JAGUAR WORSHIP AT LAMANAI

AND TEOTIHUACAN

Ali Kellog

Cotsen Institute
University of California, Los Angeles
 One July morning in 615AD, a
crowd gathers around the base of a large
pyramid. A young boy, having recently
turned 12 years old, sits atop a throne
decorated of carved jaguars. His mother,
Lady Zac Kuk, places a headdress atop
his head, and from this moment up until
his death roughly 60 years later, the
young boy Pacal reigns as king of the
bustling ancient metropolis Palenque. It
seems fitting that a king assumes his role
from a seat of jaguars. Felines, namely
the jaguar, are a staple in ancient
Mesoamerican religion, art, and
Figure 1: Pacal, seated on a jaguar throne, is crowned
iconography. The Maya, Aztec, Olmec, king by his mother. Palenque.
Inca, and Teotihuacanos worshipped
jaguars and acknowledged their place of
The Norse goddess Freyja had
authority in the environment as a
feline escorts and guardians whom
powerful predator. Feline worship is not
faithful worshippers left offerings for to
exclusive to the New World, either.
assure her continued protection. The
shape shifting Greek goddess Hecate
took the form of either a woman or a cat.
Chinese folklore tells of a cat god, Li
Shou, who protected farmers’ crops from
rats and insects. The pre-Inca Peruvian
civilization known as the Mochica
worshipped an ancient cat god Ai-Apaec.
The colossal heads of the Olmec in San
Lorenzo sometimes showed jaguar paws
on their helmets. Perhaps most notably,
the Egyptians enthusiastically
worshipped cats and held them to a high
esteem. Cats were seen as no different
than, if not more important than humans.
Among the several Egyptian cat deities, hundreds of years of Mesoamerican
the goddess Bastet was one of the most history, are an analogous testament to
widely celebrated, and even served as the wide spread influence and
the basis for the famed Cult of Bast. The intermingling of ancient Mesoamerican
Great Sphinx temple of Giza shows the religion and culture.
human-lion hybrid towering over 20m
high above the desert.
It seems felines are widely revered LAMANAI
as wise, powerful and mysterious beings
across cultures, and evolved
Lamanai, or “submerged
independent of one another. In many
crocodile”, was a bustling ancient Mayan
cases, these ideas evolved centuries
city situated in the Belizean district
apart as well. These sentiments have
known today as Orange Walk. The site is
transformed the feline into a symbol of
situated in the lush and impenetrably
power, intelligence and authority across
dense jungles of the Belizean River
human cultures. Ancient Mesoamerica’s
Valley, sprawling alongside the steadily
relationship with the jaguar, the largest
flowing New River. The river served as an
cat in the Americas, is a complex one
expressway for the movement of rare
which perfectly illustrates this idealized
goods, making Lamanai a bustling and
link between felines and preeminent
prosperous trade center for both goods
metaphysical superiority. Mesoamericans
and ideas (Pendergast 1981:36). Current
also physically and symbolically
archaeological records indicate that the
associated predatory felines with warfare
site was first occupied as early as the 16th
(Saunders 1994:105). Numerous
century BC, and as late as the 17th
examples of jaguar worship are found
century AD, making it the longest
throughout Mexican and Central
occupied site in the New World.
American sites belonging to different
(Pendergast et al 2009:41). During its
cultures. This paper will specifically
long life lasting more than two millennia,
examine jaguar imagery at two
Lamanai grew to become a prominent
Mesoamerican sites and cultural groups –
Mayan center, particularly during the Pre-
Lamanai in Northern Belize, and
classic period.
Teotihuacan in Central Mexico. these two
The complex was massive, with
sites, roughly 1500km apart, spanning
800 structures that housed several
across multiple cultural regions and
thousand inhabitants. Three large

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pyramids - the High Temple, the Temple
of the Masks, and the Jaguar Temple (to
be discussed later) - stand out most
prominently, looming high above the
jungle canopy and overlooking the wide
horizon of the Belizean jungle
(Pendergast 1981:48). Mayan priests and
royalty would have likely stood atop the
High Temple and looked South over the
busy city towards the Jaguar Temple with
the New River running right beside it. At
night, the dark skies would have high
visibility, giving them a spectacular view
of celestial space. Through this they
developed a complex and stunning
system of using the planets and stars as
tools for navigation and measuring time.
Eclipses and lunar phases were even
believed to be caused by jaguars biting
into the sun and moon.
Figure 2: Jaguar Temple facade depicting jaguar at
Lamanai, Belize.
TEOTIHUACAN
Alternatively, the ancient city of
Teotihuacan echoed the vast power and
influence of Lamanai. Nestled in the
Basin of Mexico, Teotihuacan is believed
to have reigned as the ultimate
Mesoamerican cultural and economic
center between 100BC and roughly
700AD. Similar to Lamanai, the city was a
massive sprawling urban landscape that
housed nearly 150,000 people in its
heyday (Sugiyama 2013:468).
The two sites also shared a similar
urban planning layout. Three primary
structures formed the main complex –
the Moon Pyramid, the Sun Pyramid, and
the Feather Serpent complex. Akin to
Lamanai’s planning, the Moon and Sun
Pyramids ran on a near perfect axis
aligned North to South, forming the
Avenue of the Dead. To the East of this
line stood the Feather Serpent complex.
Beyond that, massive residential
complexes and terminus groups littered
the outskirts of the city. Within this
central complex behind the Palace of
Quetzalpapalotl, the Palace of the
Jaguars stands (also sometimes known as
the Patio of the Jaguars). The inside of
the palace yields series of murals and
frescoes depicting jaguars. One
particular mural shows a parade of
jaguars blowing on plumed conch shells
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and wearing feathered headdresses
similar to those worn by Maya and Aztec
elites (Saunders 2010). Additional
examples of jaguar worship at
Teotihucacan will be discussed later.
Figure 3: Jaguar blowing conch shell on red mural
inside Palace of the Jaguars, Teotihuacan.
Clearly these two sites share
numerous similarities between urban
planning, public architecture, expanse,
art, control of trade, and ideology.
Despite their geographic and temporal
distance, these similarities hint towards
indirect (or perhaps even direct) contact
between Teotihuacan and Lamanai. The
Maya and Teotihuacanos cultivated a
mythical status for the predatory cat – a
species that posed a threat to both
populations. The status of the jaguar in
Mexico and Central America’s ecosystem
as a keystone predator makes it a source
of fear for ancient Mesoamericans that
has sustained itself for people living
there today. This fear is symbolically
represented in Maya and Teotihuacan art
by associating the jaguar with warfare,
even though jaguars do not directly
participate in human warfare. However
this is likely one of the reasons jaguars
were related so closely to humans in
Mesoamerican mythology, as both were
powerful and intelligent predators. In
their eyes, the Maya in particular
believed they shared dominion and ruler
ship over the jungle. Jaguars, like
humans, were also seen as being
intermediaries between the terrestrial
and spirit worlds. This can also explain
the symbolic link between humans and
jaguars frequently depicted throughout
the wealth of Mesoamerican jaguar art.
(Saunders 1994:106). Jaguars in
Mesoamerican warfare bear several
examples throughout both sites.
JAGUARS AT LAMANAI
Lamanai has experienced its own
lengthy history of war, violence and
turmoil. The city housed and produced
powerful Maya warriors who are believed
to have appeared in artwork at Maya
cities far from the Belize River Valley, like
the great city of Tikal in Guatemala’s
Petén region (Saunders 2010). Beside the
Temple of the Jaguar, a large ball court
would have played host to spectators
and elites during the violent ball games
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and imminent sacrifices. Recently
evidence suggests sacrifices did in fact
occur at the Temple of the Jaguar
(Weaver 1993:271). Weaver and other
scholars have suggested that the system
of jaguar temples throughout Maya sites
existed with the function of being a
direct, terrestrial link between humans
and the Maya jaguar gods.
Figure 4: Progression of the construction and
development at the Temple of the Jaguar at Lamanai
(Early Classic - Late Classic - Post Classic).
The plurality of jaguar gods is also
a testament to the Maya appreciation of
jaguars. The Jaguar God of Fire and War,
or Night Sun, is considered a god of the
underworld Xibalba (although God L,
another Jaguar God, is also considered
the god of the underworld). Fire is
associated with this Jaguar God,
particularly in ceremonial contexts. An
incense burner depicting a jaguar,
believed to be Night Sun, was found
buried at the base of the Jaguar Temple
at Lamanai (Pendergast 1981:37). Other
jaguar gods include the Jaguar Goddess
(protector of fertility and warfare), the
Jaguar Twin Hero, the Jaguar God of the
Upperworld, the Jaguar Paddler, the
Water Lily Jaguar, and the Jaguar God of
the war month Pax (depicted in Maya art
as missing his lower jaw and vomiting
blood during times of war). These Jaguar
Gods are creators of life, protectors of
life, warriors, guardians of other gods,
and facetious rulers of the underworld.
The Temple of the Jaguar (structure
N10-9) certainly played host to important
historical events and concepts of
Lamanai and its cosmological
significance. It was built incrementally
throughout the Preclassic, Classic and
Postclassic phases (similar to
Teotihuacan’s Moon Pyramid). The
temple was flanked with jaguar imagery
and glyphs on virtually every surface. The
famous boxy limestone jaguar face is the
first thing one notices when looking upon
the structure. The West side of the
structure had a Jaguaroid façade
sculpture. While archaeologists Louise
and Claude Belanger restored the
temple between 2000 and 2003 to
prepare it for tourists, they unveiled
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 ornate carvings, cartouches and stone
inlay murals on the exterior of the
structure depicting jaguars, the feathered
serpent, and reptilian figures.
Figure 5: Ceramic jaguar figurine found at Lamanai,
Belize.
The Temple of the Jaguar at
Lamanai served as a stronghold for Maya
soldiers during a particularly infamous
battle at the site. In the 17th century, not
long after the Spanish arrived on the
shores of the New World and began their
vigorous colonization efforts, they settled
in the city and made plans to erect a
church in the middle of the busy Maya
plaza. The city’s indigenous population
retaliated by starting a revolt, which
promptly drove the Spanish out of the
city. Scholars believe that future
excavations will unveil the rumored
“Heart of the Jaguar”, a legendary spear
within the Jaguar Temple (Weaver
1193:272). Around the site, small
figurines and censers depicting jaguars
(either in their natural faunal form or in
anthropomorphic form) were found
buried at the base of temples and in
residential areas. Many were associated
with residential burials, perhaps to escort
beloved individuals into the afterlife
Pendergast 1981:37). These examples
demonstrate the significance and
presence of jaguars in Maya culture. If
jaguars were given such emphasis at the
monumental site of Lamanai, it can be
posited that they were not just arbitrary
symbols of fear attributed to their place
in the food chain, and their significance is
deep rooted in both Maya culture,
religion, and collective cognitive
makeup.
JAGUARS AT TEOTIHUACAN
Teotihuacanos acknowledged the
strength and prestige of jungle feline
species like their Maya associates.
Situated right next to the Pyramid of the
Moon, the Palace of the Jaguars served
as a physical manifestation of and a link
to the deities for Teotihuacan, akin to the
Temple of the Jaguar at Lamanai. It is
one of the most religiously significance
structures at the site. Hallways wrapping
around the exterior of the palace cradle
an expansive courtyard. Inside the
hallways are magnificent, large red
murals depicting war scenes and jaguars
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that illuminate the stone walls
(Latsanopoulos 2008:92). The jaguar
mural depicts a procession of jaguars
blowing on plumed conch shells and
wearing feathered headdresses like those
worn by other Mesoamerican cultures’
elites (mentioned previously). Pumas are
also depicted in the mural, although
some scholars debate which species is
given more prominence (Sugiyama
1992:220). One mural in the Palace of the
Jaguars is also believed to depict the
fabled Netted Jaguar with a scroll
coming out of its mouth (although not
much is known about the Netted Jaguar).
Figure 6: Cylindrical tripod vessel with relief of jaguar-
serpent-bird, Teotihuacan.
Teotihuacan had also had a wealth
of jaguar artifacts. A series of
quadrupeds and biped cylindrical tripod
vessels with appliqué-molded relief
showing jaguars, and the jaguar-serpent-
bird, were unearthed from the Pyramid of
the Moon. Jaguar vessels of onyx were
also found throughout the site’s public
architecture and elite residential plazas.
(Kubler 1973:19). The serrated paws on
jaguar glyphs and images on these
vessels are reminiscent of much earlier
paw-wing from Olmec art – deepening
the vastness of jaguar influence over
Mesoamerica. Near the present day auto
entrance of Teotihuacan, a carved
cylindrical pottery vessel had carvings of
a jaguar with a speech scroll. Similarly, a
tripod vessel was found with the
aforementioned “netted jaguar” drawn in
the vessel’s walls. A small stone figure
found in a burial chamber inside the
Pyramid of the Moon, although heavily
worn down, heavily resembles a carved
stone figure found at San Agustín that
depicts a woman copulating with a
jaguar (Kubler 1973:24).
Figure 7: Jaguar vessel of onyx, Teotihuacan.
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Figure 8: Jaguar censer, Tlaxcoco.
One of the hottest pursuits in
Mesoamerican archaeology today is
uncovering the extent of the Pyramid of
the Moon’s burial chambers. Not unlike
the Temple of the Jaguar at Lamanai, the
Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacan was
built incrementally, which the next phase
of the building being superimposed and
constructed over the previous structure.
Each of the 6 phases of construction had
a unique burial chamber. Several of the
burial chambers in the Pyramid of the
Moon contained remains of felines.
Narrow ditches were dug into the
structures and filled with offerings before
they were filled again with dirt like a
grave, and construction of the next
superimposed structure began. Some
felines like jaguars and pumas were
buried alive (in cages) in these small
chambers alongside human sacrifice
remains and precious stones (Sugiyama
2013:471).
According to isotopic analysis,
some of the human remains are believed
to have been war captives who were
from different regions. Perhaps by
capturing, sacrificing, and burying the
large felines and war captives side by
side, Teotihuacanos were symbolically
demonstrating their power and ability to
conquer any powerful threat to them –
specifically placing humans and
predatory felines on the same plane of
danger and capability.
Figure 9: Carved dragon with scroll on a carved
cylindrical pottery vessel at Teotihuacan.
PRESTIGE & POWER
The inclusion of jaguars in art is
vital to understanding the role of the cat
in ancient Mesoamerican cultures, but
the specific nature and context of
inclusion is what has distinguished them
from a decoration to a power symbol
according to archaeologists. Jaguar pelts
are often worn by elite members of
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society – namely kings, shamans and
warriors. Similar to their inclusion in CONCLUSION
burials, wearing a jaguar pelt can
The wealth of jaguar artifacts and
symbolize dominance, power, bravery
art at these sites, and throughout virtually
and prestige, as it was not likely an easy
all Mesoamerican sites, displays these
task to acquire the pelt. Elites in art in
ancient people’s devotion to the
both sites are shown wearing jaguar pelts
predatory feline. Beyond the quantitative
or headdresses. One distinct
analysis, qualitative evidence reveals the
Teotihuacano elite headdress shows the
depth of their devotion. The manner in
head and pelt placed atop the
which jaguars are presented and
individual’s head with the mandible
associated with prestige, war, power and
missing (Kubler 1973). Royalty, like Pacal,
prestige demonstrates this idealized
are often shown seated upon a jaguar
relationship even further. If humans
throne or mat. Whether seated upon or
internalize their environment and
draped in its pelt, these uses of jaguar
symbolically reflect their experience and
demonstrateee the human relationship
interpretation of it, jaguars clearly held a
with jaguars – respectful of them as
distinct status in ancient Mesoamerican
dangerous predators, and simultaneously
society. Although archaeologists and
capable of dominating them. They are
scholars do not easily agree upon how to
our celestial allies and terrestrial enemies
interpret information and findings, the
in the ancient Mesoamerican ideological
sheer amount and strength of jaguar
landscape.
presence in these sites and their
respective cultures assures that ancient
Teotihuacanos and Mayans did indeed
worship the jaguar. Future excavations
will likely yield more conclusive results for
the subject.

Figure 10: Metepec phase Jaguar facade from

Teotihuacan.

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 REFERENCES CITED

Benson, E.P.
1998 The Lord, The Ruler: Jaguar Symbolism in the Americas. Icons of Power:
Feline Symbolism in the Americas. London. Routeledge: pp. 53-76.

Fairly self-explanatory in title, this piece yields a lot of data concerning

the widespread use of jaguars (and other felines, including ocelots and
pumas) in Mesoamerican culture. I will reference this source frequently
when highlighting specific components of integration of felines into
Mesoamerican religion and architecture.

Garber, James.
2005 The Ancient Maya of the Belize Valley: Half a Century of Archaeological
Research. Journal of Field Archaeology. Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 353-357.

Latsanopoulos, Nicolas.
2008 Wolf tooth and deer heart: observations about animal importance in
warfare and sacrificial ideology at Teotihuacan. Journal de la Societe des
Americanistes, V. 94, no. 2, pp. 71-108.

Latsanopoulos’ article will offer me further insights and information

concerning the abundance of animal burials at Teotihuacan. I will use his
work to draw further analysis of the purpose and function of animal burials
at Teo. Because the article is largely in French, and Google Translate can
be chock full of poor conjugation and grammatical structure, I will do my
best to extract as much information as possible.

Markman, Peter T. & Roberta H.

1989 Masks of the Spirit: Image and Metaphor in Mesoamerica. University of
California Press.

Peter and Roberta Markman’s work details the use of animals in

Mesoamerican symbolism across a variety of cultures ranging from Maya,
Olmec, Aztec, Toltec, and Teotihuacano. There is an entire chapter
devoted to feline worship which I will largely draw from.

Moholy-Nagy, Hattula.

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1998 A preliminary report on the use of vertebrate fauna at Tikal, Guatemala.
Anatomia de una Civilización a la Cultura Maya, Vol. 4. pp. 115-129.

This piece provides some data on context in animal burials at Tikal (and
allied Maya cities around the Yucatan including brief discussion of
Lamanai). This article will provide me with further existing analysis and
interpretation of faunal remains and burial practices among the Maya.

Pendergast, David M.
1981 Lamanai, Belize: Summary of Excavation Results, 1974-1980. Journal of
Field Archaeology, Volume 8, Issue 1. pp.29-53.

Pendergast’s piece will provide me with detailed elaboration on the f

indings at Lamanai. His projects focused on the Jaguar Temple and the
High Temple – both rich with jaguar symbolism. This information will
provide background and context for my arguments.

Saunders, Nicholas J.
2010 Predators of Culture: Jaguar symbolism and Mesoamerican Elites. World
Archaeology. Volume 26, Issue 1. Rutledge.

The title alone should allude to the information I will draw from this
reading. An overview of jaguars in Mesoamerican cultures will be
discussed highlighted.

Stall, Sam
2011 100 Cats Who Changed Civilization. Quirk Publishing. Philadelphia, USA.

Sugiyama, Nawa
2013 Animal Management, preparation and sacrifice: Reconstructing burial 6 at
the Moon Pyramid, Teotihuacan, Mexico. Anthropozoologica, Volume 48,
Number 2. pp. 467-485.

Sugiyama discusses his work at the Moon Pyramid, in which a number of

burials were discovered – many containing feline remains and imagery. I
hope to use this source to gain insight as to why felines were so vital to
Teotihuacan imagery and religion.

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Weaver, Muriel.
1993 The Aztec, Maya, and their Predecessors. California Academic Press Inc.
pp. 271-272

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