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Engineering Properties of Expansive Clays

Presentation · October 1975

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 EN G I N E E R IN G PROPERTIES OF EXPANSIVE CLAYS

by

D.G. Fredlund

Associate P r o f e s s o r of C i v i l Engineering
U n i v e r s i t y of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan

J Presented to the

S e m i n a r on Shallow Foundations

on Expansive Clays

Regina, Saskatchewan

October 27 & 28, 1975

i
 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF EXPANSIVE CLAYS

I. I N T R O DU C T I O N

I I. PHYSICAL FEATURES O F THE R E G I N A AREA

l. Climate

2. Physiography

3. Geology and Surficial Stratigraphy

II I. CLASSIFICATION AND M I N E R A L O G I C A L PROPERTIES

1. Grain Size
; 2. Atterberg Limits

3. Specific Gravity

1I 4. Mineralogy
I

5. Surface Chemistry

t IV. STRESS VARIABLES CONTROLLING BEHAVIOR

V. E F F E C T OF STRESS VARIABLE CHANGES ON VOLUME CHANGE PROPERTIES

1 . Stress History

2. Present State of Stress

3. Future Deformations

VI. SHEAR STRENGTH CHANGES

i

J VII. TYPICAL VALUES FOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1 . Compressibility Properties

2. Swelling Properties
.J
3. Shear Strength Properties

VIHI. SUMMARY

IX. L I S T OF REFERENCES
 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF EXPANSIVE CLAYS

I. INTRODUCTION

Large portions on the earth's surface are subjected to desiccating

i n fl u e n c e s that leave the upper p o r t i o n of the s o il profile cracked and

unsaturated. Many of these soils contain large amounts of high swelling

clay minerals. Light engineering structures p l a c e d on these profiles

generally suffer distress due to expansion of the supporting material.

The city of Regina is situated upon glacial Lake Regina. A wide range

of e n g i n e e r i n g problems have been encountered that are related to the

swelling b e h a v i o r of the clay.

The object of this paper is to outline the basic properties of

Regina clay and to determine the effect of e n v i r o n me n t a l factors on its

behavior. Engineering problems related to this soil should be analysed

in terms of:

a) the mineralogical and physico-chemical nature of the clay deposit,

b) the state of stress prior to and subsequent to construction, and

c) the physical soil properties

The above categories constitute a mo s t useful framework for engin­

eering purposes.

I I. P H Y S I CAL FEATURES OF THE REG INA AREA

The physiographic features, geology and geomorphology of the Regina

area are described in detail in the following reports and maps:

a) D.F. Acton, J.S. Clayton, J.G. Elis, E.A. Christiansen,

W.0. Kupsch, (1960), Physiographic Divisions of Saskatchewan,

Map No. 1 , Saskatchewan Research Council, University of

Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.
 2

b) E.A. Christiansen, (1961), Geology and Groundwater Resources

of the Regina Area, Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan Research

Council, Geology Division, Report No. 2.

c) J.G. Ellis, D.F. Acton and J.S. Clayton, (1965), The Soils

of the Regina Map Area, Saskatchewan Institute of Pedology,

Extension Publication 176, Extension Division, University of

Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.

II.1 Climate

The climate of the Regina area can be classed as a cool semi-arid

to sub-humid type. The temperatures vary w i d e l y from summer to winter

with an overall average temperature of + 15 C . The mean monthly temper­

ature is below 0c for five months of the y e a r .

The total annual precipitation varies from 30 to 45 cm w i t h snow

contributing about 25% of the y e a r ' s total. The mo n t h s of May and June

have the most precipitation.

I1.2 Physiography

The main physiographic division of the Regina area is the Saskatche-

wan Plains Region which is comprised of three sections (Figure 1 ) :

a) the Assiniboine River Plain

b) the Moose Mountain Upland, and

c) the Eyebrow Hills Upland

The city of Regina is located near the centre of the Assiniboine

River Plain, the lowland of the region. The local relief of the area

is less than ten feet, except for the Qu'Appelle and Arm River channels

and associated tributaries.

 3

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FIGURE 1 . PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF THE R E G I N A MAP AREA.

(AFTER D.F. ACTON, J.S. CLAYTON, J.G. ELLIS, E.A. CHRISTIANSEN

AND W . O . KU P S C H , 1960)
 4

II.3 Geology and Surficial Stratigraphy

The bedrock below the Regina city area consists of Upper Cretaceous

shales (i.e. Bearpaw Formation) that are primarily composed of gray,

highly consolidated m o n t mo r i l l o n i t i c clays. The depth to bedrock is

quite variable, believed to be due to faulting. During the Pleistocene

epoch, ice covered the area. As a result, glacial till i mm e d i a t e l y

overlies the shale which in turn is overlain by lacustrine silts and

clays (i.e. Regina clay). Figure 2 shows the surficial deposits in the

vicinity of Regina during the final stages of glacial history.

The lacustrine silts and clays are in the order of 40 feet in

thickness below Regina city (Figure 3}. In general, the Regina clay

deposit consists of a dark brown clay unit near the ground surface with

a light grayish brown, siltier unit part way down the profile. The silty

unit sometimes extends down to the underlying till and sometimes reverts

back to a clay unit which overlies the till. The silty unit become s

thicker towards the northeast (i.e. as the Condie Moraine is approached}.

Figures 4 and 5 show typical cross-sections of the surficial strati­

graphy based on soil test boreholes associated with foundation investiga­

tions in Regina. Figure 4 is a North-South section along Albert A venue

and Figure 5 is an East-West section along Fourth Avenue. The ground

surface is assumed horizontal.

A detailed description of a typical soil profile (Testhole #10) is

shown in Figure 6 (Fredlund, 1963). The testhole is located back of 646

Williams Crescent at the intersection of Campbell Street and Williams Street.

The upper portion of the clay has a crumbly, nuggetty macrostructure. With

* P. Kozicki (1970), From the files of Ground Engineering Ltd.

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FIGURE 2 . FINAL STAGES OF GLACIAL HISTORY (AFTER E.A. CHRISTIANSEN, 1961)

 6

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FIGURE 3. ISOPACH MAP OF REGINA CLAY (AFTER E.A. CHRISTIANSEN, 1960)

 LEGEND SCALE

TOPSOIL OR F. M. CLAY TILL HORIZ. 1 " • 3124'

VERT. 1 " • i.76'

[. 3
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9 th. AVE. N McKINLEY AVE. DEWDNEY AVE. COLLEGE AVE. ASSINIBOINE AVE. 29 th. AVE.

FICURE 4. STRATIGRAPHIC CROSS-SECTION ALONG OR NEAR ALBERT ST. REGINA, N.S. LINE

(FROM KOZICKI, 1970)

 LEGEND SCALE

TOPSOIL OR F. M. CLAY TILL HORIZ. 1"= 3I24'

c7

VERT. t"= 11.76'

SAND 8 GRAVEL
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COURTNEY ST. CAMPBELL ST. PASQUA ST. ALBERT ST. WINNIPEG ST. PARK ST.

FIGURE 5. STRATIGRAPHIC CROSS-SECTION AL O N G OP WEAR FOURTH AVE. REGINA, £•• LINE

(FR0I KOZICKI, 1970)

Or1UiE. ODITONS 6 ATTERSE9 (arTS

su4gut. cog' - %%, w . ( - O w ­ er­

10 2 J0 40 0 60 0

I CLAY (Lacustrine)

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f

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- 3 inch silt layer
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CLAY
- Stiff
- Some fissures with Rust and Manganese
Staining

Silt Layer - Light Brown

- Clay w i t h sand and pebbles

- Massive layers
- Mottled.

SILT
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- Dry Crumbly
- Low Plasticity
SILT I
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Sand - Light Grey Brown - Medium Grained.
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[ .% - Black, Highly Plastic.
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- Intact
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End of H o l e
- Dry

FIGURE 6. TESTHOLE NO. 10 AT 646 W I L LI A M S CRESCENT, R EG IN A . (FREDLUND, 1973)

 10

depth, the nuggets get larger, grading to a fissured, slickensided

mass below approximately ten feet.

III. CLASSIFICATION AND M I N E RA L O G I C A L PROPERTIES

The present physical properties of a soil can be visualized in

terms of its mineralogical and chemical composition, and subsequent

changes due to its environment. This section describes the clay

mineralogy and the physic-chemical properties of Regina soil along

with typical classification properties.

Table I presents results published by Fredlund (1967) from a

sample at a depth of 15.6 feet at the site of the Saskatchewan Govern­

ment Telephones Building on the northwest corner of College Avenue and

Albert Street, Regina. Table II shows the result of classification

and x-ray diffraction tests performed on samples from various depths

in Testhole #10 (see Figure 6, Fredlund, 1973).

I I I . 1 Grain Size

The classification test results obtained from Testhole #10 are

typical of those generally encountered in the city of Regina. The upper

portion of the profile contains an average of 59 percent clay sizes, 38

percent silt sizes and 3 percent sand sizes.

III.2 Atterberg Limits

The liquid limit decreas e s slightly with depth with an overall

average of 69 percent. (The liquid limit of Regina clay generally

ranges between 60 and 80 percent). The average plastic limit is 26

1
percent. According to Casagrande s Plasticity chart, the soil classifies
 11

TABLE I

SUMMARY OF CLASSIFICATION TESTS ON REGINA CLAY

TEST RESULT

Specific Gravity 2.83

Atterberg Limits

Liquid Limit 75.5 %

Plastic Limit 24.9 %

Shrinkage Limit 1 3 . 1 %

Plasticity Index 5 0 . 6 %

Grain-size Distribution

Sand S i z e s 8 %

Silt S i z e s 41 %

Clay S i z e s 51 %

Mineralogical Composition of Material

less than 2 microns#

Montmorillonite 77 %

Illite 15 %

Kaolinite 8 %

Exchange Capacity 3 1 . 7 me/100 gm

(milliequivalents per 100 grams

d r y weight of soil).

Exchangeable Cations

Magnesium 1 5 . 3 me/100 gm

Calcium 54.4 me/100 gm

Potassium 0.59 me/100 gm

Sodium 1 . 7 7 me/100 gm

* Tests were performed on a block sample from a depth of 15.6 feet at the
site of the Saskatchewan Government T e l e p h o n e Building, College Avenue
and Albert Street, Regina.

** X-ray Analysis performed by Alberta Research Council

*** Exchange capacity analyses performed by the Soil Science Department,

University of A l b e r t a .
 TABLE II

CLASSIFICATION AND X-RAY DIFFRACTION TESTS FROM TESTHOLE NO. 10

Grain Sizes (%) Atterberg Limits X-ray Diffraction Tests

Depth

(Feet) Clay Silt Sand Liquid P l as t i C Shrinkage M o n tm o r i l 1 o n i t e I1lite Kaolinite

Limit Limit Limit % %

% % %

2 62 29 9 80.8 32.3 15.3

4 62 35 3 77 . 2 27.0 14.5
6 76 17 7 88.7 28.0 14.5 55 35 10
_.
8 79 21 0 87.3 29.4 15.0
n
10 65 34 l 77.1 29.2 12.9
12 64 30 6 77.8 28.6 12.4 45 40 15
14 68 32 0 82.6 26.6 1 1 . 9
>-
<1 16 64 36 0 77.4 24.0 1 1. 6
l
u 18 59 39 2 76.2 25.0 1 1. 5 45 40 15

<I 20 49 50 1 57.0 20.1 15.1

2
t 22 50 45 5 65.4 25.5 12.4
c
LJ 24 45 55 0 60.4 24.0 13.7 50 35 15
cc
26 51 46 3 65.0 22.6 12.3
27.5 69.8 23.2 10.8
28 52 47 1 62.0 24.2 12.7

30 44 49 7 55.2 22. l 13.3 45 45 10

I- 32 34 58 8 41.5 2 1. 0 16.7
....J
et 34 25 72 3 29.9 16.1 18.9
u
35 37.0 16.3 1 1 . 3 45 40 15
....J

<r 39 39 37 24 40.3 17. 0 1 1. 1

he4 h
C .) 40.5 39 38 23 40.6 16.5 11.4
<z
....J I- 42 37 36 27 38.7 16.3 10.6 35 45 20
c
 13

as an inorganic clay of high plasticity. The activity of Regina clay

(i.e. the ratio of the plastic index to the percent clay sizes) is

approximately 0.7. In accordance with Figure 7 (Williams, 1958), the

soil has a 'very high' swell potential.

The water content corresponding to the minimum volume a soil can

attain through drying is defined as the shrinkage limit. The average

shrinkage limit from T e s t h o l e # 1 0 is 13 percent. The mo d e r a t e l y low

shrinkage limit demonstrates the wide range of water content change

over w h i c h the soil changes volume upon shrinking and swelling. Figure

8 shows the shrinkage curves for two samples of Regina clay initially

slurried above the liquid limit.

111.3 Specific Gravity

The specific g r a v i t y of Regina clay is relatively high, ranging

from 2.79 to 2.83.

I I I. 4 Mineralogy

Very little information has been published on the clay mineralogy

or c h e m i s t r y of Regina clay (Gardiner, 1965). Rice et al (1954) re­

ported that x-ray diffraction tests indicated a strong mo n t mo r i l l o n i t i c

pattern for several lacustrine deposits in Saskatchewan. Even a small

a mo u n t of m o n t mo r i l l o n i t e has a significant influence on the behavior

of a soil. The results presented in Table I and II indicate that Regina

clay consists of approximately 53 percent mo n t i m o r i l l o n i t e , 35 percent

illite and 12 p ercent kaolinite. The high mo n t mo r i l l o n i t e content will

dominate the soil's behavior and therefore it can be referred to as a

mo n t m o r i l l o n i t i c clay.
 14

1 0 0 ---------------------

LJ
-h
a..
2
<[

(/)

VERY HIGH
Ll

6so
r
�

LL

0
.

- HIGH

0
50 100

CLAY FRACTION OF WHOLE SAMPLE

FIGURL 7 . CORRLLAT ION BE T W E E ! SWELL POTE'THAL A D ACTIVITY

(FROM WILLIAMS, 1958)

 1 5

140

120

c
o
t

100 /
LJ

a...

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9, L I QU I D
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LIMIT
80
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Saturation l i n e

> P.
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3-
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8°
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PLASTIC
Li.
40 LI M IT

c
Lui

a... S H R I N KA G E

u
LI M IT

20

01------'------L----_...._ _

0 20 40 60 80 100

WATER CONTENT, PER CENT

FIGURE 8. SPECIFIC BULK VOLUME VERSUS WATER CONTENT FOR

R E G IN A CLAY (FREDLUND, 1967)

 1 6

The montmorillonite clay mineral is commonly known to be potentially

troublesome for its high swelling and compressibility characteristics and

its low shear strength. The oxygen to oxygen bond between the individual

layers comprising mo n t m o r i l l o n i t e is extremely weak, allowing it to

break down into very small particles (Figure 9). Numerous cations and

layers of a d s o r b e d water can occupy the space around individual particles.

The application or removal of load either to the soil structure or the

water phase produces significant volume changes as a result of expulsion

or uptake of a d s o r b e d w a t e r .

III.5 Surface C h em i s t r y

The physcial properties of a mo n t m o r i l l o n i t i c clay are also

strongly influenced by the type of cations adsorbed to the surface

of the clay. The results shown in Table I indicate that 75 percent of

the available positions around the particle are occupied by calcium

cations. Therefore, the soil can be termed a c a l c i u m mo n t m o r i l l o n i t i c

clay. It should be noted that the physical properties (in particular,

the swelling properties) would be c o n s i d e r a b l y more severe if sodium

were the adsorbed cation.

The classification and mineralogical data indicate that the poten­

tial for swelling is the mo s t important engineering problem likely to

be encountered. The severity of the swelling problem is also affected

by the past stress history, the present environment and future changes

in loading and e n v i r o n me n t .
 17

SILICA

TETRAHEDRONS

ALUMINA

OCTAHEDRONS

SILICA

TETRAHEDRONS

Exchangeable Cations

nH,O

S I LI C A

TETRAHEDRONS

QOrygens @ Hydroxyls Aminum, iron, magnesium

O ond Silicon, occasionally aluminum

FIGURE 9. DIAGRAMMATIC R E P R E S EN T A TI O N OF THE STRUCTURE OF MONTMORILLONITE

{FROM GRIM, 1962)

 18

IV STRESS VARIABLES CONTROLLING BEHAVIOR

Soil mechanics came into prominence in the 1930's primarily as a

result of T e r z a g h i ' s convincing evidence to support the effective stress

concept. The concept indicated that for a saturated soil, the difference

between the total stress (o) and the pore water p r e s s u r e (u,) formed a

stress variable ( o ' , effective stress), which controlled the deformation,

volume change and strength b e h a v i o r of a soil (i.e. o ' = a - ,). This

concept has proven to be the key in formulating and analyzing problems

in soil me c h a n i c s . Effective stress coupled with the physical soil

properties provides the basis for p r e d i c t i v e engineering procedures.

The success of the effective stress concept in describing the be­

h a v i o r of saturated soils has led research workers into a search for a

similar statement for unsaturated soils. During the last two decades,

there have been numerous equations proposed in the literature; however,

none have proven completely successful in practice.

Fredlund (1973) used fundamental principles of continuum mechanics

to demonstrate that two independent stress v a r i a b l e s were required to

describe the stress conditions in an unsaturated soil. The theoretically

proposed stress variables were experimentally verified. Engineering

analyses associated with unsaturated soils can best be handled in terms

of the following stress variables:

(s - u , ) and

, - %
where o = total normal stress

_ = pore air pressure

',, pore water pressure

 19

The first stress variable (o - u ) is termed the 'net applied

. a

load' and the second stress variable (u - u ) is termed the 'matric

a W

suction'. These two stress variables will be used to demonstrate the

effect of stress history upon the physical properties of Regina clay.

As well, future volume changes should be visualized in terms of

changes in the stress variables.

V. EFFECT OF STRESS VARIABLE CHANGES ON VOLUME CHANGE PROPERTIES

The present physical properties of Regina Clay are dependent upon

the past stress influences since deposition. The geotechnical engineer

must also be able to evaluate the present state of stress in the soil

and determine suitable physical properties to predict future behavior.

These aspects are considered under the following sub-headings:

a) Stress History

b) Present State of S t r e s s and

c) Future Deformation

V.1 Stress History

During the Pleistocene Epoch, the Regina clay sediments were de­

posited in a glacial lake. T h e i r water contents would have been near

the liquid limit of the soil with the consolidating pressure being the

buoyant w e i g h t of the o v e r l y i n g sediments (Figure 10). The water con­

tents would plot as points on the virgin compression branch and remain

as unique points as long as some water covered the surface of the sedi­

ments.

The drainage of glacial Lake Regina and the subsequent evaporation

of all the free water o v e r t h e lake sediments conmences a desiccation

or drying of the underlying sediments. The water table is then drawn

below the ground surface. The total stress on the sediments remains
 TOTAL WATER EFFECTIVE

STRESS (O ) PRESSURE (Uw) STRESS (0')

WATER LEVEL QD

WATER LEVEL ?

LAKE REGINA

( SATURATED SEDIMENTS )
x 0

x b

I.

o
Xx c

e or

w %

VIRGIN COMPRESSION

BRANCH

LOG ( O - Uaw )

FIGURE 1 O . REPRISE'TATI OF STRESSES IN SUE'ERGEU LAKE REGI'IA

 21

essentially constant, while the stress in the water phase is reduced.

(It becomes negative above the water table). This gives rise to an

increase in effective stress and the soil consolidates. Since the

tension in the water phase acts in all three directions, there is the

tendency for cracking and desaturation of the upper p o r t i o n of the

profile (Figure lla).

Grasses, trees a n d other plants also start to grow on the surface

with the net effect of further drying the soil by applying a tension

to the water phase. This is referred to as evapotranspiration. Most

plants are c a p a b l e of applying 10 to 20 atmospheres of tension to the

water phase prior to reaching their w i l t i n g point. A high tension in

the water phase (i.e. high matric suction) me a n s that the soil has been

dried and desiccated. This is reflected by an increase in the strength

of the soil. The freezing of the soil also applies a high tension to

the water.

With time, the above processes produce a dry, heavily overconsoli­

dated soil mass. These processes are also responsible for producing a

system o f fissures and joints which are reflected as a nuggetty macro­

structure in the soil. This structure strongly influences the behavior

of the soil.

Year after y e a r , the surface deposit is subjected to varying and

changing environmental conditions. In response to these changes, the

upper portion of the deposit swells and shrinks. This portion of the

I 1
p r o f il e is referred to as the active zone ( H a m i lt o n , 1963). It is

exponentially more active at ground surface, b u t may extend to depths

in excess of 10 feet.
 22

EVAPORATION EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

1. R \ s sssromoN

2 FISSURES

x. b'
WATER SATURATION

PRESSURE

xc'

(a)

k c

e or
e
\
w %
OVERBURDEN
a'
LOADING
b'
¢'
a
\
( IF SATURATED)

LOG ( - Uw)

( b )

I
I LOG ( U w)

( c )
LOG ( O - U a )

FIGURE 1 1 . STRESS REPRESENTATION AFTER THE LE SEDIMENTS ARE SUBJECTED

TO EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

 23

As long as the soil remains essentially saturated (i.e. S > 95%),

the effects of the stress changes can be considered on a void ratio,

(e), versus log effective stress, (o'), plot (Figure 1lb). As the

soil becomes further unsaturated, the void ratio changes must be con­

sidered in terms o f two stress variables (Figure llc). Evaporation

and evapotranspiration are depicted as movements in the ( u _, " ,) plane,

whereas loads applied to the soil structure are shown in the (o - _, )

plane. Thus, wetting and drying due to environmental effects are visu­

alized as changes along hysteresis loops in the matric suction plane

( g, - u ) .
W

The drying and desiccation of Regina clay o v e r many seasons has

greatly reduced its natural water content. At present, the natural

water content is c o mm o n l y close to the plastic limit for the soil.

Tes t h o l e #10 (see Figure 6) was drilled in an open field area on July 28,

1970. The average water content in the upper five feet was 21.3%, from

five to ten feet i t was 26.0% and from 10 to 20 feet i t was 23.9%.

These water contents are all slightly below the plastic l i m i t of the

soil. Figure 12 shows the probable extreme ranges of water content for

undisturbed Regina clay (Hamilton, 1969). Under extremely dry conditions,

the water content can drop to less than 10% and u n d e r e x t r e m e l y wet con­

ditions, it can exceed 50 near ground surface. The low initial water

content profile commonly encountered in Regina clay indicates that the

soil has the potential for considerable swelling if evaporation and

evapotranspiration are cut off from the ground surface by a light engin­

eering structure.
MOISTURE CONTENT, % (DRY WEIGHT BASIS)

0 20 40 60 80
0

2 0 4

.... 0
0

0¢

'+
Lt

A
0

0 B
r
.... 0 A
0

~
o
6
0

8 0

00
10

FIGURE 12. PROBABLY EXTREME RANGES O F WATER CONTENT FOR UNDISTURBED

REGINA CLAYS. (From H a m i l t o n , 1969)

(A) extremely dry c o n d i t i o n s resulting from many years of

exposure to 7 5 ° F and 2O% relative humidity at the surface
(Hypothetical); (B) extremely m o i s t conditions resulting
from many years of continuous surface flooding (Hypothe­
tical); (C) actual soil moisture conditions after ten years
of drying in an uncovered crawl space {D) actual soil
moisture conditions after f i v e years of heavy lawn w a t e r i n g .
 25

The degree of saturation in the upper three feet of an open field

area c o mmo n l y drops below 80%. It generally increases with depth to

approximately 95% below a depth of f i v e feet.

V.2 Present State of Stress

When the soil is s a m p l e d for laboratory testing purposes, the

insitu state of stress may be anywhere a l o n g e i t h e r a drying or w e t t i n g

portion of the stress-strain r e l _ a t io n s h i p . Figure 13 shows sampling

taking place at the maximum p o i n t of drying to w h i c h the s a m p l e has

been subjected. Figure 14 shows the sample having undergone a more

complex stress history.

The i n f o nn a t i o n desired by the geotechnical engineer, from the

laboratory testing program is an assessment o f :

a) the insitu state of stress

b) the preconsolidation pressure of the soil

c) the compressibility and/or s w e l l i n g with res p ec t to changes in

net loading (i.e. o - u ) and the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y and / or s w e l l i n g
with respect to changes"in matric suction (i.e. , )­

A very d e m a n d i n g testing facility and program w o u l d be required to

completely assess all the above variables. Fo r t h i s reason, it is

necessary to develop a s i m p l e r and mo re rapid proced u re to get the in­

for m ation required for solving practical problems.

The m a i n simplification and assumption made is that there is a rela­

tively fixed relationship be t ween the stress-strain relationships along

the ne t applied load axis and the m a t r i c suction axis. The ratio of th e

I I
two stresses is designated by t he G ree k sy m pb o l X •

( ¢ - ,)

- , ­
 26

NET LOAD APPLIED

TO THE SOIL
EVAPORATION OR
STRUCTURE
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

TENSION APPLIED TO

THE WATER PHASE

M

( O - U a ) o
LOG (U% w)
OVERBURDEN

PRESSURE

> � ( U o - U w ) o i- ­

MATRIC SUCTION

LOG ( O - U a )

FIGURE 1 3 . STRESS STATE WHEN SAMPLING A SOIL OI THE DRYIIIG SURFACE

 27

( - Ua)o
LOG ( U a U w )
OVERBURDEN

PRESSURE

a who -l
MATRIC SUCTION

LOG ( O - U a )

FIGURE 14. STRESS STATE WHEN SOIL HAS UNDERGONE A COMPLEX STRESS HISTORY

CAUSED BY D R Y I N G AND WETTING.

 28

For a saturated soil, '' is approximately equal to 1.0. With

decreasing degrees of saturation, the '' value decreases. The rela­

tionship for several soils is shown in Figure 15 (Bishop and Henkel,

1 96 2 ) . If '' is a continuous fu n c t i o n of degree of saturation, then

the compressibility and swelling modulii must also bear the same re­

lationship on the (a - ,) and (u, ,) axes. With this assumption

in mind, it is possible to use a laboratory testing procedure that

eliminates the meniscii pressures in the soil sample (i.e. matric

suction) and considers only the net applied loading.

The test procedure most c o mmo n l y used in western Canada for evalu­

ating the volume change properties of swelling soils is termed a 'con­

stant volume oedometer test' (Noble, 1966). In this procedure, the

sample is subjected to a token load and immersed in water. As the sam­

ple tends to swell, the applied load is increased to ma i n t a i n the volume

of the sample constant. After the swelling tendency has been completely

satisfied, the sample is further loaded and unloaded in the conventional

ma n n e r . This test procedure is a simplified simulation of the real

field situation. Two corrections must be a p p l i e d to the test results

prior to their interpretation. They are:

a) a correction for the compressibility of the oedometer apparatus

(Fredlund, 1969), and

b) a correction for the effect of sample disturbance

Since overconsolidated, swelling soils have a relatively low com­

pressiblity, the compressibility of the apparatus significantly affects

the evaluation of insitu stresses and the slope of the compression and

rebound curves. To overcome this problem, the compressibility of the

apparatus should be measured with a steel plug substituted for the soil

sample. The measured deflections should be subtracted from the deflec­

tions m e a s u r e d when testing the soil (Figure 16).

 29

·ft

.. · /

(a)
X

0·2
o Drained tests
/ Constant water
content tests

·% 20 40 60 80 100

Degree of saturation S -%

Xx (b)

Moraine
I

oz I
Boulder
cl9
j
j@
3 Boulden clay
I

@ Clay-shale

do

0 20 40 60 80 100

Degree of saturation S -%

FIGURE 15 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PARAMETER x AND THE DEGREE OF SATURATION

FOR (a) A COHESIONLESS S I L T AND (b) TYPICAL COMPACTED SOILS.

(FROM B I S H O P AND HENKEL, 1962)

 30

VOID

RATIO
I I

e
( O -Ulo } ( u t w l , s]

OVERBURDEN

PRESSURE

eo
CASAGRANDE'S

] CONSTRUCTION
CORRECTION FOR

COMPRESSIBILITY �

OF APPARATUS
�

� �

�
�

LOG (O - U a )

FIGURE 16. INTERPRETATION OF THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSTANT VOLUME TEST

 31 I

Sampling of a soil always increases the compressibility of the

soil structure and does not permit the lab sample to return to its

insitu state of stress at its insitu void ratio. Casagrande (1936)

proposed an empirical construction on the laboratory curve to account

for the effect of sample disturbance. This construction should be

done on the consolidation curve that has been corrected for compres­

sibility. The resulting value obtained is equal to the sum of the

net applied load and the m a t r i c suction if the soil is near saturation.

At lower degrees of saturation, the laboratory matric suction value

(obtained from the net loading plane), should be divided by '' to

obtain the insitu matric suction value.

G , - h 1 a s

The above procedure provides an indication of the insitu state

of stress of the soil. In the past, the term 'swelling pressure' has

been used to designate the insitu stress. I t was taken as equal to

the sum of the overburden pressure and the m a t r i c suction (Fredlund,

1969). However, the swelling p r e s s u r e was g e n e r a ll y o b t a i n e d from a

'constant volume oedometer test' where no correction was applied for

the effect of sample disturbance. As a r e s u lt , the matric suction of

the soil was under-estimated.

Another procedure used to evaluate the 'swelling pressure' is the

'free swell oedometer test' (Fredlund, 1969). In this test procedure,

the sample is initially allowed to swell freely w i t h only a token load

applied. The load required to bring the sample back to its original

void ratio is defined as the 'swelling pressure'. The procedure has

limitations in that hysteresis has been incorporated into the prediction

of the insitu state of stress.

 I

32

Gilchrist (1963) compared the 'constant v o l u me ' and 'free swell'

methods of determining the swelling pressure for samples of statically

compacted Regina clay (Figure 17). Although no corrections were applied

by Gilchrist (loc cit), the author has taken the liberty to apply a

correction to account for sample disturbance. In so doing, the values

of 'swelling pressure' are significantly increased. Also shown in

Figure 17 are the 'swelling pressure' results obtained on artificially

desiccated Regina clay samples tested by Lu (1969). Corrections are

applied for the compressibility of apparatus and sample disturbance.

When these corrections are applied to the test results, the 'swelling

pressure' values are in close agreement w i t h the virgin compression

branch obtained from the compression of slurried Regina clay samples

(see Figure 20 shown later). This agreement lends credence to the

above procedure for e s t i m a t i n g the insitu state of stress.

An indication of the preconsolidation pressure of the soil can

be obtained either from a knowledge of the location of the virgin

1
compression branch or by Schmertman s empirical construction (Schmert­

man, 1955).

The compressibility and swelling mo d u l i i with respect to net applied

load, (o - u_), can be taken off the corrected or reconstructed labora­

tory curve. T he corresponding mo d u l i i with respect to matric suction

changes can be approximated as [·(lab moduii)] with respect to changes

in net applied load.

V.3 Future Deformations

T he theoretical prediction of future g r o u n d movements requires a

knowledge of:

a) the initial insitu state of stress ( i . e . (o - u,) and (u, ,))

b) the compressibility and swelling mo d u l i i , and

c) the final state of stress (Fredlund, 1975)

 1.8 -- I

FREE SWELL
CONSTANT VOLUME TESTS CORRECTED FOR
1.7
TESTS ( F. S . )
COMPRESSIBILITY AND SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

1.6

CONSTANT \
1.5
vou~is ),
TESTS (CV)
VIRGIN COMPRESSION BRANCH
1.4

1.3

0
.2
i=
«t
c:
Lu (1969) ARTIFICIALLY
I .I

DESICCATED CLAY ( CORRECTED )

o
0

9 1.0
G

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0. 5

0.0l 0.1 1.0 10 I0o

2
SWELLING PRESSURE (KG./CM. )

FIGURE 17. THE R E L A TI O N S H I P OF V O ID RATIO AND S W E L LI N G PRESSURE D E T E R M IN ED

BY THREE METHODS ( R E G IN A CLAY)

 I

34

The evaluation of the initial stress state and the mo d u l i i of

d e fo r ma t i o n have already been presented. In order to compute the

final state of stress corresponding to several years after construc­

tion, an assumption must be made w i t h respect to the final water

pressure profile. Two assumptions are applicable to the Regina region.

First, i t can be assumed that the s o il w il l e v e n t u a ll y become saturated

and t h e water pressures are zero with respect to depth. Second, it can

be assumed that the water table will come to ground surface (locally)

and the water pressures are hydrostatic with respect to depth.

The effects of e x c a v a t i o n , replacement w i t h a relatively inert

material (eg. gravel), loadings, etc., can all be taken into account

by using the appropriate mo d u l i i for loading and unloading, and the

initial and final stress states.

VI. SHEAR STRENGTH

Generally, shear strength is not a serious problem w i t h respect

to foundations placed on swelling clays. However, the shear strength

is of considerable interest with respect to slope stability.

The stress strain curve for Regina clay is typical for a heavily

overconsolidated clay (Figure 18). The deviator stress increases

rapidly, peaking at a relatively low strain. It then decreases,

levelling off at a considerably lower value referred to as the 'residual

shear strength'.

The stress variables used to describe stress history and the pre-

sent state of stress in an unsaturated soil can also be used to describe

the shear strength of a soil. The Mohr d i a g r a m becomes a three-dimensional

plot with each of the two stress variables represented along orthogonal
 35

::c

5
E
en
>-
<c
h
-l €

<1

� z

- t

c
LJ

£ c

-
R
0:::

o
L.

::c
t- - LJ

>
0:::

2
Lu z
­
<

z
r
t- a t

<1
en or 0:::

f f
u
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¢ u
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( o- ' o ) $S3HIS 0LVIA3G

 36

horizontal axes (Figure 19). The graph shows that strength increases

as the matric suction increases. The lowest strength corresponds to

the plane where the matric suction goes to zero.

A common occurrence in cuts or fills of swelling soils is their

reduction in strength w i t h time. At the time of c o m p a c t i o n , the clay

has a high matric suction if it is compacted at or below the optimum

water content. Correspondingly, it has a high strength and will stand

at steep slopes. With time, the soil generally becomes saturated and

the matric suction reduces towards zero. There is a corresponding re­

duction in strength and if the gravitational forces are too large,

the slope fails.

VII. TYPICAL VALUES FOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Several research programs have been conducted at the U n i v e r s i t y of

Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, on the physical properties of Regina clay.

Typical results have been extracted to depict the:

a) compressibility properties

b) swelling properties, and

c) shear strength properties of Regina clay

The sources of data are the following M.Sc. theses:

Gilchrist, H . G . (1963), "A Study of Volume Change of a Highly

Plastic Clay".

Fredlund, D.G. (1964), "Comparison of Soil Suction and On e ­

Dimensional Consolidation Characteristics of a

Highly Plastic Clay".

Lu, Yi Ming (1969), "Swell Properties of Desiccated Regina Clay".

Widger, A. ( 1 9 7 5 ) , "Evaluation of the Shear Strength of Unsatur­

ated Soils", (In Print).

0:
PLANE OF ZERO w
4 ,
<t
MATRIC SUCTION
LJ
r
0

+c'

t
CJi t
2 0-3 )
( - U

FIGURE 19. MOHR ENVELOPE FOR UNSATURATED OR DESICCATED REGINA CLAY

 38

VII.l Compressibility Properties

When Regina clay is r e mo l d e d at a water content near the liquid

limit, the soil exhibits a relatively high compressibility. Figure 20

shows the compressibility with respect to one-dimensional consolidation

in an oedometer (Fredlund, 1964). The classification properties of the

soil are shown in Table I. The c o mp r e s s i v e i n d e x on the virgin compres­

sion branch is approximately 0 . 8 . Increasing amounts of preconsolidation

greatly reduce the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of the soil. Figure 21 shows the

compressibility r e s u l t s when a suction (or tension) is applied to the

water p h a s e . The c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y on the virgin compression branch is

very similar to that for o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l consolidation. The recom­

p ression branches are s l i g h t l y more curved due to the consolidation

being three-dimensional in the suction test. As l ong a s the samples

remain e s s e n t i a ll y saturated, the c o m p r e s s i b i l it y w it h respect to net

l o a d i n g o f the soil struc t u re is s i m i l a r to the compressibility with

respect to applying a tension to the water phase ( i . e . y = 1 . 0 ) .

'

G i l c h r i s t ( 1 9 6 3 ) p e r f o r me d oe d ometer t e s t s on statically com p acted

samples of Re g i n a clay. The samples were a ll o w e d to swe ll against

varying surcharge loads. The classification tests on the soil indicated

a liquid limit of 76%, a plastic limit of 30% and a shrinkage l i m i t of

1 5 % . Figure 22 shows the results for samples p repared at an initial

void r a t i o of a p p r o x i ma t e l y 0 .67. The average compressive index is

0 .23. F igures 2 3 and 24 show s i m i l a r compression cu rves for samples

p repared at average initial void ratios of 0.79 and 0 . 9 4 , respectively.

T he corresponding c ompressive indices are 0 . 2 8 and 0 .30.

 39

90
, Note: Numbers i n brackets refer to
. 0. 0 6 z . -- _, preconsolidation pressure in kg/cm

,t-

2
L
80

-"
c
70
•
Lu

­
t-
-
(0.50)% -
· --0 ----..;
■ --
"
�---
0

~ s o
t-

z
o
c
._",
5 s o (2.0) A.------A------A- '
-----A�
t­

«< (4.0)
0_________
3

40 0---·- --�

30
«

'
0.01 0.1 1. 0 10

EFFECTIVE P R E S S U R E , kg/cm?

FIGURE 20. EFFECTIVE PRESSURE VERSUS WATER CONTENT FOR REMOLDED REGINA

CLAY (ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION T E S T S ) .

 40

9
N o t e : N u m b e r s i n brackets refer to

preconsolidation pressure i n kg/cm

(0.062) •

80

I-

z
D
Ll ( 0 . 2 5 )
c
70
Lu

I-
(0.50)
•
6
I-

z
o
c (2.0)
A

or
( 4 . 0 ) 0

50

<C

3:

40

30

0.01 0.1 1. 0 10

S O I L S U C T I O N , kg/cm?

FIGURE 21. SOIL SUCTION VERSUS WATER CONTENT FOR REMOLDED R E G I N A CLAY
 •

I. I

a
1.0

9
°
l .""
<t •
0:

0.9
0
·-·--.�
0
> ;
>»
.....
,
·�:�
r 3
0.8
3%
).

0�

0.7 - +
• 0
0

8­

0.6

0.01 0.1 10 100

2
APPLIED LOAD ( K G . /CM. )

FIGURE 22. OED0METER TESTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY (e, = 0.67)

(FROM GILCHRIST, 1963)

 cw

I. I

1.0

5
0:
0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6'_,
0.01 0.1

APPLIED LOAD ( KG. / CM.2 )

FIGURE 23. OEDOMETER TESTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY (e, = 0.79)

( F R OM GILCHRIST, 1963)
 (

l.3r----------r-------""'T"""--------------------

t.2

I.I

5
or
1.0

0
>

0.9

0.8

t}lb.led.dad
0 . 00 1 0.01 0.1 10

2
APPLIED LOAD ( KG. / CM. )

F I GU R E 24. OEDOMETER TESTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY (e, = 0.94) ( F r om G i l ch r i s t , 1963)

 44

Lu (1969) artificially desiccated samples of Regina clay and then

performed o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l , constant volume oedometer tests (Figure 25).

The classification properties are the same as those shown in Table I.

The initial volume-weight relationships and swelling pressures are

given in Table III.

TABLE II I

CONSTANT VOLUME OEDOMETER TESTS ON

ARTIFICIALLY DESICCATED REGINA CLAY (From Lu, 1969)

Initial Conditions S w e ll i n g Pressure (kg/cm')

Sample Water Void Degree of Constant Corrected for

Content Saturation
No. () Ratio (%) Volume Sample Disturbance

D5 1 6 . 75 0.512 91.8 25.0 52.0

D6 26.55 0.750 99.l 8.0 2 1. 0

D7 29.46 0.847 97.3 7.0 10 . 5

D8 34.62 1.030 93.l 2.0 4. l

Corrected for compressibility of apparatus only.

The high swelling pressures (i.e. 4 to 52 kg/cm) are indicative

of t h e high tensions that can exist in the water phase. The average

compressive index for loading above the preconsolidation pressure is

0.44.

The insitu Regina clay has a moderate compressibility due to its

long history of preconsolidation by evaporation and desiccation. Set­

tlement is not generally a serious p r o b l e m at loadings less than the

preconsolidation pressure.
 l.2r--------------------------------

D8

0.8
9
f
<
0:

-He
o

0 0.6
>
0 5

d dd

0.1 10 100

2
APPLIED LOAD ( KG. / C M . )

FIGURE 25. OEDOMETER TESTS ON A R T I F I C I A L L Y DESICCATED REGINA CLAY

(FROM L U , 1969)
 46

VIH.2 S w e l l i n g Properties

Regina clay w i l l generally swell upon wetting, even under relatively

high surcharge loadings. The oedometer results presented in Figures 22,

23, and 24 (Gilchrist, 1963) showed the amount of swell experienced for

various surcharge loads and initial void ratios. The swelling indices

are 0.17, 0.15 and 0.13 for initial void ratios of 0.67, 0.79 and 0.94,

respectively. These results can be replotted in terms of percent

v o l u me change, i n it i a l water content and surcharge loading (Figure 26).

The plot readily depicts the benefits of even a small surcharge on re­

ducing the amount of swell. The results of both compacted and undis­

turbed tests indicate similar swell curves.

The swelling index, 6_, on the artificially desiccated samples of

Regina clay prepared by Lu (1969), ranged from 0 . 1 2 to 0.15.

V I I . 3 Shear Strength Properties

Several sets of triaxial tests with pore pressure measurements

have been performed on compacted Regina clay for the Department o f

Highways, Government of Saskatchewan. Figures 27 and 28 show the

residual total and e ff e c t i v e stress Mohr envelopes obtained on samples

compacted at 100% standard AA S H O . The samples were backpressured in

an attempt to produce saturation. It should be noted that backpressuring

the samples over a short period of time is not likely to produce as

serious a situation as extensive soaking of the soil. Table IV sum­

marizes the shear strength parameters.

 2 4 +
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-
.3 -0,._
4._0..,_
5
._ 0�-
.6-0,_
7
._0..
8
._0�9
.--1

!g[els ); T
SURCHARGE LOAD - KG./ so. CM.

3 (i3?%leg\ las

@ 4, l g ? ] [ [26.s

> [!R6 2s ")

I[k37. 1/ 2 5 9 j3 . 1 27.3
.
TT 3a
l\ j a r ! ] 3! 9

" 31.8

w
"I ldeeded

0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

SURCHARGE LOAD KG./ S0. CM.

FIGURE 26. VOLUME CHANGE VERSUS SURCHARGE LOAD FROM EXPERIMENTAL DATA

(FROM N O B L E , 1966)
 I TOTAL STRENGTH ] ENVELOPE FOR R-23
I
I
...++.
r---·
BASED ON I2 % STRAIN

9 ·l08° C45psi
I
u)

• -•---!..•-•--••-...:..---• - • - - • • - - • • -- - • • � - - • ----- - · • • - - - • - - - - - • - ►•-••-•; • --- • - • - • - • - � •• ,. ._ �------

U
L
Gr
,._
u
·!
i

c­ .« . . . + . . .
<1 »
t '
ut I 0

r
V)

•
i'

---------

20 30 40 5o 60 7o &G 90 10O

NORMAL STRESS ( P S i )

FIGURE 27. MOHR ENVELOPE FOR TOTAL RESIDUAL STRENGTH

(R-23, Department of Highways)

 «. .«..
t

.
. .

BASED ON I2% STRAIN

0 1 5° c · 2 5 p s i
• • + +

U
U
L
1 . + .

I
g .
I
I
l
U

·i

a «. s o d «
,.

. . .

l .

..

f
- ; ·
¢ «

I . .

... «.

0 Io 20 €0 70 80

NORAL ( P S I )

FIGURE 28. MOHR E N V E L O P E FOR EFFECTIVE RESIDUAL STRENGTH

(R-23, Department of Highways)

 50

TABLE IV

SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF REGINA CLAY

(100% Standard AASHO)

Series R-23, Trans Canada Highway Bypass

Stress Conditions Cohesion ( P S I) Angle of Internal

Friction (Degrees)

Total Stresses at
4.5 10.e°
12% Strain

Effective Stresses at
2.5 15.0°
12% Strain

Widger (1975) has conducted a more detailed investigation of the

shear strength of the Regina Clay fill at the Belle Plaine overpass

between Regina and Moose Jaw. The results (Figures 29, 30 and 31) in­

dicate that samples that have had a long t i me to saturate and soften

exhibit reduced shear strength parameters. Some of the results from

an extensive triaxial testing p r o g r a m are presented in Table V. The

Mohr envelopes tend to be b i l i n e a r with the steepest portion corres­

ponding to the lower confining pressure.

The triaxial test has the limitation that high strains produce

large distortions in the sample and make the computation of the cross­

sectional area difficult. This problem is overcome by using direct

shear tests where samples may be sheared several inches along a distinct

plane. These tests yield a more accurate evaluation of the residual

shear strength parameters. Figure 32 shows the shear strength parameters

obtained from d i r e c t shear tests on undisturbed, softened, block samples.

The best-fit Mohr envelope for the residual shear strength shows a co-
 i .
I

« . . !+ . . . + Peak Effective S t r e n g t h
'

. '

... ,
•··

an I

·t
-
I

0 !

I f

go . - - . . ·- .. t··• • · ·

0
j
u I

!
Q)
I
lb

«dv

. . ..
020 - t
a • • •

I
I
I '
h
I
¢ i I
c
I
··' l
d I I
I
c i

(Jj 10 . +

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Normal Stress (psi)

FIGURE 29. MOHR ENVELOPE FOR PEAK E F F E C T I V E STRENGTH

(BELLE PLAINE OVERPASS)

 · . I

I
T • i
I ..
I

. • I I
• I

· [
• I

( • • • « • . . ·• !
· l .

· - ·- - · · ' ; ° · -- ; - " - - -r - ; · · - · • - · 1 • · · ·• ,. . . . 1 · · · · · - · · • · ,

t ·

] . : H z , ] i

· · · - - · ,
. ' '. . •
[. ' i j . j
• _
! •
•. , • • \
- -- , , • . · · . · · . · • . ---,. . , , . 1 . I · • · - -- · - -- , - · .. · . · · •
• • ' . t
· : • · • ·
I • ' I •
1 · · -- .. ,-·••·-r···
• ' '
•
' • .. '
, :
◄
.

.
-
· - · · · · - .. �
. • ;
h

I
_;_ ·-·-
4 . :
. . '
: . 1 · · · • • - · · · · :
• • . • •

! • • ! ' 1 · . ' :
• • •' • • • • • t • • • I . I I I ' ' .. • •

. • . i • · . I · · . · , · · · : : ·

; i } . • ' : ° [ · i .
••·:-·•.-�.:•1,',I. : . ; ; , , : . � - � . · . � - • . • ; _ : .. : : .. _.:.::::•i: . . : . . . . ···,1 ., .. !::; • . · • '. � : .·• 1
,
• ...
,.:_.:.· I . . • . \ : : . :

• · : ••
. •
• i ! · · ·
1 · I · . · · '
· i '· · . - . v + . . ' ; · ; . · 1 · i · . '

o - · j . . . ' ; { · } ' e = 2 . 0

· · · . , ' . · ' c = 0.0 i · :

g
i

;·
• •
·
v
?
.
·
. .

� -- - · · . :T - . .
· I

•
·

.
· · ·

·
·

. .
'

. '
A
= t o ° [
- - -
__
---­ ' .

I
I

.
' ! m 5 , S

20 40 60 80 100

Normal Stress (psi)

FIGURE 30. MOHR ENVELOPE FOR TOTAL RESIDUAL STRENGTH

(BELLE PLAINE OVERPASS)

 Effective Residual Strength
I .

. '

. I

,,....
$

f
U
1
e j

c
.
I C.
! +
U)

±./
I

· L ·

0
c' 2.9
'= 0.0
.
I
I
1 .
¢' = 13.c-..· -l---_- ..,.
I . . . I

-
~a

0
..

ff} le.N d..l e..hod..l ed..dell.ores.d c

o 20 40 60 80

Normal Stress (psi)

FIGURE 31. MOHR ENVELOPE FOR EFFECTIVE RESIDUAL STRENGTH

(BELLE PLAINE OVERPASS)

 I5

PEAK STRENGTHS

......

­
( TOTAL STRESS )

/
V, /
0 /
/
Io 1 3. 5 °
/
V, /
V, /

Lu /

cr /

� .......
en /

0:
5
t
uh

3
/-F­
0

0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

NORMAL STRESS (PSI)

15 c
p
RESIDUAL STRENGTH

-
en
(TOTAL STRESS)

a
....
u 10

2
r •
p

--- -
en

or 7.5 •
Cl 5
Lu)

r
flt

---
-- --
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

NORMAL STRESS ( PSI )

FIGURE 32. D I R E C T SHEAR TEST RESULTS ON SOFTENED R E G I N A CLAY

AT B E L L E P L A IN E
 55

hesion intercept of 0 . 7 5 psi (108 PSF) and an angle of internal friction

of 7.5 degrees. These results show that Regina clay has low shear

strength parameters when allowed access to w a t e r .

TABLE V

SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS FOR

SATURATED SOFTENED REGINA CLAY

( Be 11 e P1 a i n e )

Stress Conditions Stress Range Cohesion Angle of Internal

(PSI) (PSI) Friction (Degrees)

Peak, Effective < 40 0.0 20.0

Stress 10 to 80 1. 0 15. 5

Residual, Total < 40 0.0 1 1. 0

Stress 20 to 100 2.0 5.5

Residual, Effective < 40 0.0 13.0

Stress 10 to 80 2.0 7.5

VIII SUMMARY

Regina clay can be classified as a highly plastic, inorganic,

c a l c i u m mo n t mo r i l l o n i t i c clay. Its swelling potential is 'very high'.

The severity of the swelling problem is aggravated by the relatively

dry conditions in the Regina area. The net result is a soil that is

generally desiccated and dry in its present state.

The prediction of the b e h a v i o r of the clay in the future (i.e.

after construction) depends upon an evaluation of the present state

of stress and of the physical properties of the soil. The state of

stress can be visualized in terms of the net applied load to the soil
 56

structure (o - U_) and the m a t r i c suction or tension in the water

phase (u_ ,). The physical properties are the c o mp r e s s i b i l i t y

and swelling mo d u l i i with respect to each stress variable, for

volume change problems, and the cohesion and angles of internal

friction for shear strength problems. The geotechnical engineer

must use the soils i n f o r ma t i o n in a predictive sense in order to

be aware of the consequences of v a r i o u s design alternatives on a

project.
 57

(
\

IX. LIST OF REFERENCES

Acton, D . F . , J.S. Clayton, J.G. Ellis, E.A. Christiansen, W.O. Kupsch

(1960), "Physiographic Division of Saskatchewan", Map No. 1 ,
Saskatchewan Research Council, University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon.

Christiansen, E.A. (1961), "Geology and Ground-Water Resources of the

Regina Area, Saskatchewan", Saskatchewan Research Council,

Geology Division, Report No. 2.

Ellis, . G . , D.F. Acton and J.S. Clayton (1965), "The Soils of the Regina

1
Map Area", Saskatchewan Institute of Pedology, Extension Publi­
cation 176, Extension Division, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.

L; Fredlund, D.G. (1967), "Comparison of Soil Suction and One-Dimensional

Consolidation Characteristics of a Highly Plastic Clay", Technical

Paper No. 245, Division of Building Research, Ottawa.
f'1
Fredlund, D.G. (1969), "Consolidometen Test Procedural Factors Affecting

Swell Properties", Proceedings of the Second International Con­

ference on Expansive Clays, College Station, Texas.

Fredlund, D.G. (1973), "Volume Change Behavior of Unsaturated S o i l s " ,

Ph.D. Thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta.

Fredlund, D.G. (1975), "Prediction of Heave in Unsaturated Soils", Fifth

Regional Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Conference,

b Bangalore, India.

Gardiner, R.T. (1965), "Mineralogical and Chemical Composition of Some

Prairie Clays, A Literature Review", Technical Paper No. 20l,

I
Division of Building Research, Ottawa.

Gilchrist, H.G. (1963), "A Study of Volune Change of a Highly Plastic

Clay", M.Sc. Thesis, U n i v e r s it y of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.

Grim, R.E. (1953), "Clay Mineralogy", McGraw-Hi11 Book Co. Ltd. 384 p.

Hamilton, d.J. (1963), "Voluwne Changes in Undisturbed Clay Profiles of

Western Canada", Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Volume I , No. l ,

September.

Hamilton, .J. (1969), "Effects of Environment on the Performance of

Shallow Foundations", Canadian Ge0technical Journal, Volume VI,

No. 1 .

Lu, Yi Ming (1969), "Swell Properties of Desiccated Regina Clay", M.Sc.

Thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.
 58

Noble, C.A. (1966), "Swelling Measurements and Prediction of Heave for

a Lacustrine Clay", Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Volume III,

No. 1 , February.

Rice, H.M., S.A. Forman and L.M. Patry (1959), "A Study of Some Profiles

from Major Soil Zones in Saskatchewan and Alberta", Canadian

Journal Soil Science, Volume 39, pp. 165-177.

Schmertmann, J.H. (1955), "The Undisturbed Consolidation of Clay",

Transactions ASCE, Volume 120, p. 1201.

Williams, A.A.B. (1958), "Discussion on J . E . B . Jenning's and K. Knight's

paper: The Prediction of Total Heave from the Double Oedometer

Test", Transactions of South African Institute C i v il Engineers,

V o l u me 8, No. 6, dune.

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