Electrical Circuits 1

CIRCUITS 1
(EE101)
PREPARED BY: ENGR. JUN A. TERESA –

MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Module no.1
Contents:
 The Scientific Notation
 Units of Measurement
Topic Objectives:
 To explain scientific notation

 To solve some exercises with proper prefixes of
measurement
WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC NOTATION?
Today we will discuss the use of scientific notation also referred

to as exponential notation. The notation is based on powers of
base number 10. The general format looks something like this:
N X 10x where N = number greater than 1

but less than 10
10 = BASE and
x = exponent of 10.
Exponent X = indicates the number of places

the decimal point is moved to the right or
left.
http://members.aol.com/profchm/sci_not.html
Placing numbers in exponential notation has several advantages.
1) For very large numbers and extremely small ones, these numbers can be
placed in scientific notation in order to express them in a more concise form.
2) In addition, numbers placed in this notation can be used in a computation
with far greater ease. This last advantage was more practical before the
advent of calculators and their abundance.
In scientific fields, scientific notation is still used. Let's first discuss how we
will express a number greater than 10 in such notational form.
Numbers Greater Than 10
1) We first want to locate the decimal and move it either right or left so that there are
only one non-zero digit to its left.
2) The resulting placement of the decimal will produce the N part of the standard
scientific notational expression.
3) Count the number of places that you had to move the decimal to satisfy step 1
above.
4) If it is to the left as it will be for numbers greater than 10, that number of positions
will equal x in the general expression.
As an example, how do we place the number
23419
in standard scientific notation?
1) Position the decimal so that there is only one non-zero digit to its left. In
this case we end up with 2.3419
2) Count the number of positions we had to move the decimal to the left
and that will be x.
3) Multiply the results of step 1 and 2 above for the standard form:
So we have: 2.3419 X 10 4
How about numbers less than one?

We generally follow the same steps except in order to position the decimal with only
one non-zero decimal to its left, we will have to move it to the RIGHT. The number of
positions that we had to move it to the right will be equal to -x. In other words we will
end up with a negative exponent.
Here is an example to consider:
1) Express the following number in scientific notation: 0.000436
a) First, we will have to move the decimal to the right in order to satisfy the condition
of having one non-zero digit to the left of the decimal. That will give us: 4.36
b) Then we count the number of positions that we had to move it which was 4. That
will equal -X or x = -4
And the expression will be 4.36 X 10-4
What about numbers that are between 1 and 10?

In those numbers we do not need to move the decimal so the exponent will be zero.
For example: 7.92 can be rewritten in notational form as:
7.92 X 100
Exercises:
Now it is your turn. Express the following numbers in their equivalent standard
notational form:
1) 123,876.3
2) 1,236,840.
3) 4.22
4) 0.000000000000211
5) 0.000238
6) 9.10
Let's discuss how one would multiply with such notations. The general format for
multiplying using scientific notation is as follows:
(N X 10x) (M X 10y) = (N) (M) X 10x+y
Performing math operations: The Steps
a) Express both numbers in the same power of ten

b) Add or subtract the major numbers
c) Bring down the common power of ten
Example:
1. Add 2x106 and 5x107
2. Subtract 2.5x10-12 from 7.5x10-11

a) Multiply the numbers directly without their power
of ten
b) Add the powers of ten algebraically
3. Multiply 5x1012 and 3x10-6
a) Divide the numbers directly without their power
of ten
b) Subtract the power of ten in the denominator from
the numerator
4. Divide 5.0x108 by 2.5x103

ENGINEERING NOTATION & METRIC PREFIXES
- specialized form of scientific notation
- applications used to express value of voltage, current,
resistance, power, and time
Metric prefixes are used in conjunction with engineering notation
Prefix Symbol Power of ten Value
pico p 10-12 one-trillionth

nano n 10-9 one-billionth
micro  10-6 one-millionth
milli m 10-3 one-thousandth
Kilo K 103 one-thousand
mega M 106 one-million
Giga G 109 one-billion
Tera T 1012 one-trillion
Express each quality in appropriate metric prefix
a) 50,000V b) 25,000,000Ω c) 0.000036A
Sample Exercises:
1. Add 15mA and 8000A and express the sum in (mA)
2. Add 0.05MW and 75kW and express the sum in (kW)

3. Add 50mV and 2500V and express the sum in (mV)
4. Add 0.00025mA and 5A and express the sum in (mA)
Module no.2
Contents:
 The Atomic Structure
 The Copper Atom
 The Coulomb’s Law
 The Principle of Free Electron
Topic Objectives:
 To recall the definition and parts of an atom

 To illustrate the atomic structure of copper material.
 To explain Coulomb’s Law
 To describe the principle of free electron
FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIP IN CIRCUIT THEORY
So why doesn't the electron just spin off ? Why does it

stay orbiting the nucleus?
- the electron is attracted to the nucleus because of
its CHARGE.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/elefor.html
The force caused by the spinning, which should cause the
electron to spin off away from the nucleus, is balanced by the
charge force attracting the electron towards the nucleus. So it
doesn't fly off OR cling to the nucleus, it spins around being
pulled equally in both directions
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARGES
COULOMB’S LAW
An ion is an atom or group of bonded atoms which
have lost or gained one or more electrons, making
them negatively or positively charged.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion)
COULOMB’S LAW
“The force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies is

directly proportional to the square of the distance between them.”
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/estatics/u8l3b.html
COULOMB’S LAW EQUATION
Where:
Q1 represents the quantity of charge on object 1 (in Coulombs),
Q2 represents the quantity of charge on object 2 (in Coulombs), and
d represents the distance of separation between the two objects (in
meters).
The symbol k is a proportionality constant known as the Coulomb's law
constant. The value of this constant is dependent upon the medium that the
charged objects are immersed in. In the case of air, the value is
approximately 9.0 x 109 N • m2 / C2.
If the charged objects are present in water, the value of k can be reduced
by as much as a factor of 80. It is worthwhile to point out that the units on k
are such that when substituted into the equation the units on charge
(Coulombs) and the units on distance (meters) will be canceled, leaving a
Newton as the unit of force.
Example A
Suppose that two point charges, each with a charge of +1.00 Coulomb are
separated by a distance of 1.00 meter. Determine the magnitude of the electrical
force of repulsion between them.
Example B
Two balloons are charged with an identical quantity and type of charge: -6.25 nC.
They are held apart at a separation distance of 61.7 cm. Determine the magnitude
of the electrical force of repulsion between them.
Example C
Two balloons with charges of +3.37 µC and -8.21 µC attract each other with a
force of 0.0626 Newtons. Determine the separation distance between the two
balloons.
Practice Exercise:
1. The Q in Coulomb's law equation stands for the _____.
a. mass of a charged object b. # of excess electrons on the object
c. the current of a charged object d. the distance between charged objects
e. charge of a charged object
2. The symbol d in Coulomb's law equation represents the distance from ___.
a. A to B b. A to D c. B to C d. B to D
e. C to D f. A to G g. B to F h. C to E
3. Determine the electrical force of attraction between two balloons with separate
charges of +3.5 x 10-8 C and -2.9 x 10-8 C when separated a distance of 0.65 m.
4. Determine the electrical force of attraction between two balloons which are
charged with the opposite type of charge but the same quantity of charge. The
charge on the balloons is 6.0 x 10-7 C and they are separated by a distance of
0.50 m.
COULOMB : The Unit of Charge
Electrical Charge (Q) is measured in coulombs,
symbolized by C.
One coulomb is the total charge possessed by
6.24 x 10 18 electrons
number of electrons
Q =
6.24 x 10 18 electrons/C
Example:
1. How many coulombs do 93.8 x 1016 electrons represent?
2. How many electrons does it take to have 3C of charge?
THE COPPER ATOM – the most commonly used metal in
electrical/electronics industry.
4th shell = 2(4)2 = 32e
3rd shell = 2(3)2 = 18e
2nd shell = 2(2)2 = 8e
29 p
29 n 1st shell = 2(1)2 = 2e
No. of Electron in each shell

Is given by 2n2
Where n = shell number

Nucleus
Valence electron (free electron)
 Since Copper atom has only one(1) electron in the outer-
most shell UNSTABLE AND VOLATILE
 Since the outermost shell electron is farthest from the
nucleus THE FORCE OF ATTRACTION IS WEAKER!
FREE ELECTRON - the outermost shell electron or (valence

electron)
Free Electrons are in rapid motion around the nucleus. While the
electrostatic force is trying to pull the nucleus and the electron together,
the electron is in motion and trying to pull away.
These two effects balance, keeping the electron in orbit. The electrons in
an atom exist in different energy levels. The energy level of an electron is
proportional to its distance from the nucleus.
http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1011v1/css/h1011v1_30.htm
Helium atom model
This helium (He) model displays two valence electrons
located in its outermost energy level.
Helium is a member of the noble gases and contains
two protons, neutrons, and electrons
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion)
Fact:
One cubic inch of copper at
room temperature has 1x1024
free electrons moving randomly
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/ohmmic.html
Module no.3
Contents:
 CHARGES and Its Law
 Electrical Quantities: Voltage and Current
Topic Objectives:
 To state the Law of charges

 To define the meaning of voltage in relation to charges
 To define the meaning of current in relation to charges
 To solve problems dealing with voltage and current
from a given charge
LAW OF CHARGES
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/estatics/u8l1c.html
Practice Exercise:
1. Electrical forces ____.
a. can cause objects to only attract each other
b. can cause objects to only repel each other
c. can cause objects to attract or repel each other
d. have no affect on objects
2. Two objects are charged as shown at the right. Object X will ____ object Y.
a. attract b. repel c. not affect
3. Two objects are shown at the right. One is neutral and the other is negative.
Object X will ____ object Y.
a. attract b. repel c. not affect
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/estatics/u8l1c.html
THE VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE SURROUNDS TWO MAGNETISM SURROUNDS

ELECTRIC CHARGES A MAGNET'S POLES
http://amasci.com/miscon/voltage.html
The Separation of Charges
“The separation of positive and negative charges establishes

a potential difference (VOLTAGE).”
http://www.mi.mun.ca/users/cchaulk/eltk1100/ivse/ivse.htm#
“The potential difference causes the free electrons to move
in a single direction, thus establishes the flow of electrons
(ELECTRIC CURRENT)”
CHARGES
One Coulomb :
1C = 6.24x1018 protons
-1C = 6.24x1018 electrons
THE VOLTAGE - involves work (Energy)

W = F x d (joules) but F = ma
The statement:
1 volt = the amount of work (joules) required to move
one coulomb of charge between two points.
The equation:
Voltage (V) = W (joules)
Q (coulomb)
To determine the energy:

W = (Q) (V) (joules, J)
To determine the charge involved:
Q= W_ (coulomb, C)
V
Sample Problems:
1. Find the voltage between two points if 60J of energy are

required to move a charge of 20C between two points.
2. Determine the energy expended moving a charge of 50C

between two points if the voltage across these points is
6V.
ELECTRIC CURRENT (I)

Which came first, Voltage or Current?
VOLTAGE is the starting mechanism

CURRENT is simply a reaction to the applied voltage
CURRENT
= is the result of the movement of electric charge
= rate of flow of charge
The statement:
1 ampere = one coulomb of charge (6.24x1018e) pass
through an imaginary plane in one second.
The current equation:
Q_ (coulomb, C)
I = = Ampere (A)
t (sec, S)
Manipulating:
Q = (I) (t) (coulomb, C)
t = Q_ (seconds, S)
I
Sample Problems:
1. The charge flowing through the imaginary surface is 0.16C

every 64ms. Determine the current in amperes.
2. Determine how long it will take 4 x 1016 e to pass

through the imaginary surface if the current is 5mA.
Exercises:
1. Find the charge in coulombs of

a) 5.31x1020 electrons
b) 2.9 x 1022 protons
2. How many protons have a combined charge of 6.8pC?
3. Find the current flow through a light bulb from a steady

movement of
a) 60 C in 5 sec
b) 15 C in 2 min
c) 1022 electrons in 1 hr
4. Electrons pass to the right through a wire cross section

at the rate of 6.4 x 1021 electrons per minute. What is the
current in the wire?
5. Will a 10-A fuse blow for a steady rate of charge flow
through it of 45000 C/h?
6. Assuming a steady current flow through a switch, find the

time required for
a) 12C if I = 30pA (in hour)
b) 2.58 x 1015 electron if I = - 64.2 nA (in hour)
7. Find the work required to lift 4500kg elevator at a vertical

distance of 50m.
8. Find the voltage drop across a light bulb if 0.5A current

flowing through it for 4 sec causes the light bulb to give
off 240J of light and heat energy.
Module no.4
Contents:
 The Resistance
 The Effect of Temperature on the Resistance
 Resistor Color Coding
 Work, Power, and Energy
Topic Objectives:
 To define the meaning of resistance
 To explain the effect of temperature on the resistance
of the wire
 To identify the values of resistor using color codes
 To solve problems dealing resistor color coding
 To differentiate energy from work and power
RESISTANCE = the opposition to the flow of current (charge)
opposition due to collisions and friction between free

electrons
collision and friction converts electrical energy into HEAT!
FACTORS affecting resistance of material

1. Type of material (ρ)
L_
2. Length (L) R =ρ
3. Cross sectional Area (A) A
4. Temperature of the material (T)
where:
ρ = CM Ω / ft at T = 20oC (room temp)
= resistivity constant
L = length in feet
A = area in circular mils (CM)
CIRCULAR MILS (CM)
mil = a unit of measurement for length
1 mil = 1__ inch (or 0.001inch)

1000
1000 mils = 1 inch
Circular mil vs. Square mil

By definition;
1 mil d = 1 mil
A wire with a diameter
1 mil A = 1CM of 1 mil has an area
of 1 CM.
Applying the definition to a wire having a diameter of 1 mil,
A = π d 2
= π (1)2
= π sq. mil = 1 CM
4 4 4
Since 1 CM = π sq. mils

4
4
Therefore; 1 sq. mil = CM
π
So for a wire with a diameter of N mils,
π
A = 4 (N)2 sq. mils
π
= (N)2 [ 4 CM ]
4 π
A = N2 CM since d = N or ACM = (dmils)2
Sample Problem:
1. Find the area of a wire with a diameter of 1/8 inch.
2. What is the resistance of a 100ft length of copper wire of

0.020 inch diameter at 20oC? ( ρat 20o = 10.37 CM Ω / ft )
3. An undetermined number of feet of wire have been used

with a diameter of 1/16 inch and the resistance is 0.5Ω.
What is the length of the wire? (same ρ)
4. What is the diameter of a wire in inch, with an area of

6925CM?
Temperature Effects on the Resistance of a copper wire
For good conductors, an

increase in temperature
will result in an increase in
the resistance level
R
(+) Temperature
coefficient
Temp
R
(-)Temperature
coefficient
Temp
http://www.electriccircuits.net/book,6,chapter,319,lesson,1470,thermoelectricity.aspx
Resistance Curve R
R2
R1
X
(Absolute Zero)
-273.15oC
-234.5oC 0C
o T1 T2
(Inferred Absolute Zero)
Y
Using Similar Triangles
X = Y /234.5/ + T1 /234.5/ + T2
=
R1 R2 R1 R2
Note: Inferred absolute temp varies depending on material

Initial Temperature (Ti) of selected materials in oC
Silver - 234
Copper - 234.5
Gold - 274
Aluminum - 236
Tungsten - 204
Nickel - 147
Iron - 162
General Equation:
/Ti / + T1 /Ti / + T2
=
R1 R2
Sample Problems:
1. If the resistance of a copper wire is 50Ω at 20oC, what is its

resistance at 100oC?
2. If the resistance of a copper wire at freezing temperature is

30Ω, what is its resistance at -40 o C?
3. If the resistance of an aluminum at room temperature

(20 oC) is 100mΩ, at what temperature will it become
120mΩ?
Temperature coefficient of resistance
Example: Observe how wire temperature affect wire

resistance
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_12/5.html
At 20o Celsius, we get 12.5 volts across the load and a total of 1.5
volts (0.75 + 0.75) dropped across the wire resistance.
If the temperature were to rise to 35o Celsius, we could easily
determine the change of resistance for each piece of wire. Assuming
the use of copper wire (α = 0.004041) we get:
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS OF RESISTANCE, AT 20 DEGREES C
Material Element/Alloy "alpha" per degree Celsius

==========================================================
Nickel -------- Element --------------- 0.005866
Iron ---------- Element --------------- 0.005671
Molybdenum ---- Element --------------- 0.004579
Tungsten ------ Element --------------- 0.004403
Aluminum ------ Element --------------- 0.004308
Copper -------- Element --------------- 0.004041
Silver -------- Element --------------- 0.003819
Platinum ------ Element --------------- 0.003729
Gold ---------- Element --------------- 0.003715
Zinc ---------- Element --------------- 0.003847
Steel* --------- Alloy ---------------- 0.003
Nichrome ------- Alloy ---------------- 0.00017
Nichrome V ----- Alloy ---------------- 0.00013
Manganin ------- Alloy ------------ +/- 0.000015
Constantan ----- Alloy --------------- -0.000074
Resistor Color Coding
Scheme
There are three types of resistor color coding. They have different
number of color bands and hence provide different information.
This is illustrated by the next table. You can calculate the value of
an unknown resistor by entering its color code in the fields below
the table.
4-band color code 5-band color code 6-band color code

2 digits, multiplier, 3 digits, multiplier, 3 digits, multiplier,
tolerance tolerance tolerance,
thermal coefficient
http://www.breakup.de/resources/resistor.html
How to read Resistor Color Codes
Black Brown Red OrangeYellow Green Blue Violet Gray White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
THE MNEMONIC Tolerance%
B - Bad 0 (Black) Gold - 5%

B - Boy 1 (Brown) Silver - 10%
R - Ravish 2 (Red) No color - (20%)
O - Our 3 (Orange)
Y - Young 4 (Yellow)
G - Girls 5 (Green)
B - But 6 (Blue)
V- Violeta 7 (Violet)
G - Gave 8 (Gray)
W - Willingly 9 (White)
http://xtronics.com/kits/rcode.htm
http://users.etech.fh-hamburg.de/users/gelab/Html/Inhalte/resistor-color-code.htm
Sample Problems:
Find the resistance value in ohms and the percent

tolerance of:
a) Red, Violet, Orange, Silver
b) Brown, Black, Brown, Silver
c) Green, Blue, Green, Gold
d) Red, Violet, Gold, Silver
e) Red, Violet, Black, Gold, Red
f) Yellow, Black, Red, Black, Brown
g) Orange, Orange, Red, Orange, Green
Give the color code for each value of resistor

a) 330±5%
b) 2.2kΩ±10%
c) 100kΩ±5%
d) 5Ω±10%
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
The Equation:
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/class/energy/u5l1e.html
POWER = an indication of how much work (energy) can be
accomplished amount of time.
= rate of doing work
= product of voltage and current
1 Watt = One joule of work that is either absorbed or

delivered at a constant rate of 1 second
P = V x I
= W x Q
Q t
Power Equation:
W (Joules) (Watts, W)
P = t (sec)
ENERGY = Power that must be used over a period of time
= lost or gained by the system
Energy Equation:
W = (P) x (t) ( Watt-seconds or Joules)
Power (W) x time (hr)

Energy (kilowatt-hour, kWh) =
1000
POWER RATING OF RESISTORS

If Pin > PR
Pin resistor will be damaged!
PR ( Excessive HEAT!)
Check whether the resistor in each circuit has possibly been
damaged.
+ ¼W
_ 100Ω _ 1W
9V 10Ω
+ 5V
(a)
(c)
+ ½ W
_ 1.5kΩ
24V
(b)
EFFICIENCY - the ratio of output to input power
Pout
η = x 100%
Pin
Sample Problems:
1. A 2Hp motor operates at an efficiency of 75%. What is the

power input in watts? If the applied voltage is 220V, what
is the input current?
2. What is the output in horsepower of a motor with an

efficiency of 80% and an input current of 8A at 120V?
3. How long can a 12-V car battery supply 40A to a starter
motor if the battery has 4x106 J of chemical energy that
can be converted to electric energy?
4. What is the operating efficiency of a fully loaded 2Hp dc

electric motor that draws 19A at 100V?
Module no.5
Contents:
 Ohm’s Law
Topic Objectives:
 To state the principle of Ohm’s Law

 To illustrate the Ohm’s Law wheel.
 To solve problems using the principle of Ohm’s Law
OHM’S LAW WHEEL
http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-ohm.htm
OHM’S LAW – derived from the equation for all
(George Simon Ohm) physical systems
EFFECT = CAUSE
OPPOSITION
EFFECT = flow of charge (current)

CAUSE = pressure (voltage)
OPPOSITION = resistance
E (amperes, A) E = IR (volts, V)
I =
R
E
R = (ohms, Ω)
I
Circuit Application
VR E
I = =
R R
I
E R VR
Note:
For any resistor, in any network, the direction of current
through a resistor will define the polarity of the voltage
drop across the resistor.
- VR +
+ VR - ● ●
● ●
R I
I R
Sample Problems:
1. Determine the current from a 9V battery across a network

with 2.2Ω resistance.
2. Calculate the current through the 2kΩ resistor if the voltage

drop across it is 16V.
3. Calculate the resistance of a 60w bulb if a current of 500mA

results from an applied voltage of 120V.
4. Find the power delivered to the dc motor
● Mechanical Power
I = 5A developed
(horsepower, Hp)
Vin = 120V
6. Determine the current through a 5kΩ resistor when the power
the power dissipated by the element is 20mW.
7. How much energy (in kilowatt-hours) is required to light a

100watt bulb (continuously for 1 year = 365 days)?
8. How long can a 205W television set be on before using more

than 4kWhr of energy?
9. What is the cost of using a 5Hp motor for two hours if the
rate is P50.00 per kWhr ?
10. What is the total cost of using all of the following at P50.00
per kWhr?
a) A 1200w toaster for 30min d) A 4800W electric
b) six 50W bulbs for 4 hrs clothes dryer for
c) A 400W washing machine for 45mins 20mins
Module no.6
Contents:
 Resistors in Series Connection
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Topic Objectives:
 To explain the meaning of series connection

 To show different ways resistors can be connected in
series
 To introduce the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
 To apply KVL in dealing with parallel connections of
circuit
RESISTORS IN SERIES R1
R2 +
I R1 E _ R2
● ●
B A
R1
+ I
E _ R2
R3
Resistors can be connected in series, that is, the current flows
through them one after another.
Since there is only one path for the current to travel, the
current through each of the resistor is the same!
Identifying Series Connections
A series connection provides only one path for current between

two points in a circuit so that the same current flow through
each series resistor.
B
A ● A ● A ● ●-
+ + +
B ● B
● B ● A
- - - +●
Connect all the resistors in series from R1 to R5 using A to B
path.
(a) R1 (b)
● R4
A
A● R2
R4 R1
R3
●B
R2 R5
R3
R5
(c) (d)
B● R1 R4 A R4
A ● ● R2
R3 R2 R1 R5
R5
● R3
B ●
B
Effect of Connecting Resistors in Series
A The total resistance of a series

10Ω 30Ω 100Ω connection is equal to the sum
RT
of the resistances of each
B individual resistor.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …. + RN
= 30Ω + 10Ω + 100Ω
RN = 140Ω
Applying OHM’S LAW in series Circuits
Ex.1
+V1- +V2- +V3-
a
+ R1 =10Ω R2 =30Ω R3 =100Ω RT
E 140Ω
_ 8.4V
IS b
E 8.4V
Is = R = = 0.06A
T 140Ω Same current flowing
through each resistor
Is = 60mA
Note:
The polarity of the voltage across a resistor is determined
by the direction of the current!
+V- -V+ -
V 10Ω
10Ω 10Ω +
V1 = IsR1 V3 = IsR3
= (60mA)(10Ω) = (60mA)(100Ω)
V1 = 0.6V V3 = 6V
V2 = IsR2
= (60mA)(30Ω)
V2 = 1.8V
Ex.2 +V1- Determine:
a) RT
+ I R1=2Ω -
20V _ R2=1Ω V2 b) Is
R3=5Ω + c) Voltage across
each resistor
-V3+
Ex.3 -V2+
R1=7Ω R2=4Ω
_ Determine V2
50V + R3=7Ω
R4=7Ω
Power Distribution in Series Circuits
+V1- +V2- +V3-
since
+ IS R1 R2 R3
E _
RT V 2
P1 = V1 Is = Is R1 = 1
2
R1
Therefore:
PT = E Is PT = P1 + P2 + P3 Check using Example 1
Ex.4 R R2
1
Determine:
a) RT
1kΩ 3kΩ
b) Is
R3 2kΩ c) Voltage across each resistor
50V
d) Power supplied by the battery
e) Power dissipated by each resistor
f) Check if (d) and (e) are equal
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)
- “The algebraic sum of the potential rises and drops
around a closed path (or loop) is zero.”
Symbol : Σ V = 0
+V1-
a● ●b APPLYING KVL:
R1
+ + +E – V1 – V2 = 0
E _ R2
KVL V2
- E = V1 + V2
d● ●c
-“ The applied voltage of a series dc circuit will equal the sum

of the voltage drops of the circuit.”
Symbol : Σ Vrises = Σ Vdrops
Ex.5 +V1- +4.2V-
R1 R2
+ + Determine V1
E1 _ 16V E2 _ 9V
Ex.6
+ 12V - + 6V -
●
R1
+ R
+ 2 +
Determine Vx
E 32V Vx R3 14V
- _
-
●
Ex.7
- 15V +
R3 Determine
I2 -
- a) V2 using KVL
54V R2 7Ω V2
E b) I2
+ +
R1 c) R1 and R3
+ 18V -
VOLTAGE DIVISION PRINCIPLE
(For Series Circuit Application)
+ 12V -
R1= 6Ω
+ +
E 20V R2 = 3Ω
6V
_
-
R3 = 1Ω
- 2V +
Note:
The voltage across series resistive elements will divide
as the magnitude of resistance levels.
In other words:
LARGER RESISTANCE = MORE VOLTAGE
THE VOLTAGE DIVIDER PRINCIPLE
“The voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the
Value of that resistor times the total applied voltage.”
IT +V1-
RT = R1 + R2
+ RT R1 I 1
I2 +
E R2
E
V2 I T = I1 = I2 =
- RT
_
E
since, V1 = I1 R1 = (R1)
RT
therefore, E
V2 = (R2)
RT
Ex.8 Using Voltage divider principle, determine voltages
V1, V3, and V’
+
R1 2Ω V1
_
+
+ V’
_
E 60V R2 5Ω
-
+
R3 8Ω V_3
Module no.7
Contents:
 Resistors in Parallel Connection
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Topic Objectives:
 To explain the meaning of parallel connection

 To show different ways resistors can be connected in
parallel
 To introduce the Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
 To apply KCL in dealing with parallel connections of
circuit
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
a
●
●a
R1 R2 R3
E R1 R2 R3 E
●
b ●
b
Resistor can be connected such that they branch out from a
single point (known as a node), and join up again somewhere
else in the circuit. This is known as a parallel connection.
DC PARALLEL CIRCUITS
“Two elements, branches, or circuits are in parallel if they
have two, and only two points in common.”
●
R1 R2
● ●
●
Parallel branch = current path
◦ If there is more than one current path (branch) between two
separate points (nodes) and if the voltage between those two
points also appears across each of those branches, then there
is a parallel circuit between those two points.
Circuit forms of parallel connection
A A A
+ ● + +
● ●
●
- - -
B
● B B
●
A
+ ●
● A
●
+
- -
B B
●
Assemble to form a parallel circuit
R2
A
+
R1
R3
-
B
R5
R4
Schematic Diagram for three parallel resistors

VOLTAGE IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS
● ●
● ●
● ●
dc voltage source
http://images.google.com.ph/images?q=school+laboratory+dc+voltage+source
Circuit Analysis for Parallel Connection
IT I1 I2 I3 IN
+ + + +
VS +
_ R1 V1 R2 V2 R3 V3 RN VN
- - - -
Vs = V1 = V2 = V3 = …. = VN Parallel characteristic for

voltage
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + … + IN Using Ohm’s Law ( ex. Three resistor)
VS V1 V2 V3 1 1 1 1
= = =
RT R1 + R2 + R3 RT R1 + R2 + R3
Therefore, 1
RT = 1 General Equation
1 1 (for 3 or more resistors
R1 + R2 + R3 in parallel)
Special case: (2 resistors in parallel)

1
R1 R2
RT = 1 1 = Product over Sum
+ R1 + R2
R1 R2
Sample Exercises:
Ex.1 Determine the Equivalent Resistance of the circuit
RT 12Ω
R1 3Ω R2 6Ω R3 R4 R 6Ω
4Ω 5
● ●
Ex.2 IT I1 I2 Determine:
+ + a) RT
+ b) IT (current source)
R1 9Ω V1 R2
27V _ 18Ω V2 c) current through each
parallel branch
- - d) show that IT = I1+ I2
Ex.3
If a 12-V battery is applied across the circuit of example No.1,
Determine
a) IT
b) current through each parallel branch
c) show that IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
d) Derive the power equation for parallel circuit
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)
- “The algebraic sum of the currents entering a node or
junction is equal to zero.”
I1 = 4A I2 = 2A In equation form:
node, system,
Complex network ΣIin = ΣIout
I3 = 10A where: Iin = input currents
I4 = 8A
Iout = output currents
- “The sum of the currents entering a junction must equal

the sum of the currents leaving the same junction.”
I1 + I 4 = I 2 + I 3
ΣIin = ΣIout
4 + 8 = 2 + 10
12A = 12A
Node = commonly used to refer ‘junction’ of two or more branches
Ex.4 Determine I3 and I4 using KCL
I1 = 2A I4
I3
●a ●
b
I2 = 3A
I5 = 1A
Ex.5 Determine I1, I3, I4 and I5 using KCL

b
●
I1
I3
R1 R3 I5
a c
● ●
I = 5A R2 R4 R5
I4
I2 = 4A
●d
Ex.6 I2=3A
Determine I3 and I5
I4=1A
●a
I1=4A ●b
I3
I5
Ex.7
2mA Determine :
IT I1 I2 I3 a) I1 and I3
b) Current source IT
R1 6Ω R2 3Ω R3 1Ω
CURRENT DIVISION PRINCIPLE (CDP)
(For Parallel Circuit Application)
IT From Ohm’s Law:
●
I1 I2 I3 IN V
IT =
RT RT
R1 R2 R3
RN
●
since
V = I1R1 = I2R2 =…= IxRx
Therefore, any number of
Solving for the current current and
IR of any branch resistance
IT = x x
RT
Ix = (IT) RT
Rx General Equation
Special Case: Two Parallel Resistor
using product over sum
R1 R2
I2 RT =
I1 R1 + R2
RT
R1 Solving for I1 using CDP Let:
R2
Ix = I1
Ix = (IT) RT
Rx Rx = R1
Therefore,
R1 R2
I1 = (IT) R1 + R2 R2 R1
I1 = (IT) I2 = (IT)
R1+R2 R1+R2
R1
Ex.8 Determine I1 using Current Divider Principle
R1 1kΩ
I1
IT = 12mA R2 10kΩ 12mA
R3 22kΩ
Ex.9 Determine resistor R1 using KCL or CDP

R1
I = 27mA I1 = 21mA
R2
7Ω
Module no.8
Contents:
 Series - Parallel Circuit
 Delta to Wye Transformation
Topic Objectives:
 To illustrate the series-parallel circuits combinations

 To use Kirchhoff’s Law and Ohm’s Law in solving for
the unknowns
 To introduce the technique of delta to wye transformation
SERIES – PARALLEL CIRCUITS
A series-parallel configuration is one that is formed by a
combination of series-parallel elements.
R1 R3
IT
E R2 R4
To compute for RT: To compute for IT:

1. Always start with the last element Apply Ohm’s Law
R4 is in series with R3
E
2. The combination is in parallel with R2 IT =
RT
3. Finally, the result is in series with R1.
Sample Exercises:
Ex.1 Solve for RT, IT, and the voltage sharing of each resistor
2Ω 5Ω
10V 8Ω 10V 5Ω
(a) (b)
Ex.2 Solve for RT, IT, and the current sharing of each resistor
36V 36V
4Ω 6Ω 6Ω 6Ω
6.6Ω Solve for
Ex.3 a) RT
b) IT
54V c) I4Ω and I6Ω
4Ω 6Ω
d) Voltage across each
resistor and
e) PT, Power dissipated
by each resistor
Ex.4
IT
I2
8Ω Determine
15Ω a) I2
12V
b) V2Ω
2Ω
4Ω
Ex.5
IT I2
8Ω Determine
15Ω a) I2
12V + b) V2Ω
2Ω V
-
Ex.6 +V1 -
3Ω I2
Determine
6Ω
a) V1
2Ω I4 + b) I2
24V 8Ω 12Ω V5
c) I4
-
d) V5
+V1 -
Ex.7
9Ω
I3 I6 Determine
6Ω a) V1
12V 4Ω +
3Ω V6 b) I3
-
c) V4
+
V4 6Ω 3Ω d) I6
- e) V6
13Ω
Ex.8
Calculate for open and
6Ω 18Ω closed a-b terminals
b
a) RT
100V ◦a ◦b b) IT
18Ω 6Ω
WYE - DELTA TRANSFORMATION
The purpose of this problem is to find the potential

difference between the two terminals of the resistor
12KΩ.
http://singachea.net/blog/?p=17
WYE - DELTA TRANSFORMATION
Situation often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are
neither in series or parallel. (Ex. A bridge circuit)
R1 R2
1 3 1 3
R1 R2
R3
R3
2 4 2 4
WYE NETWORK TEE NETWORK
1 3 1 3
Ra Ra
Rc Rb Rc Rb
2 4 2 4
DELTA NETWORK PI NETWORK
THE CONVERSION
http://singachea.net/blog/?p=17
Ra
Ex.1
1 3
25Ω
10Ω 15Ω
Convert the delta-network
Rc Rb to its equivalent wye-network
2 4
DELTA NETWORK
Ex.2
10Ω 20Ω
1 3
Convert the tee-network

R3 40Ω to its equivalent delta-network
2 4
TEE NETWORK
a
Ex.3 ●
IT
50Ω 30Ω
Determine Rab, IT
20Ω
DC
15Ω
120V
50Ω
14Ω
●
b
Ex.4
13Ω
Determine Rab, IT
IT
24Ω 10Ω
DC
20Ω
100V
30Ω 50Ω
30Ω
Ex.5
5Ω
Determine RT
10Ω 20Ω
DC
15Ω
5Ω
30Ω 40Ω
20Ω
Ex.6
10Ω
Determine Vx
60Ω 50Ω +
DC
VX 80Ω
120V -
PASSIVE LINEAR CIRCUITS
Circuit Symbols of:
RESISTOR CAPACITOR INDUCTOR
ACTIVE LINEAR CIRCUITS
Independent Voltage Source Independent AC Current Source
http://www.swarthmore.edu/NatSci/echeeve1/Ref/E72WhaKnow/WhaKnow.html
INDEPENDENT SOURCES
A voltage source is any device or
system that produces an
electromotive force between its
terminals. A primary voltage
source can supply (or absorb)
energy to a circuit.
A current source is an electrical

or electronic device that delivers
or absorbs electric current.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_source
DEPENDENT SOURCES
Voltage dependent voltage source
Voltage dependent current source
Current dependent current source
Current dependent voltage source
http://www.swarthmore.edu/NatSci/echeeve1/Ref/E72WhaKnow/WhaKnow.html
Voltage Current Controlled Voltage Controlled Current Battery
Source Source Source Source of cells
Other Electrical symbols
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/circuits/u9l4a.html
DEPENDENT SOURCES
A B
i
+ +
5V C 10 i
_ _
Fig. 1.14 The source on the right-hand side is a current

controlled voltage source.
Module no.9
Contents:
 Mesh Analysis
Topic Objectives:
 To state the principle of Mesh Analysis

 To apply Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law and Ohm’s law in
voltages and current at any point in the circuit.
MESH ANALYSIS
“In electrical engineering, mesh analysis (sometimes referred

to as loop analysis) or the mesh current method is a method
of circuit analysis that uses simultaneous equations,
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, and Ohm’s Law to solve for the
voltages and currents at any point in a circuit.”
The Mesh Current Method, also known as the Loop Current

Method, is quite similar to the Branch Current method in that
it uses simultaneous equations, Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, and
Ohm's Law to determine unknown currents in a network.
It differs from the Branch Current method in that it does not
use Kirchhoff's Current Law, and it is usually able to solve a
circuit with less unknown variables and less simultaneous
equations.
MESH CURRENT, conventional method
The first step in the Mesh Current method is to identify “loops”

within the circuit encompassing all components.
In our example circuit, the loop formed by B1, R1, and R2 will be
the first while the loop formed by B2, R2, and R3 will be the
second.
In fact, this method gets its name from the idea of these currents
meshing together between loops like sets of spinning gears:
The choice of each current's direction is entirely arbitrary.
The resulting equations are easier to solve if the currents are

going the same direction through intersecting components
(note how currents I1 and I2 are both going “up” through
resistor R2, where they “mesh,” or intersect).
If the assumed direction of a mesh current is wrong, the
answer for that current will have a negative value.
The next step is to label all voltage drop polarities across resistors
according to the assumed directions of the mesh currents.
Remember that the “upstream” end of a resistor will always be
negative, and the “downstream” end of a resistor positive with
respect to each other, since electrons are negatively charged.
The battery polarities, of course, are dictated by their symbol
orientations in the diagram, and may or may not “agree” with the
resistor polarities (assumed current directions):
Using Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, we can now step around each of
these loops, generating equations representative of the
component voltage drops and polarities.
we get this equation:
2nd Loop equation:
Simplifying: eq. 2
Combining the two equations:
Therefore, the final circuit loop currents are:
since loop I2 is negative, therefore the actual direction is
Sample Exercises: _
+
2Ω + 1Ω-
Ex.1 -
4Ω+ +
I1 - I2
Determine I1 and I2
DC DC
2V 6V
Ex.2
6Ω -
_ +
1Ω + + Determine I1 and I2
- +
I1 I2 - 2Ω
DC DC
10V
5V
5Ω 16V
Ex.3
+ - DC
Determine I1 and I2 I2
I1 + 4A
DC
- 6Ω
62V
Ex.4 5Ω 16V
Determine I1 and I2 + - DC
I2
I1 +
DC - 6Ω DC
9V
62V
Module no.10
Contents:
 Nodal Analysis
Topic Objectives:
 To state the principle of Nodal analysis

 To apply the Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Ohm’s Law
in determining voltage and current at any point in the
circuit
NODAL ANALYSIS
The node voltage method of analysis solves for unknown

voltages at circuit nodes in terms of a system of KCL
equations.
This analysis looks strange because it involves replacing
voltage sources with equivalent current sources. Also, resistor
values in ohms are replaced by equivalent conductances in
siemens, G = 1/R.
The siemens (S) is the unit of conductance, having replaced
the mho unit. In any event S = Ω-1. And S = mho (obsolete).
NODAL ANALYSIS
In this method, we set up and solve a system of equations in which the unknowns
are the voltages at the principal nodes of the circuit. From these nodal voltages the
currents in the various branches of the circuit are easily determined.
The steps in the nodal analysis method are:
Count the number of principal nodes or junctions in the circuit. Call
this number n. (A principal node or junction is a point where 3 or more
branches join. We will indicate them in a circuit diagram with a red dot.
Note that if a branch contains no voltage sources or loads then that
entire branch can be considered to be one node.)
Number the nodes N1, N2, . . . , Nn and draw them on the circuit
diagram. Call the voltages at these nodes V1, V2, . . . , Vn,
respectively.
Choose one of the nodes to be the reference node or ground and

assign it a voltage of zero.
http://mathonweb.com/help/backgd5.htm
The steps in the nodal analysis method are:
For each node except the reference node write down Kirchoff's Current
Law in the form "the algebraic sum of the currents flowing out of a node
equals zero". (By algebraic sum we mean that a current flowing into a
node is to be considered a negative current flowing out of the node.)
For example, for the node to the right KCL

yields the equation:
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
Example 1: Use nodal

analysis to find the voltage
at each node of this circuit.
Solution:
 Note that the "pair of nodes" at
the bottom is actually 1 extended
node. Thus the number of nodes
is 3.
We will number the nodes as

shown to the right.
 We will choose node 2 as the reference node and assign it a voltage of zero.
 Write down Kirchoff's Current Law for each node. Call V1 the voltage at node 1,
V3 the voltage at node 3, and remember that V2 = 0. The result is the following
system of equations:
 The first equation results from KCL applied at node 1 and the second
equation results from KCL applied at node 3. Collecting terms this becomes:
This form for the system of equations could have been gotten immediately by
using the inspection method.
Solving the system:
V1=68.2 volts and V3=27.3 volts
V1
Sample Exercises: ●
Ex.1
2Ω 4Ω
Determine V, I1 and I2 1A
2A
●
Ex.2
V1 12Ω V2
● ●
Determine V1 , and V2
2Ω 6Ω
4A 2A
Ex.3 2Ω 6Ω 3Ω
Determine V12Ω +
+ +
-
4Ω V12 12Ω -
-
8V 4V
Module no.11
Contents:
 Circuit Elements
Topic Objectives:
 To introduce other dc circuit elements

 To identify the passive from active elements of the
circuit
 To distinguish the dependent from independent
sources
 To identify the different alternating current values
 To define terms related to AC waveform
BASIC ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
RESISTANCE
The property of a
component to resist the
flow of electric current.
Circuit Symbol
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/resis.html
Plasma TV Light fixture
Flat Iron
Wattage of Common Household Appliances/Tools

Appliances Resistive Load Reactive Load
Blender 375 watts 500 va
Coffee Maker 1,700 watts ---
Computer - PC 300 watts ---
Washing Machine 1,150 watts 2, 200 va
Microwave 1,050 - 2500 watts ---
Water Heater 4,000 watts ---
TV Color 300 watts ---
Freezer 800 watts 2,100 va
INDUCTANCE
Symbol The property of a
flow of electric current
[Source] http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/induct.html
I. Elementary Characteristics The coil in the figure simulates an inductor.
The main issue is how the magnetic field
lines go across the inductor (lines with
arrows). There is some magnetic field at
the top bottom of the coil too.
The current I going through the inductor

generates a magnetic field which is
perpendicular to I.
The Magnetic Field H is given by the loops that

surround the current I. The direction of the Magnetic
Field is given by the arrows around the loops. If the
current was to flow in the opposite direction the
Magnetic Field arrows would be reversed.
INDUCTOR APPLICATIONS
Inductor construction
A choke with two

47mH windings, as
may be found in a An inductor is usually constructed as a
power supply. coil of conducting material, typically
copper wire, wrapped around a core
either of air or of ferromagnetic
material. Core materials with a higher
permeability than air increase the
magnetic field and confine it closely to
the inductor, thereby increasing the
inductance.
Overview
● A coil of wire is an important part of many pieces of electrical
equipment.
● A magnetic field is produced when current exists in the coil.
● As the strength of magnetic field changes
 an induced electromotive force (EMF) is created across the coil.
● The induced voltage opposes the source voltage.
 as the opposition becomes greater, less current exist in the
circuit.
● The coil has a property that opposes change in the current. This
property is called inductance (L). The amount of opposition to
current change is called inductive reactance (XL ), which is a function
of frequency and inductance.
XL = 2 π f L Where: XL = inductive reactance

π = 3.14159...
f = frequency
L = inductance in henrys
II. Inductor Circuits
1. Basic Inductor Circuit
di
The current I is implicitly given by the relationship: V = L
dt
120V L
60Hz
AC
IL
0.3H
INDUCTORS IN SERIES INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL
L1
0.3H 120V
120V 60Hz
60Hz AC
0.3H L 0.4H L2
AC 1
0.4H L2
INDUCTORS IN SERIES / PARALLEL
L1
0.3H
120V
60Hz
AC
0.4H 0.5H
L2 L3
CAPACITANCE
Symbol The measure of the amount of

electric charge stored.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/capac.html
Charge and Energy Stored
The amount of charge (symbol Q) stored by a capacitor is given by:
Q = charge in coulombs (C)

Charge, Q = C × V where: C = capacitance in farads (F)
V = voltage in volts (V)
When they store charge, capacitors are also storing energy:
Energy, E = ½QV = ½CV² where E = energy in joules (J).
Note that capacitors return their stored energy to the circuit. They do not 'use up'
electrical energy by converting it to heat as a resistor does. The energy stored
by a capacitor is much smaller than the energy stored by a battery so they
cannot be used as a practical source of energy for most purposes.
Capacitive Reactance Xc
Capacitive reactance (symbol Xc) is a measure of a capacitor's opposition to AC
(alternating current). Like resistance it is measured in ohms, Ω, but reactance is
more complex than resistance because its value depends on the frequency (f) of the
electrical signal passing through the capacitor as well as on the capacitance, C.
Xc = reactance in ohms (Ω)

Capacitive reactance, Xc = 1 where: f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
2πfC C = capacitance in farads (F)
The reactance Xc is large at low frequencies and small at high frequencies. For
steady DC which is zero frequency, Xc is infinite (total opposition), hence the rule
that capacitors pass AC but block DC.
For example a 1µF capacitor has a reactance of 3.2kΩ for a 50Hz signal,
but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is only 16Ω .
CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL
Capacitors, like resistors, can be placed in series
and in parallel. Increasing levels of capacitance can
be obtained by placing capacitors in parallel, while
decreasing levels can be obtained by placing
capacitors in series.
For capacitors in series, the
charge is the same on each
capacitor
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage
law around the closed loop
gives
and dividing both sides by Q yields
which is similar to the manner in which we

found the total resistance of a parallel resistive
circuit. The total capacitance of two capacitors
in series
is
The voltage across each capacitor can be found
by first recognizing that
Solving for V1:
and substituting for CT :
A similar equation results for each capacitor of

the network.
For capacitors in parallel, as shown in the figure
below, the voltage is the same across each
capacitor, and the total charge is the sum of that on
each capacitor:
which is similar to the manner in which the total resistance of a series circuit
is found.
EXAMPLE 1.
a. Find the total capacitance.
b. Determine the charge on each plate.
c. Find the voltage across each capacitor.
1. Solutions:
EXAMPLE 2.
c. Find the total charge.
Solutions for Ex2:
EXAMPLE 3.
Find the voltage across and the charge on each
capacitor for the network
Solutions for Ex3:
Module no.11_a
Contents:
 CAPACITORS
Topic Objectives:

 To identify the behavior of CAPACITOR in a dc circuit
Capacitance and Capacitors
CAPACITANCE

CAPACITANCE
Like the resistor, it is a two-terminal device, but its characteristics
are totally different from those of a resistor. In fact, the capacitor
displays its true characteristics only when a change in the voltage
or current is made in the network.
All the power delivered to a resistor is dissipated in the form of
heat. An ideal capacitor, however,
stores the energy delivered to it in a form that can be returned to
the system.
Although the basic construction of capacitors is actually quite
simple, it is a component that
opens the door to all types of practical applications, extending from
touch pads to sophisticated
control systems.
THE ELECTRIC FIELD
Recall that a force of attraction or repulsion exists between two
charged bodies. We now examine this phenomenon in greater
detail by considering the electric field that exists in the region
around any charged body. This electric field is represented by
electric flux lines, which are drawn to indicate the strength of the
electric field at any point around the charged body. The denser the
lines of flux, the stronger the electric field.
In Fig. 1, for example, the electric field strength is stronger in region
a than region b because the flux lines are denser in region a than b.
That is, the same number of flux lines pass through each region,
but the area A1 is much smaller than area A2. The symbol for
electric flux is the Greek letter c (psi).
The flux per unit area (flux density) is represented by the capital
letter D and is determined by
The larger the charge Q in coulombs, the greater the number of flux
lines extending or terminating per unit area, independent of the
surrounding medium. Twice the charge produces twice the flux per
unit area. The two can therefore be equated:
FIG. 1
Flux distribution from an isolated positive charge.
By definition, the electric field strength (designated by the capital
script letter e) at a point is the force acting on a unit positive charge
at that point; that is,
In Fig. 2, the force exerted on a unit (1 coulomb) positive charge by

a charge Q, r meters away, can be determined using Coulomb’s law
(Eq. 2.1) as follows:
FIG. 2
The result clearly reveals that the electric field strength is directly
related to the size of the charge Q. The greater the charge Q, the
greater the electric field intensity on a unit charge at any point in
the neighborhood.
However, the distance is a squared term in the denominator. The
result is that the greater the distance from the charge Q, the less
the electric field strength, and dramatically so because of the
squared term.
In Fig. 1, the electric field strength at region A2 is therefore
significantly less than at region A1.
For two charges of similar and

opposite polarities, the flux
distribution appears as shown
in Fig. 3.
In general,
electric flux lines always extend from a positively
charged body to a negatively charged body, always
extend or terminate perpendicular to the charged
surfaces, and never intersect.
CAPACITANCE
In Fig. 4, for example, two parallel plates of a material

such as aluminum (the most commonly used metal in the
construction of capacitors) have been connected through
a switch and a resistor to a battery. If the parallel plates
are initially uncharged and the switch is left open, no net
positive or negative charge exists on either plate. The
instant the switch is closed, however, electrons are drawn
from the upper plate through the resistor to the positive
terminal of the battery. There will be a surge of current at
first, limited in magnitude by the resistance present.
FIG. 4
The level of flow then declines, as will be demonstrated
in the sections to follow. This action creates a net
positive charge on the top plate. Electrons are being
repelled by the negative terminal through the lower
conductor to the bottom plate at the same rate they are
being drawn to the positive terminal. This transfer of
electrons continues until the potential difference across
the parallel plates is exactly equal to the battery voltage.
Before continuing, it is important to note that the entire
flow of charge is through the battery and resistor—not
through the region between the plates. In every sense of
the definition,
there is an open circuit between the plates of the
capacitor.
This element, constructed simply of two conducting
surfaces separated by the air gap, is called a capacitor.
Capacitance is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to

store charge on its plates—in other words, its storage
capacity.
In addition,
the higher the capacitance of a capacitor, the greater
the amount of charge stored on the plates for the same
applied voltage.
The unit of measure applied to capacitors is the farad (F),
named after an English scientist, Michael Faraday, who
did extensive research in the field . In particular,
a capacitor has a capacitance of 1 F if 1 C of charge
(6.242 x 1018 electrons) is deposited on the plates by a
potential difference of 1 V across its plates.
The farad, however, is generally too large a measure of capacitance
for most practical applications, so the microfarad (106) or
picofarad(1012) are more commonly encountered.
The relationship between the applied voltage, the charge on the

plates, and the capacitance level is defined by the following
equation:
The equation above reveals that for the same voltage (V), the
greater the charge (Q) on the plates (in the numerator of the
equation), the higher the capacitance level (C). If we write the
equation in the following form:
it becomes obvious through the product relationship
that the higher the capacitance (C) or applied voltage
(V), the greater the charge on the plates.
EXAMPLE 1
a. If 82.4 x 1014 electrons are deposited on the
negative plate of a capacitor by an applied voltage
of 60 V, find the capacitance of the capacitor.
b. If 40 V are applied across a 470 μF capacitor, find
the charge on the plates.
b.
TABLE 1
A cross-sectional view of the parallel plates in Fig. 4 is
provided in Fig. 6(a). Note the fringing that occurs at the
edges as the flux lines originating from the points
farthest away from the negative plate strive to complete
the connection. This fringing, which has the effect of
reducing the net capacitance somewhat, can be ignored
for most applications. Ideally, and the way we will
assume the distribution to be in this text, the electric
flux distribution appears as shown in Fig. 6(b), where all
the flux lines are equally distributed and “fringing” does
not occur.
The electric field strength
between the plates is
determined by the
voltage across the plates and
the distance between the
plates as follows:
FIG. 6
The equation for the electric field strength is determined
by two factors only: the applied voltage and the distance
between the plates. The charge on the plates does not
appear in the equation, nor does the size of the capacitor
or the plate material.
Many values of capacitance can be obtained for the
same set of parallel plates by the addition of certain
insulating materials between the plates. In Fig. 7, an
insulating material has been placed between a set
of parallel plates having a potential difference of V volts
across them. Since the material is an insulator, the
electrons within the insulator are unable to leave the
parent atom and travel to the positive plate. The positive
components (protons) and negative components
(electrons) of each atom do shift, however [as shown in
Fig. 7(a)], to form dipoles.
When the dipoles align themselves as shown in Fig. 7(a),
the material is polarized. A close examination within this
polarized material reveals that the positive and negative
components of adjoining dipoles are neutralizing the
effects of each other [note the dashed area in Fig.7(a)].
The layer of positive charge on one surface and the
negative charge on the other are not neutralized,
however, resulting in the establishment of an electric
field within the insulator ξdielectric; [ Fig. 10.7(b)].
FIG. 7
Effect of a dielectric on the field distribution between the plates of a capacitor:
(a) alignment of dipoles in the dielectric; (b) electric field components between
the plates of a capacitor with a dielectric present.
In Fig. 8(a), two plates are separated by an air gap and
have layers of charge on the plates as established by the
applied voltage and the distance between the plates. The
electric field strength is as defined by the equation above.
In Fig. 8(b), a slice of mica is introduced which, through
an alignment of cells within the dielectric, establishes an
electric field that will oppose electric field. The effect is to
try to reduce the electric field strength between the
plates.
FIG. 8
Demonstrating the effect of inserting a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor:

(a) air capacitor; (b) dielectric being inserted.
Different materials placed between the plates establish
different amounts of additional charge on the plates. All,
however, must be insulators and must have the ability to
set up an electric field within the structure. A list of
common materials appears in Table 1 using air as the
reference level of 1.*
All of these materials are referred to as dielectrics, the “di”
for opposing, and the “electric” from electric field. The
symbol εr in Table 1 is called the relative permittivity (or
dielectric constant). The term permittivity is applied as a
measure of how easily a material “permits” the
establishment of an electric field in the material. The
relative permittivity compares the permittivity of a
material to that of air.
For instance, Table 1 reveals that mica, with a relative
permittivity of 5, “permits” the establishment of an
opposing electric field in the material five times better
than in air. Note the ceramic material at the bottom of
the chart with a relative permittivity of 7500—a relative
permittivity that makes it a very special dielectric in the
manufacture of capacitors.
Defining εo as the permittivity of air, the relative

permittivity of a material with a permittivity ε is defined
by
Note that εr , which (as mentioned previously) is often
called the dielectric constant, is a dimensionless quantity
because it is a ratio of similar quantities. However,
permittivity does have the units of farads/meter (F/m)
and is 8.85x1012 F/m for air. Although the relative
permittivity for the air we breathe is listed as 1.006, a
value of 1 is normally used for the relative permittivity of
air.
For every dielectric there is a potential that, if applied
across the dielectric, will break down the bonds within it
and cause current to flow through it. The voltage required
per unit length is an indication of its dielectric strength
and is called the breakdown voltage. When breakdown
occurs, the capacitor has characteristics very similar to
those of a conductor.
A typical example of dielectric breakdown is lightning,
which occurs when the potential between the clouds and
the earth is so high that charge can pass from one to the
other through the atmosphere (the dielectric).
The average dielectric strengths for various dielectrics
are tabulated in volts/mil in Table 2 (1 mil 1/1000 inch).
One of the important parameters of a capacitor is the
maximum working voltage. It defines the maximum
voltage that can be placed across the capacitor on a
continuous basis without damaging it or changing its
characteristics. For most capacitors, it is the dielectric
strength that defines the maximum working voltage.
TABLE 2
Capacitor Construction
We are now aware of the basic components of a
capacitor: conductive plates, separation, and dielectric.
However, the question remains, How do all these
factors interact to determine the capacitance of a
capacitor? Larger plates permit an increased area for
the storage of charge, so the area of the plates should
be in the numerator of the defining equation. The
smaller the distance between the plates, the larger the
capacitance so this factor should appear in the
numerator of the equation. Finally, since higher levels
of permittivity result in higher levels of capacitance, the
factor should appear in the numerator of the defining
equation.
The result is the following general equation for
capacitance:
If we form the ratio of the equation for the capacitance
of a capacitor with a specific dielectric to that of the
same capacitor with air as the dielectric, the following
results:
The result is that

the capacitance of a capacitor with a dielectric having
a relative permittivity of εr is εr times the capacitance
using air as the dielectric.
EXAMPLE 2 In Fig.9 below, if each air capacitor in the
left column is changed to the type appearing in the right
column, find the new capacitance level. For each
change, the other factors remain the same.
FIG. 9
Solutions:
a. In Fig. 9(a), the area has increased by a factor of
three, providing more space for the storage of charge
on each plate. Since the area appears in the numerator
of the capacitance equation, the capacitance
increases by a factor of three. That is,
C = 3(Co) = 3(5 mF) = 15 MF
b. In Fig. 9(b), the area stayed the same, but the distance
between the plates was increased by a factor of two.
Increasing the distance reduces the capacitance level, so
the resulting capacitance is one-half of what it was before.
That is,
c. In Fig. 9(c), the area and the distance between the
plates were maintained, but a dielectric of paraffined
(waxed) paper was added between the plates. Since
the permittivity appears in the numerator
of the capacitance equation, the capacitance increases
by a factor determined by the relative permittivity.
That is,
C = εrCo = 2.5(20 mF) = 50 MF

d. In Fig. 9(d), a multitude of changes are happening at
the same time. However, solving the problem is simply a
matter of determining whether the change increases or
decreases the capacitance and then placing the
multiplying factor in the numerator or denominator
of the equation. The increase in area by a factor of four
produces a multiplier of four in the numerator, as shown
in the equation below. Reducing the distance by a factor
of 1/8 will increase the capacitance by its inverse, or a
factor of eight. Inserting the mica dielectric increases
the capacitance by a factor of five. The result is
EXAMPLE 3 For the capacitor in Fig. 10:
a. Find the capacitance.
b. Find the strength of the electric field between the
plates if 48 V are
applied across the plates.
c. Find the charge on each plate.
FIG. 10
Solutions:
a. First, the area and the distance between the plates
must be converted to the SI system as required
b. The electric field between the plates is determined by
c. The charge on the plates is determined by

CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL
Capacitors, like resistors, can be placed in series and in
parallel. Increasing levels of capacitance can be obtained
by placing capacitors in parallel, while decreasing levels
can be obtained by placing capacitors in series.
For capacitors in series, the

charge is the same on each
capacitor
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage
law around the closed loop
gives
and dividing both sides by Q yields
which is similar to the manner in which we found

the total resistance of a parallel resistive circuit.
The total capacitance of two capacitors in series
is
The voltage across each capacitor can be found by first
recognizing that
Solving for V1:
and substituting for CT :
A similar equation results for each capacitor of the

network.
For capacitors in parallel, as shown in the figure below,
the voltage is the same across each capacitor, and the
total charge is the sum of that on each capacitor:
which is similar to the manner in which the total resistance of a series circuit
is found.
EXAMPLE 1.
c. Find the voltage across each capacitor.
1. Solutions:
EXAMPLE 2.
c. Find the total charge.
Solutions for Ex2:
EXAMPLE 3.
Find the voltage across and the charge on each
capacitor for the network
Solutions for Ex3:
INDUCTORS NEXT….
Module no.11_a
Contents:
 INDUCTORS
Topic Objectives:

 To identify the behavior of INDUCTOR in a dc circuit
Inductance and Inductors
INDUCTANCE
Symbol The measure of how much
it will oppose a change in
current in the circuit.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every
electrical device used today in industry, research,
or the home. Generators, motors, transformers,
circuit breakers, televisions, computers, tape
recorders, and telephones all employ magnetic
effects to perform a variety of important tasks.
The compass, used by Chinese sailors as early as
the second century A.D., relies on a permanent
magnet for indicating direction.
In 1820, the Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted
discovered that the needle of a compass deflects if
brought near a current-carrying conductor. This was the
first demonstration that electricity and magnetism were
related. In the same year, the French physicist André-
Marie Ampère performed experiments in this area and
developed what is presently known as Ampère’s
circuital law. In subsequent years, others such as Michael
Faraday, Karl Friedrich Gauss, and James Clerk Maxwell
continued to experiment in this area and developed many
of the basic concepts of electromagnetism—
magnetic effects induced by the flow of charge, or
current.
A magnetic field exists in the region surrounding a
permanent magnet, which can be represented by
magnetic flux lines similar to electric flux lines. Magnetic
flux lines, however, do not have origins or terminating
points as do electric flux lines but exist in continuous
loops, as shown
in Fig. 1.
FIG. 1
Flux distribution for a permanent magnet.
It is also important to realize that the continuous
magnetic flux line will strive to occupy as small an area as
possible. This results in magnetic flux lines of minimum
length between the unlike poles, as shown in Fig. 2. If
unlike poles of two permanent magnets are brought
together, the magnets attract, and the flux distribution is
as shown below.
FIG. 2
Flux distribution for two adjacent, opposite
poles.
If like poles are brought together, the magnets repel, and
the flux distribution is as shown in Fig. 3
FIG. 3
Flux distribution for two adjacent, like poles.

A magnetic field (represented by concentric magnetic
flux lines, as in Fig. 4) is present around every wire that
carries an electric current.
The direction of the magnetic flux lines can be found
simply by placing the thumb of the right hand in the
direction of conventional current flow and noting the
direction of the fingers. (This method is commonly
called the right-hand rule.)
FIG. 4
Magnetic flux lines around a current-carrying
conductor.
If the conductor is wound in a single-turn coil (Fig. 5),
the resulting flux flows in a common direction through the
center of the coil.
FIG. 5
Flux distribution of a
single-turn coil.
A coil of more than one turn produces a magnetic field
that exists in a continuous path through and around the
coil (Fig. 6).
FIG. 6
Flux distribution of a currentcarrying
coil.
In the SI system of units, magnetic flux is measured in
webers (Wb) as derived from the surname of Wilhelm
Eduard Weber. The applied symbol is the capital Greek
letter phi,Φ. The number of flux lines per unit area, called
the flux density, is denoted by the capital letter B and
is measured in teslas (T) to honor the efforts of Nikola
Tesla, a scientist of the late 1800s.
In equation form:
where Φ is the number of flux lines passing through

area A in Fig. 7. The flux density at point a in Fig. 1 is
twice that at point b because twice as many flux lines
pass through the same area.
FIG. 7
Defining the flux density B.
The equivalence is given by:
which states in words that if 1 weber of magnetic flux

passes through an area of 1 square meter, the flux density
is 1 tesla.
For the CGS system, magnetic flux is measured in maxwells
and the flux density in gauss. For the English system,
magnetic flux is measured in lines and the flux density in
lines per square inch.
The flux density of an electromagnet is directly related to
the number of turns of, and current through, the coil. The
product of the two, called the magnetomotive force, is
measured in ampere-turns (At) as defined by
In other words, if you increase the number of turns around

a core and/or increase the current through the coil, the
magnetic field strength also increases. In many ways, the
magnetomotive force for magnetic circuits is similar to the
applied voltage in an electric circuit. Increasing either one
results in an increase in the desired effect: magnetic flux
for magnetic circuits and current for electric circuits.
For the CGS system, the magnetomotive force is
measured in gilberts, while for the English system, it is
measured in ampere-turns.
Another factor that affects the magnetic field strength is
the type of core used. Materials in which magnetic flux
lines can readily be set up are said to be magnetic and to
have a high permeability. Again, note the similarity with
the word “permit” used to describe permittivity for the
dielectrics of capacitors. Similarly, the permeability
(represented by the Greek letter mu, μ) of a material is a
measure of the ease with which magnetic flux lines can
be established in the material.
Just as there is a specific value for the permittivity of air,
there is a specific number associated with the
permeability of air:
The ratio of the permeability of a material to that of free

space is called its relative permeability; that is,
In general, for ferromagnetic materials, μr 100, and for

nonmagnetic materials, μr 1.
An instrument designed to measure flux density in gauss
(CGS system) appears in Fig. 8. The magnitude of the
reading appearing on the face of the meter in Fig. 11.14 is
therefore
FIG. 8
Digital display gaussmeter.

(Courtesy of Walker LDJ Scientific Inc.
www.walkerldjscientific.com)
Although our emphasis in this chapter is to introduce the
parameters that affect the nameplate data of an inductor,
the use of magnetics has widespread application in the
electrical/electronics industry, as shown by a few areas of
application in Fig. 9.
FIG. 9
Some areas of application of magnetic effects.

INDUCTANCE
In the previous section, we learned that sending a current
through a coil of wire, with or without a core, establishes a
magnetic field through and surrounding the unit. This
component, of rather simple construction (see Fig. 10), is
called an inductor (often referred to as a coil).
Its inductance level determines the strength of the
magnetic field around the coil due to an applied current.
The higher the inductance level, the greater the
strength of the magnetic field.
In total, therefore,
Inductance is measured in henries

(H), after the American physicist
Joseph Henry . However, just as the
farad is too large a unit for most
applications, most inductors are of
the millihenry (mH) or microhenry
(μH) range.
FIG. 10
For inductors,
Inductor Construction
The level of inductance has similar construction
sensitivities in that it is dependent on the area within the
coil, the length of the unit, and the permeability of the
core material. It is also sensitive to the number of turns
of wire in the coil.
Substituting μ = μrμo for the permeability which is very
similar to the equation for the capacitance of a
capacitor:
or
If we break out the relative permeability as follows:
we obtain the following useful equation:

EXAMPLE 1 For the air-core coil in Fig. 11
FIG. 11
a. Find the inductance.

b. Find the inductance if a metallic core with μr = 2000 is
inserted in the coil.
Solutions:
b.
EXAMPLE 2
In Fig. 12, if each inductor in the left column is changed to the type
appearing in the right column, find the new inductance level. For
each change, assume that the other factors remain the same.
FIG. 12
Solutions:
a. The only change was the number of turns, but it is a
squared factor, resulting in
b. In this case, the area is three times the original size,

and the number of turns is 1/2. Since the area is in the
numerator, it increases the inductance by a factor of
three. The drop in the number of turns
reduces the inductance by a factor of (1/2)2 = 1/4.
Therefore,
c. Both μ and the number of turns have increased,
although the increase in the number of turns is squared.
The increased length reduces the inductance. Therefore,
Types of Inductors
Inductors, like capacitors and
resistors, can be categorized under
the general headings fixed or
variable. The symbol for a fixed air-
core inductor is provided in Fig.
13(a), for an inductor with a
ferromagnetic core in Fig. 13(b), for
a tapped coil in Fig. 13(c), and for a
variable inductor in
Fig. 13(d).
FIG. 13
Inductor (coil) symbols.

Fixed Fixed-type inductors come in all shapes and sizes.
However,
In Fig. 14(a), the 10 μH and 1 mH coils are about the same

size because a thinner wire was used for the 1 mH coil to
permit more turns in the same space. The result, however,
is a drop in rated current from 10 A to only 1.3 A. If the
wire of the 10 μH coil had been used to make the 1 mH
coil, the resulting coil would have been many times the
size of the 10 μH coil.
FIG. 14
Relative sizes of different types of inductors: (a)

toroid, high-current; (b) phenolic (resin or
plastic core); (c) ferrite core.
The phenolic inductor (using a nonferromagnetic core of
resin or plastic) in Fig. 14(b) is quite small for its level of
inductance. We must assume that it has a high number of
turns of very thin wire. Note, however, that the use of a
very thin wire has resulted in a relatively low current
rating of only 350 mA (0.35 A).
The use of a ferrite (ferromagnetic) core in the inductor in

Fig. 14(c) has resulted in an amazingly high level of
inductance for its size. However, the wire is so thin that
the current rating is only 11 mA 0.011 A.
Note that for all the inductors, the dc resistance of the
inductor increases with a decrease in the thickness of
the wire. The 10 μH toroid has a dc resistance of only 6
m, whereas the dc resistance of the 100 mH ferrite
inductor is 700 —a price to be paid for the smaller size
and high inductance level.
FIG. 15
Typical areas of application for inductive elements.
INDUCTORS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL
Inductors, like resistors and capacitors, can be placed in
series or in parallel. Increasing levels of inductance can be
obtained by placing inductors in series, while decreasing
levels can be obtained by placing inductors in parallel.
For inductors in series, the total inductance is found in

the same manner as the total resistance of resistors in
series
For inductors in parallel, the total inductance is found
in the same manner as the total resistance of resistors
in parallel
For two inductors in parallel,

EXAMPLE 3
Reduce the network in figure below to its simplest form.
Solution: Inductors L2 and L3 are equal in value and they

are in parallel, resulting in an equivalent parallel value of
The resulting 0.6 H is then in parallel

with the 1.8 H inductor, and
Inductor L1 is then in series with the equivalent parallel
value, and
EXAMPLE 4
Solve for the total inductance
INDUCTORS IN SERIES INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL

L1
0.3H 120V
120V 60Hz
60Hz AC
0.3H L 0.4H L2
AC 1
0.4H L2
INDUCTORS IN SERIES / PARALLEL
L1
0.3H
120V
60Hz
AC
0.4H 0.5H
L2 L3
ELECTRICAL TRANSIENTS
OBJECTIVES:
1. To distinguish the behavior of Resistor, Capacitor,

and Inductor in dc circuits
2. To solve problems involving electrical transients
3. To recognize the many applications of transients in

the field of computer, electronics and communication,
and electrical engineering.
BASIC ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
RESISTANCE
The property of a
flow of electric current.
Circuit Symbol
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/resis.html
CAPACITANCE

INDUCTANCE
Symbol The measure of how much
it will oppose a change in
current in the circuit.
TRANSIENT PERIOD
 When a circuit is to be switched on…
= TRANSIENT PERIOD
(a momentary event) or adjustment period
= the circuit has attained its

steady-state value after is
has long been switched on
(for a long time)
SWITCHES AND BUTTONS
http://images.google.com.ph/images?hl=tl&q=switches+and+buttons&gbv=2
i A graph of the current growth in a given RL or RC dc circuit
Steady-State Response
Transient Response
t
Transient Period
-The capacitor passes through two transient phases
CHARGING and DISCHARGING
I + VR –
1
2 R
+
E C
DC 3 Vc
–
Fig.1. This circuit is designed both to charge and discharge the

capacitor
CHARGING PHASE
 Electrons are deposited on the bottom plate of the capacitor
 Positive charge on the top plate and

Negative charge on the bottom plate
 Until the potential across the capacitor = E
THE CURRENT at any instant of time

dq
i The instantaneous current (Eq.1)
dt
dq
i 0 If no charge is deposited on the plate
dt
Recall the definition of capacitance
CAPACITANCE – is a measure of capacitor’s ability to

store charge on its plates
Q C = farads (F)
C  Q = coulombs (C)
V
V = volts (V)
Therefore q  Cv (Eq.2)
dq d
i  Cv Current equation of the capacitor
dt dt
dvc
ic  C (Eq.3)
dt
Going back to the circuit, switch at position 1 – apply KVL
E  vR  vC  0 or vR  vC  E
Since VR = iR iR + VC = E
Since the same current is flowing through R and C
dvC
C R  VC E
dt
Rearranging the equation
dvC
RC  VC  E Then apply calculus
dt
The voltage VC (voltage across the capacitor at any time t) will then be
 t / RC
VC (t )  E (1  e ) (Eq.4)
- The time when the exponent of “e” in the formula

for current is unity or equal to 1
E volts volts
R  
I amperes coulombs / sec
and
Q coulombs
C 
V volt

Therefore
= RC (seconds) (Eq.5)
DURING CHARGING PHASE
 t /
VC (t )  E (1  e
So,
) Capacitor voltage VC
E t / 
iC (t )  e and
R
E t /  t / 
VR (t )  RiC (t )  R e  Ee
R
The Universal Time Constant chart
Universal time constant chart.

Analyzing the Chart: Charging and Discharging phase
This is a plot of
t / t /
(e )vs.(1  e )curve
TC () % of charging % discharging
of vC of iC
0-1 63.2 36.8
1-2 23.3 13.5
2-3 8.6 4.9
3-4 3.0 1.9
4-5 1.2 0.7
5-6 0.4
Practically,
A CAPACITOR CHARGES TO ITS FINAL VOLTAGE

AFTER FIVE(5) TIME CONSTANTS
Therefore,
The larger the capacitance, the longer it takes to charge up to its

final value and the lesser the capacitance, the faster the voltage
builds up.
Ex.1 Ex.3
R = 100Ω R = 100Ω
C = 1 farad C = 100 pF
Ex.2
TC or RC or  = 100sec R = 100Ω TC or RC or  = 0.01sec
C = 100 F
TC or RC or  = 10msec
Further analysis,
 ( 0 ) /
at t=0 sec or the moment the switch is turned on e  e 1 0
THE CAPACITOR ACTS AS SHORT-CIRCUIT!
vC  0 iC  E / R vR  E
eventually,
vC  E as iC  0 and vR  0
When the capacitor has charged to its final value in a dc network, practically,
THE CAPACITOR CAN BE REPLACED BY AN

+ VR = 0 –
OPEN-CIRCUIT! ic = 0
+
E DC
Vc=E
–
If the switch is moved to position 2,
+ VR = 0V –
ic = 0
1
R +
2
E C Vc = E
DC
3
–
THE CAPACITOR WILL RETAIN ITS CHARGE FOR A PERIOD OF TIME!

(Depending on its leakage current)
Types of Capacitors
1. MICA –small leakage current
2. CERAMICS – small leakage current
3. ELECTROLYTIC – very high leakage current
WARNING!
In any event, capacitors should be shorted by a lead or screwdriver before
they are handled with bare hands!
If the switch is moved to position 3,
– VR +
1
R
2 ic +
DC 3 Vc = E
–
THE CAPACITOR WILL ENTER THE DISCHARGING PHASE!
 The electrons on the negative plate will travel toward the positive plate
the instant the switch is closed
= reduce charge on the plates
= reduce the potential across the plate (V = Q/C)
The capacitor will act as a source of emf

= decrease toward zero with time
DURING DISCHARGING PHASE
t /
vC (t )  Ee
So,
Capacitor voltage VC
E t / 
iC (t )  e and
R
t / 
vR (t )  Ee  vC (t )
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Find the mathematical expressions for the behavior of vc, ic,
and vr of the circuit after the closing of switch.
+ VR –
ic
(t=0) 8kΩ
+
E 4F Vc
DC
40V
–
2. After vc has reached its final value of 40V from No.1 Prob.,
a second switch is thrown, find the mathematical expressions
for vc, ic, and vr.
– VR +
ic
8kΩ +
4F Vc = 40V
–
3. a) Find the mathematical expressions for vc, ic, and vr after
the switch is thrown at into position1 (at t=0). Calculate
the voltage vc at t = 10ms
b) Repeat part (a) for ic and vr1
c) Find the mathematical expressions for vc, ic, and vr1 after
the switch is thrown at into position 2 at t = 30ms.
(Assume the leakage resistance of the capacitor is equal
to  ohms)
d) Find the mathematical expression for vc, vr1 + vr2, and ic
if the switch is thrown at position 3 at t = 48ms.
+ Vc –
1
C = 0.05F
2 +
E DC
10V 3
+ Vr1 R1 = 100kΩ
Vr2 R2 = 100kΩ –
–
-The inductor also passes through two transient phases
CHARGING and DISCHARGING
(t = 0) + VR –
1
I R
E DC 2 +
L VL
–
At position 1,
The inductance of the coil will prevent any instantaneous change
in current through the coil ( VL = E )
Therefore, L can be replaced by an OPEN CIRCUIT!

Then current will build up
= VR (voltage drop across the resistor) increasing
= VL (gradually decreasing)
Eventually,
= VR = E and VL = 0
Applying KVL to the circuit,
E  vR  vL  0 or vR  vL  E
since i is the same for resistor and inductor
diL
iL R  v L  E iL R  L E
dt
then apply calculus
The iL (current through the coil at any time t) will be
Therefore, Time Constant (TC)

E t /( L / R )
iL (t )  (1  e )  
L
R R
If we let Im = E/R, then
 t /
iL (t )  I m (1  e )
Time it takes to build up of iL
L
 
R
Ex.1 Ex.2 Ex.3

L = 1 Henry L = 50 mH L = 5 mH
R = 100Ω R = 100Ω R = 100Ω
 = 10ms  = 0.5ms  = 50s
Therefore, the LARGER the inductance is, the LONGER it will take iL to
reach its final value!
Using the Universal Time Constant Chart
TC () % of iL % of vL
charging discharging
0-1 63.2 36.8
1-2 23.3 13.5
2-3 8.6 4.9
3-4 3.0 1.9
4-5 1.2 0.7
5-6 0.4
Therefore at position 1 of the circuit, the three equations are:
 t /
iL (t )  I m (1  e ) Increasing current with time
t /
vL (t )  Ee Decreasing voltage of the inductor with time
vR (t )  i (t ) R 
E t /  
  (1  e )  R
R 
t / 
vR (t )  E (1  e ) with time
Increasing voltage of the resistor
At position 2 of the circuit,
+ VR –
VR = E
2 –
DC
VL= E
+
iL
At the instant the switch is transferred to position 2,
VR = will remain to be E, since the current through the coil

cannot change instantaneously
therefore VL = E (with reversed polarity)
Eventually,
VL will drop to zero and so with VR

Therefore at position 2 of the circuit, the three equations are:
 t /
iL (t )  I m e
t /
vL (t )  Ee All values are
decreasing
t /
vR (t )  Ee
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Find the mathematical expressions for the transient
behavior of iL and vL after the closing of the switch.
R
iL
2kΩ
DC
+
E 50V L 4H VL
–
2. (a) Find the mathematical expressions for the transient
behavior of iL after the switch is thrown at position 1.
Calculate the current iL at t = 6ms
(b) Repeat part (a) for vL and vR1
(c) Find the mathematical expressions for the transients
behavior of vL and vR1 and iL if the switch is thrown
instantaneously at position 2 at t = 24ms
L
1
0.12H
2
DC
E R1 30Ω
15V R2 20Ω

Electrical Circuits 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrical Circuits 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CIRCUITS 1

PREPARED BY: ENGR. JUN A. TERESA –

 To explain scientific notation

Today we will discuss the use of scientific notation also referred

N X 10x where N = number greater than 1

Exponent X = indicates the number of places

How about numbers less than one?

And the expression will be 4.36 X 10-4

What about numbers that are between 1 and 10?

a) Express both numbers in the same power of ten

1. Add 2x106 and 5x107

2. Subtract 2.5x10-12 from 7.5x10-11

4. Divide 5.0x108 by 2.5x103

pico p 10-12 one-trillionth

2. Add 0.05MW and 75kW and express the sum in (kW)

 To recall the definition and parts of an atom

So why doesn't the electron just spin off ? Why does it

“The force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies is

2. How many electrons does it take to have 3C of charge?

3rd shell = 2(3)2 = 18e

2nd shell = 2(2)2 = 8e

No. of Electron in each shell

Where n = shell number

FREE ELECTRON - the outermost shell electron or (valence

 To state the Law of charges

VOLTAGE SURROUNDS TWO MAGNETISM SURROUNDS

The Separation of Charges

“The separation of positive and negative charges establishes

THE VOLTAGE - involves work (Energy)

To determine the energy:

To determine the charge involved:

1. Find the voltage between two points if 60J of energy are

2. Determine the energy expended moving a charge of 50C

ELECTRIC CURRENT (I)

VOLTAGE is the starting mechanism

= rate of flow of charge

The current equation:

Q = (I) (t) (coulomb, C)

1. The charge flowing through the imaginary surface is 0.16C

2. Determine how long it will take 4 x 1016 e to pass

1. Find the charge in coulombs of

2. How many protons have a combined charge of 6.8pC?

3. Find the current flow through a light bulb from a steady

4. Electrons pass to the right through a wire cross section

6. Assuming a steady current flow through a switch, find the

7. Find the work required to lift 4500kg elevator at a vertical

8. Find the voltage drop across a light bulb if 0.5A current

opposition due to collisions and friction between free

collision and friction converts electrical energy into HEAT!

FACTORS affecting resistance of material

1 mil = 1__ inch (or 0.001inch)

Circular mil vs. Square mil

Since 1 CM = π sq. mils

1. Find the area of a wire with a diameter of 1/8 inch.

2. What is the resistance of a 100ft length of copper wire of

3. An undetermined number of feet of wire have been used

4. What is the diameter of a wire in inch, with an area of

For good conductors, an

Note: Inferred absolute temp varies depending on material

1. If the resistance of a copper wire is 50Ω at 20oC, what is its

2. If the resistance of a copper wire at freezing temperature is

3. If the resistance of an aluminum at room temperature

Example: Observe how wire temperature affect wire

Material Element/Alloy "alpha" per degree Celsius