water pressure in soil column over time
were computed.
The obtained results are typical for any vertical cross sec-
tion of subsoil under the embankment. The results were
expressed through the relationship among salt concentra-
tions, dissipation of pore water pressure, and settlement
over time. Although soil samples in the sites were consid-
ered, the derived results in Figure 16 are shown only for the

Figure 17. Trend of settlement due to saline intrusion.
clay case of the YS site and silty-clay case of the HD1 site as
representative ones. From the plots, the saline intrusion
processes are found to increase the compressibility of soil.
This effect in clay is greater than that in silty clay. The dif-
ference in the total consolidation settlement values between
Sa ¼ 0.0 g/L and Sa ¼ 100% are 29 and 23% for the clay of
the YS site and the silty clay of the HD1 site.
Salinity also exerts a significant effect on the dissipation
of pore water in subsoil. The obtained results show that the
pore water pressure increases from subsoil intruded by salt-
water from 0.0 g/L up to 9.9, 19.8, and 33.0 g/L. This finding
means that the time of consolidation increases proportion-
ally with salinity in subsoil. The consolidation time of clay
subsoil is also much longer than that of silty clay case. This
result is related to the amount of clay particle in these soils.
The settlement of subsoil under pressure of the embank-
ment is also proportional to the salinity of the compressible
soil layer. Therefore, the increase in subsoil settlement
occurs as the salinity of the compressible layer increases.
This point agrees with the change in deformation modulus
derived from the laboratory and the facts mentioned above.
The computed settlements of the embankment assumed for
all soils mentioned above are shown in Figure 17. In this
plot, an increase in the subsidence of different subsoil types
can be easily recognized using the trend lines. The subsoil of
the HD2, BM, GL1, GL2, and YS sites present the largest
settlement. In subsoil with salinities of 9.9, 19.8, and 33.0 g/
L, the maximum settlement values compared with the base-
line are 8.7, 18.8, and 28.6%, respectively; meanwhile, the
minimum values of 3.2, 5.3, and 8.5% are encountered in
the D5 site.
Bearing capacity analysis of an assumed embankment
on salt-affected subsoil
The bearing capacity analysis of the assumed embankment
as mentioned above was carried out with the shear strength
reduction method. The analysis was conducted for two
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 13
Figure 18. Failure mechanism of the embankment subsoil identified by the dis-
placement rate: (a) at initial time t ¼ t0 (undrained); (b) at time t ¼
t100 (drained).
limited cases of the consolidation model of Biot, that is, at
the beginning of the consolidation (t0) when the subsoil
presents undrained behavior and at the end of the consoli-
dation (t100) when the subsoil exhibits drained behavior.
The safety factors, Fs, of ultimate bearing capacity were
obtained for the cohesive soil layers of subsoil at the HD1
and GL2 sites. The factors were computed for four cases of
salinity, that is, Sa ¼ 0.0, 9.9, 19.8, and 33.0 g/L.
Figure 18 shows the graphical images of computation for
demonstrating the failure mechanism. This mechanism is
represented by the total displacement rate of soil. The failure
mechanisms of subsoil at the HD1 and GL2 sites are identi-
cal. Sliding surfaces with a circle form are developed under
the edges of the embankment load, where the highest hori-
zontal displacements are realized. The sliding surface at
drained conditions is deeper and wider than that at
undrained conditions. They spread in depth by the half
thickness of the cohesive layer.
Figure 19 expresses safety factor of bearing capacity for
the subsoil in the HD1 and GL2. The analytical results show
that the safety factor of undrained bearing capacity of sub-
soil at the HD1 site varies between 0.98 and 1.17 and that of
drained bearing capacity is in the range of 1.41–1.62. For
the subsoil at the GL2 site, the analogous safety factors are
in the ranges of 1.66–1.91 and 1.76–2.04. The lowest values
of safety factor correspond to the highest values of salinity.
The increase in salinity from 0.0 to 33.0 g/L causes the
decrease in the safety factor of bearing capacity. For the sub-
soil at the HD1 site, the maximum reduction in Fs is 16% at
Sa ¼ 33.0 g/L and undrained conditions. In the case of drain
conditions, the corresponding value is 13%. For the subsoil
at the GL2 site, the maximum reduction in Fs is around
13% for the undrained and drained conditions.
The quantitative change of the safety factor of bearing
capacity is expressed by Equation (4). The estimation results,
which are shown in Tables 6 and 7, indicate that the safety
factor–salinity functions are approximately linear for all var-
iants of analysis. The gradients of these functions are close
to constant over the entire range of salinity. The results
show 10% higher values of the gradient of the “safety
factor–salinity” function at the drained condition than those
at the undrained condition on average. The conclusions are
also true for the subsoil at the HD1 and GL2 sites. The
14 N. T. NGUYEN ET AL.

Figure 19. Safety factor of bearing capacity for the subsoil in the HD1 and GL2 sites at undrained and drained conditions (time t ¼ t0 and t ¼ t100).

Table 6. Safety factor of bearing capacity for the subsoil at the HD1 site (mark “” means decrease).
t ¼ t0 t ¼ t100
Fs ðt100 Þ
Salinity (Sa, g/L) Fs DFs (%) per 1 g/L DFs,0 (%) Fs DFs (%) per 1 g/L DFs,0 (%) Fs ðt0 Þ
0.0 1.17   1.62   1.39
9.9 1.11 0.60 5.05 1.56 0.65 3.94 1.41
19.8 1.05 0.58 9.93 1.50 0.65 7.88 1.42
33.0 0.98 0.56 16.27 1.41 0.65 13.19 1.44

Table 7. Safety factor of bearing capacity for the subsoil at the GL2 site (mark “” means decrease).
t ¼ t0 t ¼ t100
Fs ðt100 Þ
Salinity (Sa, g/L) Fs DFs (%) per 1 g/L DFs,0 (%) Fs DFs (%) per 1 g/L DFs,0 (%) Fs ðt0 Þ
0.0 1.91   2.04   1.07
9.9 1.84 0.77 3.97 1.96 0.85 4.11 1.07
19.8 1.76 0.76 7.90 1.88 0.82 8.08 1.07
33.0 1.66 0.77 13.23 1.76 0.86 13.61 1.06

gradient reduces from 0.56 to 0.65% for each 1.0 g/L salt
concentration for the silty-clay subsoil at the HD1 site and
from 0.76 to 0.86% for the clay subsoil at the GL2 site.
The ratio between the safety factor in the drained and
undrained conditions was also analyzed. The ratio for the
subsoil at the HD1 site is approximately 1.4 whereas that at
the GL2 site reaches only 1.07. The significant difference in
the safety factor increases at the end of consolidation at the
HD1 and GL2 sites and is due to the considerable difference
between the shear strength parameters of the soil at these
sites. The silty clay at the HD1 site possesses a small cohe-
sion and friction angle, and its strength is greatly influenced
by excess pore pressure. The clay at the GL2 site possesses a
very low friction angle and high cohesion, which are influ-
enced by the pore pressure on the shear strength of soil.
Consequently, the consolidation process at the GL2 site does
not considerably reflect the bearing capacity of the subsoil.
Discussion
The changes in the characteristics of soil are thought to be
involved in the chemical–physical interaction between clay
minerals in soil and dissolved salt in water. Therefore, the dis-
cussion will focus on clarifying that relationship to explain the
changes in the fundamental properties including zeta potential
and settlement velocity, particularly increase in deformation
and decrease in bearing capacity of the salt-affected subsoil.
As dissolved salt exists in subsoil, several chemical reac-
tions occur (e.g. the reaction equations below). The dehy-
drated reactions of newly generated salt occur and increase
the content of [OH], thereby increasing the pH degree in soil
solution. The said reactions also generate gelatinizing substan-
ces (viscous). When seawater continues to be supplied, the
content of dissolved salt in soil solution increases. The inter-
action between gelatinizing substance and clay particles con-
tinues. This substance is in a micro-meter size and functions
as a lubricating material. Once the above-mentioned reactions
proceed, new gelatinizing substance is generated continuously.
The old one is saturated by the positively charged ions and its
texture is destroyed. Positively charged ions in soil solution is
increasingly provided. Negatively charged ions are neutralized
significantly, thereby degrading the electrical static force of
adherence among clay particles. Consequently, soil loses its
own cohesive property. These processes occur to a level. As a
result, the negatively charged ions are nearly nuetralized and
positively charged ions, for example, Naþ, Kþ, and Ca2þ,
become redundant, are crystallized, and adhere to clay par-
ticles. The increase in Na2CO3 and OH as the products of
the reaction increases the pH degree of soil solution. The pH
value reaches over 9.0 and disperses the clay. Soil textures are
 MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 15

broken and becomes non-texture. These processes contribute concentration reduces the surface potential with the constant
to the change in the soil properties mentioned above (Lan surface charge condition, and the decay of potential with
2002) distance is rapid. The diffuse layer becomes thin, and the
Clay þ Naþ þ Kþ þ Cl ! ClayNaþ þ ClayKþ þ ClayCl midplane concentration and electrical potential for interact-
ing parallel plates (clay particles) at a given spacing decrease
ClayNaþ þ CO2 þ H2 O ! ClayHþ þ Na2 CO3 as concentration increases. Thus, the interparticle repulsive
forces decrease (Mitchell and Soga 2005). The electrostatic
þ
ClayK þ CO2 þ H2 O ! ClayH þ K2 CO3 þ interaction of negatively charged layer around clay particle
and positively charged layer in saline water results in neu-
ClayAl3þ þ Hþ þ OH ! ClayHþ þ AlðOHÞ3 tralizing the charge of clay minerals in salt-affected media.
Naþ þ Kþ þ CO3 2 þ H2 O ! ðNa; KÞHCO3 þ OH This phenomenon and the decrease in interparticle repulsive
forces are the main reasons for the degradation of soil.
In terms of mineralogy and microstructure, all the soils
Especially, reduction of the repulsive forces among particles
are dominated mainly by illite mineral, followed by kaolinite
is one of the main causes bringing about increasing settle-
and chlorite. The rate of clay mineral of montmorillonite is
ment velocity of the soil solution. Visual images of deter-
small and even negligible in several places. Apart from these
mination test of transmission coefficient by cuvette showed
clay minerals, mixed-layer minerals are also found in the
this. Testing values also indicated that the transmission coef-
soils. These mixed-layer clays are mainly illite-vermiculite,
illite-smectite, chlorite-smectite, and kaolinite-smectite. The ficient was higher in specimens with greater salinity.
dominating non-clay minerals are quartz and goethite as a On the one hand, expandable clay hydrates because the
result of inert chemical reaction. This reaction barely affects dipolar water molecule is attracted by the diffuse double
the properties of salt-affected soils (Kirov and Truc 2012). layer in the clay particle. On the other hand, the dehydra-
Kaolinite particles are positively charged on their edges tion process occurs in expandable clay particle owing to
in a low pH environment but are negatively charged in a dipolar water molecule being attracted by ions of Naþ and

high-pH (basic) environment. Under normal conditions, Cl in saline solution. These hydration, dehydration, and
kaolinite minerals are not expandable (Kleven and Alstad degradation processes occur in the salt-affected specimens.
1996). Chlorite and illite minerals present similar aspects However, the hydration process is slow and weak because
with each other. Their cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the soils are nearly saturated by the non-saline groundwater
from 10 meq/100 g to 40 meq/100 g, and their specific sur- in the field. The dehydration and degradation processes pre-
face area is approximate together (10–55 and 10–100 m2/g). dominate in salt-affected soils. This predominance is
Montmorillonite exhibits strong swelling capability and expressed by the change in the properties of the soil tested
increases the surface area and CEC. Among the four major in the laboratory, which include moisture content, unit
clay minerals mentioned above, montmorillonite possesses weight, specific gravity, etc.
the largest CEC and the most specific surface area but the Salt-affected soils undergo changes in volume related to
weakest bonds between layers. The mixed-layer clay miner- dehydration phenomena. The investigation results of some
als of smectite group, which come from natural environ- cohesive soils in Hanoi showing that, after being affected by
ments ranging from surface to low-grade metamorphic and saline solution, water content and bulk density decreased.
hydrothermal conditions, can promote the swelling potential The coefficient of volume compressibility mv is increased.
of the cohesive soils in Hanoi. Swelling clay minerals present The dehydration phenomenon and the degradation of soils
insufficiently strong chemical bond, large CEC, and large change the properties of the salt-affected soils of Hanoi; spe-
specific surface area. Although the amount of montmorillon- cifically, deformation modulus and coefficient of consolida-
ite in some sites is negligible, the presence of montmorillon- tion decrease, whereas the compressibility index, coefficient
ite and mixed-layer clay minerals of smectite in soil of volume compressibility, and secondary compression index
enhances the expandable capacity of soil, which directly increase (Truc and Mihova 2015).
affects the deformation and bearing capacity of subsoil. In this research, soil saturation by saline water takes at
In the salt-affected media, soil properties depend on the least 10 days and consolidation experiment takes 6 days.
type of clay minerals present in soil. Soils rich in clay min- Such time may be insufficient for the completion of the
erals of allophane, clay minerals originated from weathering reaction between clay minerals and salt in artificial seawater.
2þ Accordingly, changing the clay minerals in the soil is diffi-
of bedrock (e.g. kaolinite), or carbonates (e.g. Ca and
2þ
Mg ) exhibit positively improved properties in saline water. cult. Carretero et al. (2007) explored clay minerals processed
Inversely, soils rich in montmorillonite, illite, and chlorite with seawater for up to 120 days and found no mineral-
present mostly degraded properties in saline water (Gbenga, ogical change but observed differences in crystallite size and
Oluwole, and Shodolapo 2009; Germanov and Kirov 1985; basal spacing. The current results agree well with the find-
Eggestad and Sem 1976). The Hanoi’s cohesive soils contain ings of previous work. In particular, no change in clay min-
expandable clay minerals (Kirov and Truc 2012). Thus, the eral composition is found while soil is intensively deformed
negative change in soil deformation and bearing capacity in by the existence of salt.
this study is consistent with that of the previous studies. Earth works, for example, sea dyke, river dyke, road
Electrolyte concentration in saline solution is higher than embankment, and civil constructions, in the coastal areas of
that in pure water solution. The increase in electrolyte the RRD are the most affected objects under saline-intruded
16 N. T. NGUYEN ET AL.
conditions. Once saline intrusion occurs, salt reacts with the
clay minerals in the soil. As a result, the properties of the
subsoil (e.g. the decrease in deformation modulus and the
increase in time of consolidation) change. These changes
influence the bearing capacity and stability of the construc-
tions above the soil.
This study only focuses on young sediment belonging to
Thai Binh formation in the RRD, particularly cohesive soils
in Hanoi area. The studied soils have much in common.
Other coastal soil types of different formations, which have
different age, state, mineral composition, etc., have not been
investigated. Under the same saline intrusion conditions
associated with sea level rise, changes in the properties of
these soils may be different either negative, constant, or
positive. Therefore, more research is needed for coastal soils
in the world in general and in Vietnam in particular under
saline conditions. The studied results will be very important
for the development of coastal infrastructure in the context
of rising sea levels today.
Conclusions
This study investigated the change in the properties of cohe-
sive soils in the RRD under saline intrusion conditions and
illustrated the impacts of sea level rise on climate change.
Several laboratory experiments on undisturbed soil samples
were conducted and numerical models on assumed embank-
ment were established to clarify the study questions. The fol-
lowing conclusions were obtained from the test results.
1. Nearly no change in the content and composition of
the minerals of cohesive soils is observed before and
after saline intrusion. The same result is found for clay
after removing absorbed water layer by centri-
fuge apparatus.
2. The physical properties, for example, zeta potential and
settlement velocity, of the RRD soils vary relatively pro-
portionally in saline media. The value of the parameters
increases when salt is added to the saturated solution.
Although the variation is nonlinear, the change follows
the trend of a forward curve. The changes are attributed
to the interaction and charge neutralization properties
of clay particles in saline solution.
3. Saline intrusion in the RRD area softens the subsoil,
that is, the deformation of the investigated soils is
proportional to the increase in the salinity in satu-
rated solution or pore water. When the salinity of
saturated solution reaches to the value of seawater,
the deformation modulus of soils can decrease by
22%. The decrease in deformation modulus over sal-
inities is nearly consistent for pressure stages in a sta-
ble period of consolidation, that is, from 100 to
400 kPa. The safety factor of bearing capacity (or total
strength reduction factor, DFs) decreases linearly with
salinities from 3.8% to 5.1% (when Sa ¼ 9.9 g/L) to
12.5% to 16.3% (when Sa ¼ 33.0g/L). This factor is
lower in the undrained condition (at the beginning of
consolidation) than in the drained condition (at the
end of consolidation).
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This research was funded by the Vietnam National Foundation for
Science and Technology Development (NAFOSTED) under grant num-
ber 105.08-2014.45.
References
Allen, G. P., and H. W. Posamentier. 1993. Sequence Stratigraphy and
Facies Model of An Incised Valley Fill: The Gironde Estuary,
France. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 63 (3): 378–391. Retrieved
from http://jsedres.geoscienceworld.org/archive/.
Al-Shamrani, M. A., and A. W. Dhowian. 1997. Preloading for
Reduction of Compressibility Characteristics of Sabkha Soil Profiles.
Engineering Geology 48 (1–2): 19–41. doi:10.1016/S0013-
7952(97)81912-6.
Azam, S. 2000. Collapse and Compressibility Behavior of Arid
Calcareous Soil Formations. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the
Environment 59 (3): 211–217. doi:10.1007/s100640000060.
Biot, M. A. 1956. General Solutions of the Equations of Elasticity and
Consolidation for a Porous Material. Journal of Applied Mechanics
23: 91–96.
Biot, M. A. 1941. General Theory of Three-Dimensional Consolidation.
Journal of Applied Physics 12 (2): 155–164. doi:10.1063/1.1712886.
Brouchkov, A. 2003. Frozen Saline Soils of The Arctic Coast: Their
Distribution and Engineering Properties. In The 8th International
Conference on Permafrost, ed. Phillips, Springman, and Arenson,
95–100. Zurich: A.A. Balkema. Retrieved from http://research.iarc.
uaf.edu/nicop/dvd/icop%202003%20Permafrost/Pdf/Chapter_018.pdf
Carretero, M. I., M. Pozo, C. Sanchez, et al. 2007. Comparison of
Saponite and Montmorillonite Behaviour During Static and Stirring
Maturation with Seawater for Pelotherapy. Applied Clay Science 36
(1–2): 161–173. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2006.05.010.
Con, P. M., N. M. Khai, P. Q. Ha, et al. 2013. Nghi^en cứu ch^at lượng
'c ma: t khu vực n^
nư o o: i thanh Ha n^
o: i [Research on Surface Water
Quality in Urban Area of Hanoi City]. VNU Journal of Science:
Natural Sciences and Technology 29 (3S): 24–30. Retrieved from
https://js.vnu.edu.vn/NST/.
Dhowian, A. W. 1991. Secondary Compression of Sabkha “Saline”
Soils. Engineering Geology 30 (2): 155–169. doi:10.1016/0013-
7952(91)90041-I.
Eggestad, A., and H. Sem. 1976. Stability of Excavations Improved by
Salt Diffusion from Deep Wells. In Proceedings of the 6th European
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 211–216.
Vienna, Austria: ISSMFE Austrian National Committee.
Gbenga, M. A., A. A. Oluwole, and O. F. Shodolapo. 2009. Influence of
Calcium Sulphate on Subsoil Cohesion and Angle of Friction.
Journal of Applied Sciences Research 5 (3): 297–304. Retrieved from
http://www.journals.wsrpublishing.com/index.php/tjasr.
Germanov, T., and B. Kirov. 1985. Influence of Waste Waters on Soil
Consolidation. In Proceedings of the 11th International Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (ICSMFE),
2407–2409. San Francisco: A.A. Balkema.
Guan, W. B., S. C. Kot, and E. Wolanski. 2005. 3-D Fluid–Mud
Dynamics in the Jiaojiang Estuary, China. Estuarine, Coastal and
Shelf Science 65 (4): 747–762. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2005.05.017.
Hauck, T. E., S. E. Dashtgard, S. G. Pemberton, et al. 2009. Brackish-
Water Ichnological Trends in a Microtidal Barrier Island-
Embayment System, Kouchibouguac National Park, New Brunswick,
Canada. Palaios 24 (8): 478–496. doi:10.2110/palo.2008.p08-056r.

Kirov, B. L., and N. N. Truc. 2012. A Study on the Relationship
Between Geotechnical Properties and Clay Mineral Composition of
Hanoi Soft Soils in Saline Media. International Journal of Civil
Engineering 10 (2): 87–92. Retrieved from http://ijce.iust.ac.ir/art-
icle-1-594-en.html.
Kirov, B. 1989. Influence of Waste Waters on Soil Deformation. In
Proceedings, the 12th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering (ICSMFE), 1881–1882. Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil: A.A. Balkema.
Kleven, R., and J. Alstad. 1996. Interaction of Alkali, Alkaline-Earth
and Sulphate Ions with Clay Minerals and Sedimentary Rocks.
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 15 (2–4): 181–200. doi:
10.1016/0920-4105(95)00085-2.
Komine, H. 2007a. Vulnerability of Riverbank Material by Sea-Level
Rising Due to Global Warming in Japan. The 2nd Malaysia-Japan
symposium on geohazards and geoenvironmental engineering. City
Bayview Hotel, Langkawi, Malaysia, November.
Komine, H. 2007b. Changes of Fundamental Properties of Riverbank
Material by Sea-Level Rising Due to Global Warming. The 1st int.
symposium on mitigation and adaptation of climate-change-induce
natural disasters. Hue city, Vietnam, September.
Ky, H. N. 1978. D - a: c d-iểm chınh của d-ịa ch^at D
- ^e: Tứ ở d-^ong bằng bac
B^o: : Baœn d-^o d-ịa ch^at [Main features of quaternary geology in the bac
Bo plain: Geological map]. Hanoi: Geological Mapping Division.
Lan, T. V. 2002. Nghi^en cứu œanh hưởng m^ oi trư ờng ma: n va nhi~^em
ma: n d-^en sự ổn d-ịnh va bi^en da: ng của n^en c^ ong trınh x^ay dựng
[Influence of Saline Environment and Saline Intrusion on Stability
and Deformation of Foundation of Construction]. Doctoral diss.,
National library of Vietnam (LA02.0784.3).
Manjriker, G. 2006. The Foundation Engineering Handbook. Bosa Roca:
Taylor & Francis Inc.
Mihova, L. A., and N. N. Truc. 2016. Bearing Capacity Analysis of
Hanoi Soft Ground Improved With Reinforced Foundation Pad.
Engineering Sciences (Journal of Department “Engineering Sciences”
at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences), LIII 1/2016: 50–66. Retrieved
from http://old.bas.bg/journals-%D0%BEf-bas/engineering-sciences
Mihova, L. A., and N. N. Truc. 2015. Study of Deformation of Salt-
Affected Soils by FEM, A Case Study of Soft Soil in the Red River
Delta, Vietnam. In The 16th European Conf. on Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering, ed. M. G. Winter, D. M. Smith, P. J. L.
Eldred, and D. G. Toll, 4014–4018. Edinburgh: ICE Publishing. doi:
10.1680/ecsmge.60678.vol7.634.
Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment. 2009. Climate Change,
Sea Level Rise Scenarios for Vietnam. Hanoi: Vietnam Publishing
House of Natural Resources, Environment and Cartography.
Retrieved from https://www.preventionweb.net/files/11348_
ClimateChangeSeaLevelScenariosforVi.pdf.
Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment. 2016. Climate Change,
Sea Level Rise Scenarios for Vietnam. Hanoi: Vietnam Publishing
House of Natural Resources, Environment and Cartography.
Retrieved from http://www.imh.ac.vn/files/doc/2017/CCS%20final.
compressed.pdf.
Mitchell, J. K., and K. Soga. 2005. Fundamentals of Soil Behavior. 3rd
ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Mori, Y., K. Togashi, and K. Nakamura. 2001. Colloidal Properties of
Synthetic Hectorite Clay Dispersion Measured by Dynamic Light
Scattering and Small Angle X-Ray Scattering. Advanced Powder
Technology 12 (1): 45–59. doi:10.1163/156855201744958.
View publication stats
MARINE GEORESOURCES & GEOTECHNOLOGY 17
Minh, N. N., D. Stefan, T. T. T. Thu et al. (2013). Effect of Anions on
Dispersion of a Kaolinitic Soil Clay: A Combined Study of Dynamic
Light Scattering and Test Tube Experiments. Geoderma 209–210:
209–213. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2013.06.024.
Nguyen, X. P., Y. J. Cui, A. M. Tang, et al. 2013. Effects of Pore Water
Chemical Composition on the Hydro-Mechanical Behavior of
Natural Stiff Clays. Engineering Geology 166: 52–64. doi:10.1016/
j.enggeo.2013.08.009.
Norrman, J., C. J. Sparrenbom, M. Berg, et al. 2008. Arsenic
Mobilisation in a New Well Field for Drinking Water Production
along the Red River, Nam Du, Hanoi. Applied Geochemistry 23 (11):
3127–3142. doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2008.06.016.
Postma, D. J., F. Larsen, N. T. M. Hue, et al. 2007. Arsenic in
Groundwater of the Red River Floodplain, Vietnam: Controlling
Geochemical Processes and Reactive Transport Modeling.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 71: 5054–5071. doi:10.1016/
j.gca.2007.08.020.
Schlosser, F. 1973. Hypotheses et theories pour la prevision des tasse-
ments des remblaissur sols compressibles [Hypotheses and Theories
for the Prediction of Settlements of Embankments on Compressible
Soil]. Bull de Liaison Des Laboratoires Des Ponts et Chaussees,
Special T 26–57. Retrieved from http://www.ifsttar.fr/ressources-en-
ligne/librairie/revues/bulletin-des-laboratoires-des-ponts-et-chaussees.
Sutherland, B. R., K. J. Barrett, and M. K. Gingras. 2015. Clay Settling
in Fresh and Salt Water. Environmental Fluid Mechanics 15 (1):
147–160. doi:10.1007/s10652-014-9365-0. doi:10.1007/s10652-014-
9365-0.
Truc, N. N. 2017. Consolidation Properties of Cohesive Soils in the
Red RIVER Delta in Salt-Affected Conditions. The 17th international
multidisciplinary scientific geoconference. Vol. 17 (12).
Hydrogeology, Engineering Geology and Geotechnics, 143–150.
Albena, Bulgaria. doi:10.5593/sgem2017/12/S02.019.
Truc, N. N., and L. Mihova. 2015. Soft Soil in Salt-Affected Media:
Geotechnical Perspectives. Hanoi: Vietnam National University Press.
Truc, N. N., and B. Kirov. 2014. Hanoi Soft Soils in Salt—Affected
Media. The 8th international symposium on geotechnical aspects of
underground construction in soft ground, ed. C. Yoo, Park, Kim,
and Ban. TC204 ISSMGE, IS-SEOUL, Korea.
Truc, N. N., and R. J. Granie. 2008. Global Warming—Related Sea
Level Rise and The Change of Some Mechanical Characteristics of
Soil Foundation Due to Salty Intrusion, Case Study Thai Binh
Formation Sediment in the RRD, Vietnam. The 2nd international
symposium on climate change and the sustainability, ed. C. Duc,
Kuwahara, and Kim. Vietnam National University-Ibaraki
University, Hanoi, Vietnam, November.
Van Hoorn, J. W., and J. G. Van Alphen. 1994. Salinity Control. In
Drainage Principles and Applications. 2nd ed. ed. H. P. Ritzema,
533–600. Publication No. 16. Wageningen, The Netherlands: ILRI.
Yukselen-Aksoy, Y., A. Kaya, and A. H. Oren. 2008. Seawater Effect on
Consistency Limits and Compressibility Characteristics of Clays.
Engineering Geology 102 (1–2): 54–61. doi:10.1016/
j.enggeo.2008.07.005.
Zhou, J., X. Zheng, M. Flury, et al. 2009. Permeability Changes During
Remediation of An Aquifer Affected by Seawater Intrusion: A
Laboratory Column Study. Journal of Hydrology 376 (3–4): 557–566.
doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.07.067.