Canonical transformation

In Hamiltonian mechanics, a canonical transformation A dot over a variable or list signifies the time derivative,
is a change of canonical coordinates (q, p, t) → (Q, P, e.g.,
t) that preserves the form of Hamilton’s equations (that
is, the new Hamilton’s equations resulting from the trans-
formed Hamiltonian may be simply obtained by substitut- dq
ing the new coordinates for the old coordinates), although q̇ ≡ .
dt
it might not preserve the Hamiltonian itself. This is some-
times known as form invariance. Canonical transforma- The dot product notation between two lists of the same
tions are useful in their own right, and also form the basis number of coordinates is a shorthand for the sum of the
for the Hamilton–Jacobi equations (a useful method for products of corresponding components, e.g.,
calculating conserved quantities) and Liouville’s theorem
(itself the basis for classical statistical mechanics).
Since Lagrangian mechanics is based on generalized co- ∑
N
p·q≡ pk qk .
ordinates, transformations of the coordinates q → Q do
k=1
not affect the form of Lagrange’s equations and, hence,
do not affect the form of Hamilton’s equations if we si- The dot product (also known as an “inner product”) maps
multaneously change the momentum by a Legendre trans- the two coordinate lists into one variable representing a
form into single numerical value.

∂L
Pi = .
∂ Q̇i 2 Direct approach
Therefore, coordinate transformations (also called point
transformations) are a type of canonical transformation. The functional form of Hamilton’s equations is
However, the class of canonical transformations is much
broader, since the old generalized coordinates, momenta
and even time may be combined to form the new gen- ∂H
eralized coordinates and momenta. Canonical transfor- ṗ = − ∂q
mations that do not include the time explicitly are called ∂H
restricted canonical transformations (many textbooks q̇ =
∂p
consider only this type).
For clarity, we restrict the presentation here to calculus By definition, the transformed coordinates have analo-
and classical mechanics. Readers familiar with more ad- gous dynamics
vanced mathematics such as cotangent bundles, exterior
derivatives and symplectic manifolds should read the re-
lated symplectomorphism article. (Canonical transfor- ∂K
Ṗ = −
mations are a special case of a symplectomorphism.) ∂Q
However, a brief introduction to the modern mathemati- ∂K
cal description is included at the end of this article. Q̇ =
∂P

where K(Q, P) is a new Hamiltonian that must be deter-

1 Notation
Boldface variables such as q represent a list of N
generalized coordinates that need not transform like a
vector under rotation, e.g.,
q ≡ (q1 , q2 , . . . , qN −1 , qN ) .
mined.
In general, a transformation (q, p, t) → (Q, P, t) does not
preserve the form of Hamilton’s equations. For time in-
dependent transformations between (q, p) and (Q, P) we
may check if the transformation is restricted canonical, as
follows. Since restricted transformations have no explicit
time dependence (by definition), the time derivative of a
new generalized coordinate Qm is

1
2 4 GENERATING FUNCTION APPROACH

∂Qm ∂Qm ∂(Q, P)

Q̇m = · q̇ + · ṗ J≡
∂q ∂p ∂(q, p)
∂Qm ∂H ∂Qm ∂H
= · − · Exploiting the “division” property of Jacobians yields
∂q ∂p ∂p ∂q
= {Qm , H} /
∂(Q, P) ∂(q, p)
where {⋅, ⋅} is the Poisson bracket. J≡
∂(q, P) ∂(q, P)
We also have the identity for the conjugate momentum
Eliminating the repeated variables gives
Pm

/
∂(Q) ∂(p)
∂H ∂H ∂q ∂H ∂p J≡
= · + · ∂(q) ∂(P)
∂Pm ∂q ∂Pm ∂p ∂Pm
Application of the direct conditions above yields J = 1.
If the transformation is canonical, these two must be
equal, resulting in the equations
4 Generating function approach
( ) ( )
∂Qm ∂qn
=− Main article: Generating function (physics)
∂pn q,p ∂Pm Q,P
( ) ( )
∂Qm ∂pn
= To guarantee a valid transformation between (q, p, H)
∂qn q,p ∂Pm Q,P
and (Q, P, K), we may resort to an indirect generat-
The analogous argument for the generalized momenta Pm ing function approach. Both sets of variables must obey
leads to two other sets of equations Hamilton’s principle. That is the Action Integral over
the Lagrangian Lqp = p · q̇ − H(q, p, t) and LQP =
P· Q̇−K(Q, P, t) respectively, obtained by the Hamilto-
( ) ( ) nian via (“inverse”) Legendre transformation, both must
∂Pm ∂qn
= be stationary (so that one can use the Euler–Lagrange
∂pn q,p ∂Qm Q,P
( ) ( ) equations to arrive at equations of the above-mentioned
∂Pm ∂pn and designated form; as it is shown for example here):
=−
∂qn q,p ∂Qm Q,P
∫
These are the direct conditions to check whether a given t2

transformation is canonical. δ [p · q̇ − H(q, p, t)] dt = 0

t1
∫ t2 [ ]
δ P · Q̇ − K(Q, P, t) dt = 0
3 Liouville’s theorem t1

One way for both variational integral equalities to be sat-

The direct conditions allow us to prove Liouville’s theo- isfied is to have
rem, which states that the volume in phase space is con-
served under canonical transformations, i.e.,
dG
λ [p · q̇ − H(q, p, t)] = P · Q̇ − K(Q, P, t) +
dt
∫ ∫
dqdp = dQdP Lagrangians are not unique: one can always multiply by
a constant λ and add a total time derivative dG/dt and
yield the same equations of motion (see for reference:
By calculus, the latter integral must equal the former http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Classical_Mechanics/
times the Jacobian J Lagrange_Theory#Is_the_Lagrangian_unique.3F).
In general, the scaling factor λ is set equal to one; canon-
∫ ∫ ical transformations for which λ ≠ 1 are called extended
dQdP = Jdqdp canonical transformations. dG/dt is kept, otherwise
the problem would be rendered trivial and there would
where the Jacobian is the determinant of the matrix of be not much freedom for the new canonical variables to
partial derivatives, which we write as differ from the old ones.
4.2 Type 2 generating function 3

Here G is a generating function of one old canonical co-

ordinate (q or p), one new canonical coordinate (Q or P)
∂G1
and (possibly) the time t. Thus, there are four basic types K=H+
of generating functions (although it should be noted that ∂t
mixtures of these four types can exist), depending on the yields a formula for K as a function of the new canonical
choice of variables. As will be shown below, the generat- coordinates (Q, P).
ing function will define a transformation from old to new
canonical coordinates, and any such transformation (q, p) In practice, this procedure is easier than it sounds, be-
→ (Q, P) is guaranteed to be canonical. cause the generating function is usually simple. For ex-
ample, let

4.1 Type 1 generating function

G1 ≡ q · Q
The type 1 generating function G1 depends only on the
old and new generalized coordinates This results in swapping the generalized coordinates for
the momenta and vice versa

G ≡ G1 (q, Q, t)
∂G1
To derive the implicit transformation, we expand the p= =Q
∂q
defining equation above ∂G1
P=− = −q
∂Q
∂G1 ∂G1 ∂G1
p·q̇−H(q, p, t) = P·Q̇−K(Q, P, t)+ + ·q̇+ and
·Q̇ K = H. This example illustrates how independent the
∂t ∂q ∂Qcoordinates and momenta are in the Hamiltonian formu-
Since the new and old coordinates are each independent, lation; they are equivalent variables.
the following 2N + 1 equations must hold

4.2 Type 2 generating function

∂G1
p= The type 2 generating function G2 depends only on the
∂q
∂G1 old generalized coordinates and the new generalized mo-
P=− menta
∂Q
∂G1
K=H+
∂t
G ≡ −Q · P + G2 (q, P, t)
These equations define the transformation (q, p) → (Q,
P) as follows. The first set of N equations where the −Q · P terms represent a Legendre transfor-
mation to change the right-hand side of the equation be-
low. To derive the implicit transformation, we expand the
∂G1 defining equation above
p=
∂q
define relations between the new generalized coordinates
Q and the old canonical coordinates (q, p). Ideally, one p·q̇−H(q, p, t) = −Q·Ṗ−K(Q, P, t)+ ∂G2 + ∂G2 ·q̇+ ∂G2 ·Ṗ
can invert these relations to obtain formulae for each Qk ∂t ∂q ∂P
as a function of the old canonical coordinates. Substi-
Since the old coordinates and new momenta are each in-
tution of these formulae for the Q coordinates into the
dependent, the following 2N + 1 equations must hold
second set of N equations

∂G1 ∂G2
P=− p=
∂Q ∂q
∂G2
yields analogous formulae for the new generalized mo- Q=
∂P
menta P in terms of the old canonical coordinates (q, ∂G2
p). We then invert both sets of formulae to obtain the K = H +
∂t
old canonical coordinates (q, p) as functions of the new
canonical coordinates (Q, P). Substitution of the inverted These equations define the transformation (q, p) → (Q,
formulae into the final equation P) as follows. The first set of N equations
4 4 GENERATING FUNCTION APPROACH

Since the new and old coordinates are each independent,

the following 2N + 1 equations must hold
∂G2
p=
∂q
∂G3
define relations between the new generalized momenta P q=−
and the old canonical coordinates (q, p). Ideally, one can ∂p
invert these relations to obtain formulae for each Pk as a ∂G3
P=−
function of the old canonical coordinates. Substitution of ∂Q
these formulae for the P coordinates into the second set ∂G3
K=H+
of N equations ∂t
These equations define the transformation (q, p) → (Q,
P) as follows. The first set of N equations
∂G2
Q=
∂P
yields analogous formulae for the new generalized coor- ∂G3
q=−
dinates Q in terms of the old canonical coordinates (q, ∂p
p). We then invert both sets of formulae to obtain the define relations between the new generalized coordinates
old canonical coordinates (q, p) as functions of the new Q and the old canonical coordinates (q, p). Ideally, one
canonical coordinates (Q, P). Substitution of the inverted can invert these relations to obtain formulae for each Qk
formulae into the final equation as a function of the old canonical coordinates. Substi-
tution of these formulae for the Q coordinates into the
second set of N equations
∂G2
K=H+
∂t
∂G3
yields a formula for K as a function of the new canonical P = −
coordinates (Q, P). ∂Q

In practice, this procedure is easier than it sounds, be- yields analogous formulae for the new generalized mo-
cause the generating function is usually simple. For ex- menta P in terms of the old canonical coordinates (q,
ample, let p). We then invert both sets of formulae to obtain the
old canonical coordinates (q, p) as functions of the new
canonical coordinates (Q, P). Substitution of the inverted
formulae into the final equation
G2 ≡ g(q; t) · P

where g is a set of N functions. This results in a point ∂G3

transformation of the generalized coordinates K=H+
∂t
yields a formula for K as a function of the new canonical
∂G2 coordinates (Q, P).
Q= = g(q; t)
∂P In practice, this procedure is easier than it sounds, be-
cause the generating function is usually simple.
4.3 Type 3 generating function
The type 3 generating function G3 depends only on the
4.4 Type 4 generating function
old generalized momenta and the new generalized coor-
The type 4 generating function G4 (p, P, t) depends only
dinates
on the old and new generalized momenta

G ≡ q · p + G3 (p, Q, t)
where the q·p terms represent a Legendre transformation
to change the left-hand side of the equation below. To
derive the implicit transformation, we expand the defining
equation above
G ≡ q · p − Q · P + G4 (p, P, t)
where the q · p − Q · P terms represent a Legendre trans-
formation to change both sides of the equation below. To
derive the implicit transformation, we expand the defin-
ing equation above

∂G3 ∂G3 ∂G3 ∂G4 ∂G4 ∂G4

−q·ṗ−H(q, p, t) = P·Q̇−K(Q, P, t)+ + ·ṗ+ −q··Q̇
ṗ−H(q, p, t) = −Q·Ṗ−K(Q, P, t)+ + ·ṗ+ ·Ṗ
∂t ∂p ∂Q ∂t ∂p ∂P
 5

Since the new and old coordinates are each independent, 6 Modern mathematical descrip-
the following 2N + 1 equations must hold
tion

∂G4 In mathematical terms, canonical coordinates are any co-

q=− ordinates on the phase space (cotangent bundle) of the
∂p
system that allow the canonical one-form to be written as
∂G4
Q=
∂P
∂G4 ∑
K=H+ pi dq i
∂t
i
These equations define the transformation (q, p) → (Q,
P) as follows. The first set of N equations up to a total differential (exact form). The change of
variable between one set of canonical coordinates and an-
other is a canonical transformation. The index of the
∂G4 generalized coordinates q is written here as a superscript
q=− ( q i ), not as a subscript as done above ( qi ). The su-
∂p
perscript conveys the contravariant transformation prop-
define relations between the new generalized momenta P erties of the generalized coordinates, and does not mean
and the old canonical coordinates (q, p). Ideally, one can that the coordinate is being raised to a power. Further
invert these relations to obtain formulae for each Pk as a details may be found at the symplectomorphism article.
function of the old canonical coordinates. Substitution of
these formulae for the P coordinates into the second set
of N equations 7 History
The first major application of the canonical transforma-
∂G4 tion was in 1846, by Charles Delaunay, in the study of
Q=
∂P the Earth-Moon-Sun system. This work resulted in the
yields analogous formulae for the new generalized coor- publication of a pair of large volumes as Mémoires by the
dinates Q in terms of the old canonical coordinates (q, French Academy of Sciences, in 1860 and 1867.
p). We then invert both sets of formulae to obtain the
old canonical coordinates (q, p) as functions of the new
canonical coordinates (Q, P). Substitution of the inverted 8 See also
formulae into the final equation
• Symplectomorphism

∂G4 • Hamilton–Jacobi equation

K=H+
∂t • Liouville’s theorem (Hamiltonian)
yields a formula for K as a function of the new canonical • Mathieu transformation
coordinates (Q, P).
• Linear canonical transformation

5 Motion as a canonical transfor-

9 References
mation
• Landau LD and Lifshitz EM (1976) Mechanics, 3rd.
Motion itself (or, equivalently, a shift in the time origin) ed., Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-021022-8 (hard-
is a canonical transformation. If Q(t) ≡ q(t + τ ) and cover) and ISBN 0-08-029141-4 (softcover).
P(t) ≡ p(t + τ ) , then Hamilton’s principle is automati-
cally satisfied • Goldstein H. (1980) Classical Mechanics, 2nd. ed.,
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-02918-9

∫ t2 [ ] ∫ t2 +τ
δ P · Q̇ − K(Q, P, t) dt = δ [p · q̇ − H(q, p, t + τ )] dt = 0
t1 t1 +τ

since a valid trajectory (q(t), p(t)) should always satisfy

Hamilton’s principle, regardless of the endpoints.
6 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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