Biomechanics of walking, running, and
sprinting*
ROGER A. MANN,† M.D., Oakland, California,
ABSTRACT
A biomechanical study of 13 runners which consisted of 2 male
sprinters, 5
experienced joggers, and 6 elite long-distance
runners were studied. We obtained hip, knee, and ankle joints
motions in the sagittal plane and electromyographic data from
specific muscle groups.
As the speed of gait increased, the length of stance phase
progressively decreased from 62% for walking to 31% for
running and to 22% for sprinting. The sagittal plane motion
increased as the speed of gait increased. Generally speaking,
the body lowers its center of gravity with the increased speed
by increasing flexion of the hips and knees and magnifying
dorsiflexion at the ankle joint. Electromyographic activity
about the knee demonstrated increased activity in the quadricep
muscle group and hamstring group with increased speed. Mus-
cle function about the ankle joint demonstrated that the pos-
terior calf musculature which normally functions during the
midstance phase in walking became a late swing phase muscle
and was active through the first 80% of stance phase, as
compared to 15% in walking.
Beside the changes in the electromyographic activity of the
muscles, the anterior compartment muscles of the calf undergo
a concentric contracture at the time of initial floor contact
during running and sprinting but undergo an eccentric contrac-
tion during walking.
The Gait Analysis Laboratory at Shriners Hospital for Crip-
pled Children in San Francisco, California conducted an ex-
tensive study of walking, jogging, and running. This study was
carried out in order to obtain an understanding of sprinting
and how electromyography and joint ranges of motion com-
pared to those previously observed in walking,jogging, and
running. It has been our experience that it is extremely useful
*
Presented at the Fifth Annual Meeting of the American Ortho-
paedic Society for Sports Medicine, Innisbrook, Florida, July 9 to 12,
1979.
-~ Address correspondence to: Roger A. Mann, M.D., 3300 Webster
Street, Suite 1200, Oakland, California 94609.
AND JOHN HAGY, O.R.E.
in the study of electromyography in runners to obtain the data
on sagittal plane motion of the hip, knee, and ankle joints.
This paper is not to be construed as a complete study of
sprinting because only two sprinters were studied but the data
we obtained was essentially the same in both the joint ranges
of motion as well as electromyographic activity. It has been
our experience that, as in normal walking, joggers and runners
all follow the same basic pattern and little, if any, significant
electromyographic or sagittal plane motion deviation seems to
occur.
study was carried out on 13 runners: 2 male sprinters, 5
The
experienced joggers (2 females and 3 males), and 6 elite long-
distance runners (3 males and 3 females). The elite long-
distance runners are trained college athletes who routinely run
races greater than 1,500 m.
Sagittal plane motion in the lower extremity was obtained
by photometric gait analysis which is based upon biplane
high-speed photography. This method enables us to determine
accurately what we considered to be the various components
of gait cycle which consists of step length, cadence, velocity,
and events occurring within the walking cycle, such as the
percentage of stance and swing phase and heel rise time.
The electromyography was obtained by using superficial
electrodes placed over the specific muscle groups, recording the
signal, amplifying the signal, and then superimposing it directly
over the film of the lateral camera. By using this method,
accurate timing of the electromyogram to the position of the
joint is readily obtainable.
The study was carried out at the Gait Analysis Laboratory
for Crippled Children in San Francisco. The runway used for
the study was approximately 150 feet long.
OBSERVATIONS
In Figures 1, 2, and 3, range of motion of the hip, knee, and
ankle joint during walking, running, and sprinting is demon-
strated. In Figures 4, 5, and 6, the electromyographic activity
of the muscles studied during walking, running, and sprinting
is presented.
The data are all presented in percentage of walking cycles to
345
 The knee joint demonstrates increased flexion as the speed
of gait increases but the degree of extension decreases. During
walking and running we note that after ground contact there
is flexion of the knee joint of approximately 10° during walking
and 35 ° during running, after which extension occurs. This is
in sharp contrast to the action of the knee joint in the sprinter
which demonstrates continuous flexion of the knee joint with
no second period of knee extension. Approximately 20° of
flexion occurs during the stance phase of sprinting. The degree
of flexion of the knee during running and sprinting is signifi-
cantly greater (140°) than that seen during walking (65°).
The muscles about the knee joint that were studied demon-
strated essentially no difference in the function of the various
quadricep muscles during stance phase. Overall electrical ac-
tivity of the muscles was the same during the stance phase. It
was noted, however, that the overall period of time in which
there is activity changes considerably as the speed of gait
increases. During walking, the quadricep muscle becomes ac-
tive at approximately the last 10% of the swing phase and
remains active during the first 15% of the stance phase. During
running quadricep becomes active in the last 20% of the swing
phase and remains active for approximately the first 50% of

Fig. I. Range of motion of hip during sprinting, running, and

walking.
make comparison of various gaits somewhat easier. It should
be kept in mind, however, when considering real time the
events which occur in running and sprinting are happening at
a much faster rate than those during walking.
The step length, cadence, and velocity all increase as the
speed of gait increases. The cycle time (heel strike to heel strike
for the same foot) for walking is I sec and for running 0.6 sec.
The cycle time for sprinters was slightly less than 0.6 sec but
was not accurately recorded due to technical problems. The

velocity of the walker was 3 miles per hr, the runner 12 miles
per hr (slightly less than a 5-min mile), and the sprinter was
17.2 miles per hr, or equivalent to a 12.2 sec 100-yard dash.
The stance phase (the length of time each foot was on the
ground) was 62% for walking, 31% for running, and 22% for
sprinting (Fig. 7).
After observing the figures for range of motion for the hip,
knee, and ankle during the various gaits, we readily noticed
that as the speed of gait increased the range of motion of the
joints of the lower extremity grew. Generally speaking, the
body lowers the center of gravity by increasing flexion at the
hips and knees and increasing dorsiflexion at the ankle joint.
The hip demonstrates that overall range of motion is in-
creased as the gait speed increases. Most of the magnified
motion is in flexion and the degree of extension actually
decreases slightly. In sprinting we observe greater flexion of
the hip and decreased extension when compared to running.
The only muscle that crossed the hip which we studied for
sprinters was the rectus femoris and it demonstrated activity at
the beginning of hip flexion. This starts early in the swing Fig. 2. Range of motion of knee during sprinting, running, and
phase. walking.
346
 Fig. 3. Range of motion of ankle during sprinting, running,
andwalking.
Fig. 4. Electromyographic activity versus the range of motion
of hip during sprinting, running, and walking.
Fig. 5. Electromyographic activity versus the range of motion
of knee during sprinting, running, and walking.
stance phase. During sprinting it is active for approximately
the first 80% of the stance phase and the last 50 to 60% of the
swing phase. The rectus femoris, beside its normal activity as
a quadricep, also demonstrates a period of early swing phase
activity during running as well as during sprinting which is
considerably greater than that noted for walking.
The motion at the ankle joint changes considerably when
walking, running and sprinting gaits are compared. During
walking there is plantar flexion at initial floor contact followed
by progressive dorsiflexion. During running, dorsiflexion oc-
currs at the time of initial ground contact, then progresses to
plantar flexion. In long-distance runners and joggers the
ground contact is foot-flat or very slight heel to foot-flat.
During sprinting the participant is always on his toes. At the
time of initial ground contact, there is still dorsiflexion occur-
ring at the ankle joint but the heel does not touch the ground,
then rapid plantar flexion occurs.
Muscles posterior to the ankle basically work as a unit and
those anterior to the ankle joint work together as another unit.
Posterior calf muscles during walking function approximately
during the middle 50% of stance phase. During running this
period of activity increases considerably, posterior calf muscles
347

Fig. 6. Electromyographic activity versus the range of motion
of ankle during sprinting, running, and walking.
are active for approximately the first 80% of the stance phase
and their activity begins in the last 25% of swing phase. During
sprinting a similar period of activity is noted during the stance
phase but swing phase activity is nearly doubled.
Anterior compartment muscles become active during walk-
ing just before toe-off and remain active during the entire
swing phase and through the first 10% of stance phase. During
running activity begins just at the time of lift-off and continues
through the entire swing phase and first 80% of stance phase.
The sprinter demonstrates activity in the last 20% of swing
phase through the entire stance phase and continues until
midswing phase.
DISCUSSION
After going through the observations, one notes that as the
speed of gait increases the body tends to lower its center of
gravity, mainly by increasing the degree of hip and knee flexion
as well as ankle dorsiflexion at the time of initial floor contact.
Once the foot is flat on the ground there is an overall increase
in the degree of hip flexion, knee flexion, and ankle dorsiflex-
ion. Generally speaking, as the speed of gait increases the
muscles demonstrate a longer period of electrical activity and
in the anterior and posterior calf muscles there is actually a
change in their phasic activity.
Normal muscle function about the ankle joint during walk-
ing demonstrates that at the time of initial ground contact there
is plantar flexion controlled by the anterior tibial muscle. The
muscle during this period is undergoing a lengthening, or
348
eccentric contraction. During running the athlete contacts the
ground and undergoes rapid dorsiflexion, probably to cushion
the impact of the body against the ground. At the same time
dorsiflexion is occurring at the anklejoint, there is rapid knee
flexion which also helps to absorb the impact of approximately
2.5 to 3 times the body weight at the time of ground contact.
The anterior calf musculature, functioning during walking
to control plantar flexion at the anklejoint after initial ground
contact by eccentric contraction, now becomes active while the
ankle joint is dorsiflexing, undergoing concentric contraction.
Function of the anterior calf group in walking ceases after the
first 10% of stance phase but during running remains active for
approximately 80% of the stance phase and for sprinting until
midswing phase. It appears this muscle is initially helping to
accelerate the tibia over the fixed foot. From a mechanical
standpoint, it is probably one of the most efficient methods of
applying a torque which will accelerate the tibia and hence the
body forward through space. When walking, posterior calf
muscles only function during the midstance phase, but we see
late swing phase activity during running and sprinting. Muscle
4ctivity seems to help control the rapid dorsiflexion about to
occur at the ankle joint. The function of posterior calf muscles
during sprinting is somewhat different from that seen during
running and walking. While running and walking the electro-
myographic activity in the posterior calf ceases shortly after
plantar flexion of the ankle joint begins, whereas in sprinting
the posterior calf remains active until the time of toe-off. The
exact role the posterior calf group is playing in the forward
propulsion of the body, I feel at this point, remains somewhat
elusive.
Overall function about the knee joint during walking and
jogging demonstrates impact absorption of initial ground con-
tact by increased flexion of the knee joint, followed by a second
period of extension. During sprinting, however, this second
period of extension is lost and nothing but slow, progressive
flexion occurs. A sprinter does not have sufficient time to
undergo any type of shock absorption at the knee joint per se,
and it appears as though most of the absorption of initial
ground contact forces are carried out by the slight dorsiflexion
at the ankle joint. It almost appears as though the sprinter is
using his legs as if they were spokes on a wheel, moving along
Fig. 7. Percentage of support phase during walking, running,
and sprinting.
on avery smooth course with the leg only in contact with the
ground long enough to give him an instant of support as the
body is accelerating forward.
Quadriceps about the kneejoint during walking control the
initial period of flexion and it appears the same is true for
running and sprinting. During walking, approximately 60% of
knee flexion occurs during stance phase, whereas during run-
ning and sprinting, less than 10% of knee flexion occurs during
stance phase. The majority of the flexion is probably secondary
to rapid acceleration of the thigh during the initial swing phase
and the foot and tibia sort of follow along, bringing the knee
into maximum flexion. The quadriceps muscles function in
walking and running during the last 20% of swing phase in
order to stabilize the knee into sufficient extension for ground
contact. During sprinting the quadriceps are active during the
last 50% of swing phase. Knee extension appears to be a more
active process when compared to running and walking. The
hamstring muscles likewise are much more active during run-
ning and probably help modulate the rapid extension occurring
at the knee joint in the swing phase. The hamstrings remain
active during the first 80% of the stance phase during running
as compared to only the first 10% during walking.
The degree of hipjoint flexion increases as the speed of gait
increases. The sprinter demonstrates approximately 10 to 15° ° garding hip motion. It is stated that overall hip motion increases
more flexion at the hipjoint as does the runner and the runner
approximately 20° more hip flexion than the walker. The only
hip flexor we have adequately studied has been the rectus
femoris, which may or may not have significant hip flexion
ability. The muscle is active during initial hip flexion. Unfor-
tunately, we have not obtained a volunteer who will permit us
to put an electrode in the iliopsoas muscle.
It appears hip flexion is an extremely important part of
running and, unfortunately, the one we have the least amount
of data on at the present time. As the speed of gait increases,
the speed of hip flexion likewise increases. This may be the
joint that gives us the biggest boost forward but further study
is needed.
The gluteus maximus functions during walking at the same
time as the hamstrings to help decelerate the swinging thigh
and seems to function in a similar manner during running
except it probably also helps bring about hip extension.
CONCLUSION
As the speed of gait increases so does the range of motion of
lower extremity joints. The overall period of electrical activity
also increases considerably. The stance phase period decreases
from 62% of the cycle for walking to 31 % for running and 22%
for sprinting. We observed that as the speed of gait increases,
the absorption mechanism for the impact of ground contact is
increased by the body for running but is minimal during
sprinting. The sprinter seems to use his legs as a spoke-type
mechanism to maintain his height off the ground and absorb
little, if any, of the force of ground contact.
Further research is needed in order to enable us to determine
what is actually propelling the body through space during
running and sprinting.
REFERENCES
1. Sutherland DH, Hagy JL: Measurement of gait movements from
motion picture films. J Bone Joint Surg 54A: 787-797, 1972
COMMENTARY
Dr. David Drez, Jr., Lake Charles, Louisiana: This paper
represents anattempt to obtain meaningful data on ranges of
motion and muscular function in the lower extremities of
individuals engaged in walking, running, and sprinting. The
data presented here may well be meaningful, but significance
is questionable due to the small size of the sample group, the
lack of adequate definition of the sample group, and the lack
of ideal representation in each category of the sample group.
For example, one would not consider a 12.2 sec 100-yard dash
sprinter to be representative of ideal neuromuscular efficiency
in sprinting.
The authors have presented excellent data on the amount of
flexion and extension of the knee during walking, running, and
sprinting. Can they tell us the ideal amount of knee extension
for each of these activities? Can they also tell us the ideal
amount of knee flexion?
A contradiction appears to exist in this data presented re-
as the speed of gait increases, with an increase in flexion and
a decrease in extension. It is then stated that in sprinting, both
extension and flexion are increased.
The authors also state that during running, dorsiflexion
occurs at the time of ground contact. It has been my experience
that many runners contact the surface with the heel first, and
thus, that plantar flexion is the first event occurring at the time
of ground contact.
Data on increased electrical activity of all muscle groups, as
speed of the gait increases, are consistent with what we would
expect clinically.
The controversy regarding propulsive roll of posterior calf
muscles has not been resolved. It is my opinion that the
posterior calf muscles primarily stabilize the ankle rather than
propel the body forward.
The role of knee flexion and ankle dorsiflexion and shock
absorption in the sprinter has been shown to be nonexistent.
Could hip flexion assume some of this role in the sprinter?
Would the use of force plate analysis in the sprinter add
more meaning to this data?
In conclusion, I wish to congratulate the authors on their
early data, and hope that they will continue their work by
adding more normal subjects and comparing it to abnormal or
injured subjects.
I also wish to thank the Sociey for allowing me to discuss
this paper.
Authors’ Reply: We wish to thank Dr. Drez for his discussion
of our paper. We will try to answer the questions he has posed.
In human walking gait, the time of muscle function varies
little from person to person, regardless of size or shape. In the
group of runners studied, we noted the same consistency in
phasic activity of the various muscles. There was some variation
during the acceleration and deceleration phases, but for steady-
state running litle variation was present.
349
 In response to Dr. Drez’s concern for ideal representation in
each category of the sample group, one has to remember that
this study was carried out in a laboratory setting. It is difficult
for a sprinter under noncompetitive circumstances (electrodes
taped on the lower extremities) to run at world class speed.
An estimation of the ideal amount of knee motion needed
for each runner cannot be presented. This depends on each
individual’s limb and segment length, muscle strength and
balance, style of running, and stride length and frequency. At
present, it is difficult to assess proper knee and hip flexion and
extension for any one individual because of the interaction of
the mentioned factors. The best researchers could develop for
a population greater than one would be average amounts of
flexion and extension.
Insofar as the motion of the hip joint is concerned, we do
not feel any contradiction is present in our material. Total
range of motion of the hip does increase as the speed of gait
increases. The degree of extension is diminished in sprinting,
but the degree of flexion during sprinting is greater than in
running so the overall motion has increased.
Dr. Drez’s comment regarding the function of the ankle joint
at the time of initial ground contact is most interesting. Before
looking at our high-speed motion pictures, we too felt that
350
plantar flexion was initially occurring at the time of ground
contact. However, the films show the majority of joggers and
runners strike the ground either heel first or foot-flat but, in
either case, undergo rapid dorsiflexion and not plantar flexion.
The sprinters struck the ground in plantar flexion but instantly
dropped into dorsiflexion, although in most cases their heel
never touched the ground.
Regarding shock absorption in the sprinter, the graphs of
motion of the hip. knee, and ankle show the shock absorption
which occurs in the sprinter’s lower extremity is being carried
out primarily by the ankle and knee joint since these oints are
flexing at the time of initial ground contact as compared to the
hip joint, which is extending at the time of ground contact. We
believe the notion that &dquo;shock absorption in the sprinter has
been shown to be nonexistent&dquo; is an unfounded statement.
There is no doubt that use of a force plate in analyzing the
sprinter’s gait would be helpful, it is also fraught with difficul-
ties. In the future we hope to be able to study the sprinter in
more detail.
As we pointed out in the introduction of our paper, we do
not feel this study is a complete study of sprinters, but it is a
beginning in the scientific approach to analysis of running and
sprinting gait.