PHYSIOLOGY LECTURE

“Regulation of Respiration”

RESPIRATORY CENTER

- It is composed of a group of neurons found in the medulla and in the pons.

- Location: In the medulla and in the pons
- This is group of neurons that will control respiratory activity

 What are the three major collections of neurons in the respiratory center?
1. The ventral respiratory group of neurons again found in the medulla.
2. The dorsal respiratory group of neurons in the medulla.
3. The pneumotaxic center found in the pons.

Three groups or three major collections of neurons:

1. The ventral respiratory group of neurons

2. The dorsal respiratory group of neurons
3. The pneumotaxic center

 Where does the dorsal respiratory group of neurons extend?

It extends the entire length of your medulla.

 Where are most of its neurons located?

The neurons found in the dorsal respiratory group of neurons are found in the Tractus
solitarius—the nucleus of the solitary tract. These are where most of its neurons are located.

 Where are its additional neurons located?

In the reticular substance in the medulla.

Describe the lobules of the Tractus solitarius.

TRACTUS SOLITARIUS

- This is the sensory termination of the two nerves:

o The Glossopharyngeal (coming from your carotid bodies)
o The Vagus Nerve (coming from the aortic body in the arch of aorta)

- This is just the sensory termination of your signals, detected by aortic bodies in the arch of the
aorta and in the carotid bodies in the bifurcation of the carotid artery. The signals will be sent, if
it is the carotid body, via the glossopharyngeal, and vagus from the aorta bodies, and they will
terminate into the dorsal respiratory group of neurons.

- Function: It sends signals. It is the receiver of the signals coming from the peripheral
chemoreceptors found in the carotid and in the aortic bodies.

Three origin of sensory signals that these nucleus (Tractus Solitarius) transmit:

1. From your peripheral chemoreceptors in your carotid and aortic bulbs.

2. From the baroreceptors found also in your carotid and aortic bodies.

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 3. From the receptors found in the lungs and these signals will also be terminating in the nucleus
of the tractus solitarius in the respiratory center.

What does the dorsal respiratory group of neurons mainly generate?

It generates rhythmical inspiratory discharges or, in short, inspiratory signals that will irritate into the
muscles of inspiration, specifically your diaphragm and your other muscles of inspiration like your
external intercostal muscles.

What is the basic cause of your rhythmical inspiratory discharges?

Actually, it is unknown but it has been postulated that this is generated, by a network of neurons found
in the dorsal respiratory group of neurons. Your rhythmical inspiratory discharges, it is generated by a
network of neurons found in the dorsal inspiratory group of neurons.

Describe the mechanism in the generation of rhythmical inspiratory discharges among primitive
animals.

One set of neurons will excite leading to the generation of your rhythmical inspiratory discharges and
once this one set of neurons is excited, then another set of neuron will inhibit it. So during the
respiratory cycle, this will be generated and the signals will be sent to the muscles of inspiration then
the excitation will be switched off by another set or another group of neurons. Afterward, the
mechanism will repeat itself or it will continue throughout the life of the animal. This is how it is
generated.

 In the Animals:
o One set of neurons will excite the development of rhythmical inspiratory discharges and
then another group of neurons will switch it off and then the mechanism will repeat
itself and then it will continue all throughout the life of the animal.
 In Human Beings:
o The same network of neurons will generate the rhythmical inspiratory discharges, and
these neurons are located in the dorsal respiratory group of neurons.
o Mechanism on how it works: It is basically the same with those of primitive animals.

What is this inspiratory ramp signal?

INSPIRATORY RAMP SIGNAL

- It is a neural or nervous signal generated in the dorsal respiratory group of neurons, so this is
your dorsal respiratory group of neurons.
- The signal is transmitted to the muscles of inspiration—your diaphragm and external intercostal.

 How is it generated so that inspiratory signal will start or is generated weakly?

It is generated at the onset weakly then it steadily increases, for about 2 seconds in a ramp manner. The
generation of the inspiratory signal is likened to a ramp. It begins weakly and then it steadily increases
for about 2 seconds and then the signal will stop abruptly for 3 seconds so by the time it is generated
and when the signals steadily increase, the signals will be transmitted to the muscles of inspiration: your
diaphragm and your external intercostal.

 When these muscles will contract?

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Contraction of the external intercostal will increase the AP diameter of the lungs while contraction of
the diaphragm will increase the vertical diameter of the lungs.

 The effect: It will now increase the thoracic volume.

 The effect in the increase in the thoracic volume: It will now increase the intrapleural
pressure from -5 to -7.5cm of water. The recoil of the chest wall is being compared with the
recoil of the lungs at rest. The elastic recoil of the lungs at rest will be directed inwards so
resulting to a decrease in lung volume while the recoil of the chest wall at rest is directed
outwards.

The effect of this opposite recoil of the chest wall and the lungs:

It creates a negative pressure in the intrapleural space.

How a negative pressure is generated in the intrapleural space?

It is due to continuous suction of excess fluid. This continuous suction is due to the elastic recoil of the
chest wall moving outwards at rest while that of the lungs is moving inward and because of the
opposing recoil, a vacuum is created in the pleural space resulting to a negative pressure in the pleural
space at rest.

What happens when an inspiratory signal is being generated by the dorsal respiratory group of
neurons and it is now transmitted to the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscle?

It will increase the outward movement of the chest wall resulting to a more negative intrapleural
pressure and because of that, it will exert traction of the outer wall of the lung surfaces.

Recoil of the lung:

o It is directed inwards but because of the increasing pressure or negative pressure in the pleural
space, it will exert traction on the lungs on its outer surfaces pulling the lung. Then the elastin
and collagen fibers will stretch and with the help of the pulmonary surfactant, surface tension is
reduced.
o The value of the pulmonary surfactant during inspiration is to decrease the collapsing force of
the alveoli and reduce the respiratory effort to expand the lung during inspiration and with the
expansion of the lung volume, a vacuum is created inside the lungs and its pressure will be
negative compared to the atmospheric pressure and then air will get inside the lungs because of
a pressure gradient created, so that is what is happening when the inspiratory ramp signal is
being generated.
o After 2 seconds of being generated, it will abruptly stop and during the time when it stops the
inspiratory ramp signal. Afterward, the expiratory phase of the respiratory cycle will follow.

Expiration:

It is a passive process because there is simply the relaxation of the diaphragm and it moves upward.
And another thing that will contribute to expiration is there is just the elastic recoil of the lungs, after
having been stretched during inspiration, it now recoils back to its original state and this will create a
positive pressure in the lung higher than that of the atmosphere so air will get outside of the lung.
Whenever the inspiratory ramp signal will stop, expiration will just follow. So this is how inspiratory
ramp signal will work on making the lungs expand during inspiration.

Key Points:

Inspiratory ramp signal is a nervous signal generated in the dorsal respiratory group of neurons.

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  It begins weakly and then it increases steadily like a ramp manner in about 2 seconds.
 During the duration that this is generated, the signal will be sent to the muscles of inspiration,
the diaphragm and the external intercostal, making them contract. With the contraction of the
external intercostal, the AP diameter of the lungs will expand. And the vertical diameter also
will lengthen, therefore, there is increase in the thoracic cavity volume. With the increase in the
thoracic cavity volume, this will make now the pressure in the pleural space become more
negative.

What makes the pressure in the pleural space become or negative first at rest?

The recoil of the chest wall at rest will be it will move upwards while that of the lungs, it will move
inward.

 Because of the opposing recoil between the chest wall and the lungs then a negative pressure, a
vacuum is created in the pleural space. Now you have the ramp signal. The muscles now will
contract and the more the pressure in the pleural space will become negative. Then a vacuum is
created and it will now pull the outer surfaces of the lung outward thereby increasing the lung
volume and a vacuum is created, pressure inside the lung, the intrapulmonary or alveolar
pressure, will become negative relative to the atmospheric pressure which is set at zero, so this
will cause now air to get inside the lungs because of a pressure gradient and then the ramp
signal will stop. So by the time the ramp signal will stop, expiration will follow so therefore
there is a rhythm in respiration - inspiration and expiration - the cycle will just repeat.

Expiration:

It is simply due to relaxation of the diaphragm if there is the elastic recoil of the lungs causing a positive
pressure inside the lungs and its pressure now will be higher than that of the atmosphere so air will get
outside the lungs, so that's the inspiratory ramp signal.

What is the obvious advantage when the signal will increase steadily like a ramp?

There will be a steady increase in the volume of the lungs during inspiration. That is the importance of
the ramp. It begins weakly, it rises steadily and gradually in a ramp manner. Therefore, the increase in
the lung volume will be also, okay, occurring in a steady and increasing manner rather than having
inspiratory gasp.

 The advantage of the ramp: it will cause also steady increase in the lung volume during
inspiration, during inspiration.

Two qualities of inspiratory ramp that are being controlled:

1. Control of the rate

2. Increase of the ramp signal

What happens in heavy respiration during an exercise?

When we do vigorous physical activity, there is an increased requirement for oxygen to be delivered
from the lungs to the tissues and because of the increased formation of carbon dioxide.

What happens in a heavy respiration during exercise?

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The ramp signal will occur rapidly and when it will occur rapidly then there will also be rapid filling of the
lungs with air during inspiration, during inspiration. If there is rapid filling of the lungs with air during
inspiration then the body will be able to meet its increased oxygen requirement during increased
physical activity and control of limiting point at which ramp suddenly ceases.

Describe the usual method for controlling the rate and the frequency of respiration.

During exercise, there is fast breathing so therefore, it is required that the duration of inspiration should
be shortened.

 How it will be shortened? When the ramp will also suddenly cease. If it will suddenly cease
then this will shorten inspiration. If inspiration will be shortened, because it suddenly ceases, it
suddenly stops, the inspiratory signal, then what will follow will be expiration and automatic, if
the inspiration is short, then the expiration will be short also and in that manner this will now
increase the rate or the frequency of respiration. Because its inspiration will be short including
expiration then because respiration comes in a cycle, then it follows that if the duration of
inspiration is short, then the expiratory period will be short also and that will serve to increase
the rate of respiration especially during increased physical activity while when we are at rest.
Afterward, inspiration will be longer and so with your expiration.

 The only way to increase respiratory rate is simply through shortening the ramp signal because if
the ramp signal will stop abruptly then it will shorten the period of inspiration and expiration
and in that manner, it will now increase the rate or frequency of respiration.

PNEUMOTAXIC CENTER

- It limits the duration of inspiration, therefore, if it will limit the duration of inspiration, it can
shorten inspiration and expiration so therefore in that manner, it can control the rate or rhythm
of your respiration.

Its contribution in respiratory activity:

 Location: The pneumotaxic center is found in the superior part of your pons—in the Nucleus
Parabrachialis.

 Where does it transmit signals?

The signals generated in the pneumotaxic center will be transmitted to the dorsal respiratory group of
neurons.

 Describe its primary and secondary effect.

The primary effect of the pneumotaxic center is to limit the duration of inspiration or to limit the
duration of the transmission of your inspiratory ramp signal.

 During physical activity, the pneumotaxic center will limit the duration of the inspiratory ramp
signal, so the duration of inspiration will become shortened and therefore, expiration will
shorten also.

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In that matter, the secondary effect will now be able to control the rate and frequency of respiration. It
will be able to control the rate and frequency of respiration. It limits the duration of your inspiratory
ramp signal.

Where the ventral respiratory group of neurons are located?

They are found in the ventrolateral portions of your medulla.

Give four differences between the function of VRG and the dorsal respiratory group of neurons.

 Are VRG neurons involved in normal quiet respiration?

No, because what is required in normal quiet respiration is just the inspiratory ramp signal
coming from the dorsal respiratory group of neurons.

 Why is an inspiratory ramp signal required for inspiration?

Because it will stimulate the muscles of inspiration, the diaphragm, during quiet inspiration or
quiet breathing.

 Why is VRG necessarily not involved?

Because the expiratory phase of the respiratory cycle is a passive process. It does not require
signals coming from either dorsal respiratory group of neurons or the ventral respiratory group
of neurons.

 Does the VRG group of neurons participate in the basic rhythmical oscillation that controls
respiration?
They do not participate. What participates in the rhythmical oscillation, meaning in the rhythm
of respiration, will be your dorsal respiratory group of neurons and the pneumotaxic center.

PNEUMOTAXIC CENTER

- It limits the duration of inspiration, therefore, if it will limit the duration of inspiration, it can
shorten inspiration and expiration so therefore in that manner, it can control the rate or rhythm
of your respiration.

What happens when the respiratory drive for increased pulmonary ventilation becomes greater than
normal?

During vigorous physical activity or exercise, additional signals will be needed by the muscles of
respiration. This time, both inspiration and expiration.

Why is it that during increased physical activity additional respiratory drive will be required or
increase in respiratory drive will be required?

1. Because of the increased oxygen requirement by the muscles during vigorous physical activity.
2. Because of increased carbon dioxide production during muscular contraction.

o The carbon dioxide has to be eliminated that's why there is a need for additional
respiratory drive and this will be now contributed by your ventral respiratory group of
neurons.
o Then, few of the neurons in your ventral respiratory group of neurons will cause
inspiration and others can cause expiration so therefore, during a vigorous physical
activity, the contribution of the ventral respiratory group of neurons will be to add an

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 extra respiratory drive that will now cause the muscles of inspiration to contract and the
muscles of expiration to contract also because of the increased oxygen requirement and
the need to eliminate increasing amounts of carbon dioxide during exercise.

 How will it be done or how will it happen?

During vigorous physical activity, the inspiratory ramp signals generated in the dorsal respiratory
group of neurons will spill over into the ventral respiratory group of neurons. It will spill over, so
meaning the signals generated in the dorsal respiratory group of neurons to make the muscles
of inspiration contract will spill over into the ventral respiratory group of neurons and also, it
will stimulate the muscles of inspiration to contract. So there is an extra respiratory drive and
during this time, the accessory muscles of inspiration will also be stimulated by the signal
coming from the ventral respiratory group of neurons.

Accessory muscles of respiration:

1. Scalene muscles
2. Sternocleidomastoid
3. Serratus anterior muscles

o These accessory muscles will now be stimulated by signals that spill over into the ventral
respiratory group coming from the dorsal respiratory group of neurons and during
expiration also, then it will also activate the other muscles of expiration like your
muscles in the abdomen and of course your accessory muscles also.

What is the contribution of the accessory muscles of respiration?

It can lead to forced inhalation.

What is the effect of forced inhalation during vigorous physical activity?

It will further increase the lung volume to accommodate more air that will be getting inside the lungs
and the increased volume of air now inside the lungs will now supply the extra oxygen needed by the
body and during vigorous physical activity. There will be an increase in the cardiac output. Normal
capillaries will open up to accommodate the extra blood flowing into the lungs, so there will be a better
pass between ventilation and perfusion, so gas exchange will become optimal during vigorous physical
activity.

What is the importance of the accessory muscles of respiration during forced exhalation, during
forced expiration during vigorous physical activity?

It will serve to decrease the resistance of the flow of air during expiration.

 Why? During expiration, there is an increasing resistance to the flow of air out of the lungs
because of the decreasing lung volume. When the lung volume will increase during inspiration, it
will exert radial traction in the walls of the airway increasing its diameter and therefore, there is
no difficulty of air to get inside passing the airways because of an increasing lung volume during
inspiration but during expiration, the lungs, it will have elastic recoil and the radial traction
exerted in the airways will now not be present so there is increased resistance in the flow of air
out of the lungs during expiration.
 During forced expiration when one breathes during vigorous physical activity, this will serve to
decrease the resistance in the flow of air out of the lungs during expiration. That is the

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 contribution of your accessory muscles of respiration that will be stimulated by signals coming
from your ventral respiratory group of neurons. Therefore the contribution of the VRG will be
to increase, provide extra respiratory drive, both inspiratory and expiratory, but that on the
dorsal respiratory group of neuron is only inspiratory drive and the generation of the rhythm of
respiration.

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF RESPIRATION

What is the ultimate goal of respiration?

It is to maintain an appropriate concentration of your carbon dioxide, oxygen and H ion.

What is the meaning of maintaining an appropriate concentration of oxygen?

Meaning 5mL of oxygen will be delivered to the tissues per 100mL of blood, so therefore the tissues will
be meeting its oxygen requirement for cellular metabolism and when we say maintaining adequate
amounts or appropriate amounts of carbon dioxide, anything in excess, your carbon dioxide will be
eliminated because it can cause metabolic acidosis and the other importance of maintaining an
appropriate amount of carbon dioxide is that what stimulates respiratory activity in the body is your
carbon dioxide. It's not oxygen. It is carbon dioxide that's why a normal pCO2 should be maintained at
all times because it will serve to stimulate respiratory activity. And the other is maintaining an
appropriate concentration of H ions because the increasing H ions will lower the pH and it can cause
again acidosis.

 What is one effect of metabolic acidosis?

It can destroy the catalytic activity of H ions therefore impairing cellular metabolism.

 Enzymes when the pH will become low and you have more H ion concentration:
It will now change the ionic properties of the amino acids lining the active site of the enzymes.

 The respiratory activity is highly responsive to changes in oxygen, carbon dioxide and H ion
concentrations. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and H ion concentration.

Are the DRG, VRG group of neurons in pneumotaxic center affected directly by changes in blood
carbon dioxide or H ion concentration? Or will carbon dioxide and H ion concentration send signals to
these three groups of neurons to stimulate respiratory activity?

No. They are not directly affected by carbon dioxide for H ions and they do not generate signal simply
because of your increasing carbon dioxide or H ion concentration.

MECHANISM INVOLVED IN THE DIRECT CHEMICAL CONTROL OF RESPIRATORY CENTER ACTIVITY

What therefore controls respiratory activity?

It is the carbon dioxide generated in the tissues that will now diffuse from the cells into the water in the
interstitial spaces in different cells and then carbon dioxide will diffuse into the plasma in the capillary
blood into the venous end of the systemic capillary.

 ➡ Then the venous end of the capillary systemic, carbon dioxide will now be returned to the
right side of the heart and then it goes to the lungs for oxygenation and it will return the
oxygenated blood to the left side of the heart, ejected into the aorta and it will move up the
carotid arteries and the blood now will flow into the brain and therefore, carbon dioxide from

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 the tissues in the different parts of the body can go up the brain via the carotid artery. This is
now the carbon dioxide reaching the brain and this is the so-called blood-brain barrier.

 ➡ Then Carbon dioxide in the blood reaching the brain will diffuse. It will pass through the
blood-brain barrier and once it gets inside the blood-brain barrier, you are now in the
cerebrospinal fluid in the interstitial spaces in between the neurons in your brain and in the
chemosensitive area of the medulla.

 ➡ Then carbon dioxide will pass through the barrier. It will react with water in the
cerebrospinal fluid.

 ➡ Then the neurons and carbonic acid is formed. This will dissociate into bicarbonate and H
ions. Now, the chemosensitive area of the medulla is highly sensitive or excited by H ions,
therefore, the H ions now will be detected by the neurons in the chemosensitive area of the
medulla and this now will send signals to the dorsal respiratory group of neurons. It is important
to maintain a normal range of pCO2 because carbon dioxide is the molecule that mainly
regulates respiratory activity.

o How?
By reacting with water forming carbonic acid and the formation of H ion so therefore,
the H ions now will be detected by the neurons in the chemosensitive area of the
medulla. It will now send signals to the dorsal respiratory group of neurons and the
neurons here will now generate inspiratory ramp signal that will stimulate inspiration
that will be followed by expiration, so that's how a respiratory activity is being regulated
by your carbon dioxide.

Explain why changes in blood H ion concentration have less effect in stimulating the chemosensitive
neurons in the chemosensitive area of the medulla.

When we said H ions, it's the one being detected by the chemosensitive area so that it will send signals
to the DRG. It is because the H ions formed in the reaction between carbon dioxide and water in the
plasma dissociating into bicarbonate and H ions, these H ions cannot penetrate the blood-brain barrier,
so therefore it has less effect in stimulating the chemosensitive neurons in the medulla. So it is
therefore the carbon dioxide that can pass through the blood-brain barrier rather than your H ions in
your bicarbonate.

 Most of the carbon dioxide generated in the tissues are carried to the lungs in the form of
bicarbonate 70% or 60, but there are still transported in the form of carbon dioxide in the
plasma so it is this carbon dioxide in the plasma that will reach the brain and which will pass
through the blood-brain barrier forming carbonic acid reacting with water then dissociating into
bicarbonate and H ions and these H ions now will be detected by the neurons. These are the
central chemoreceptors, the neurons in the chemosensitive area in the medulla.

DIFFERENTIATE THE CENTRAL CHEMORECEPTORS FROM THE PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEPTORS FOUND

IN THE AORTIC BODIES AND CAROTID BULBS IN THE BIFURCATION OF THE CAROTID ARTERY, CAROTID
BODIES AND THE AORTIC BODIES AND THE ARCH OF AORTA.

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Explain why carbon dioxide has little direct effect in stimulating neurons in the chemosensitive area

The neurons in the chemosensitive area are highly excited by H ions and not by carbon dioxide. It is
carbon dioxide that regulates respiratory activity indirectly.

 What would we mean by indirectly?

First it has to pass the blood-brain barrier, react with water and it forms carbonic acid, this will
dissociate into bicarbonate and H ions, and this is the direct way of stimulating respiratory
activity by carbon dioxide via formation of your H ions, via the formation of H ions.

 What is then the major controller of respiratory activity?

Although it is carbon dioxide but it is directly the H ions formed from carbon dioxide reacting
with water resulting to the formation of carbonic acid that dissociates into bicarbonate and H
ions.

Discuss the quantitative effects of blood pCO2, this one, and your pH on alveolar ventilation.

 Compare the increase in alveolar ventilation due to inhibition in pCO2.

The elevation in alveolar ventilation will be greater when there will be increasing blood pCO2.

 What hat is a normal blood pCO2?

It's 40mmHg. This bar is the normal pCO2 40 and you now have the pCO2.

 What makes the pCO2 increase?

It is due to increasing carbon dioxide formation, for example, during physical activity so that
from the normal value of 40, even starting at 35. Then there will now be an increase in the rate
of alveolar ventilation.

 The increase in the alveolar ventilation will be greater when there is an increasing pCO2 than
when there is a decrease in the pH. So with the pH will be like this one 7.1, between 7.1 to 7,
that is the maximum increase in the ventilatory rate when the pH will be between 7.1 to 7 while
your pCO2 it can go as high as the increase in the ventilatory rate will be as high as 11 when the
pCO2 will reach 100.

 Why is there a greater increase in the rate of alveolar ventilation?

When there is an increase in carbon dioxide rather than when there is a decrease in pH, the
increase in the pH in the blood will result to stimulation of peripheral chemoreceptors. The
increase in the alveolar ventilation will be lower when it is due to a decreasing pH or increasing
pH ions compared to increasing pCO2 or carbon dioxide levels.

 Why is it that there is a greater increase in alveolar ventilation when there is an increase in
pCO2?
Because when you say there is a decrease in pH, you have increasing H ions, the increasing H
ions in the blood has no effect on the central chemoreceptors.
o Why? Because the H ions cannot pass through the blood-brain barrier.

 How will it stimulate increased alveolar ventilation? By acting on peripheral chemoreceptors

found in the carotid bodies and the aortic bodies. While carbon dioxide, there is a greater
increase in alveolar ventilation.
o Why? Because it is able to penetrate the blood-brain barrier and form carbonic acid,
form H ions and it will stimulate the central chemoreceptors.

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Potency of Respiratory Activity

When central chemoreceptors are stimulated by H ions coming from carbon dioxide that gets inside the
brain, the respiratory activity is seven times more powerful than when it is due to H ions acting on
peripheral chemoreceptors, so that's the reason why there is a greater increase in alveolar ventilation
already.

 It is carbon dioxide that regulates respiratory activity. It is not oxygen.

Two reasons for the unimportance of oxygen in the control of respiratory activity by the respiratory
center:

1. One, under normal condition, it is carbon dioxide that regulates respiratory activity unless the
pO2 will fall below 70mmHg and it is only in that instance where the low pO2 will take over in a
control of respiratory activity.
2. And the other reason is that, even in high altitude when the partial pressure of oxygen will be
low, in the partial pO2, the pO2 in the alveoli will fall from 104 to 60mmHg or in deep sea diving
when the pO2 in the alveolus can rise to as high as 1000mmHg, the cell will still be able to get
the oxygen it requires for cellular metabolism, so that's the other reason for the unimportance
of oxygen in the control of respiratory activity because despite changes in pO2 in the alveolus
and the high altitude and in deep sea diving, the hemoglobin will still be able to deliver the
required amount of oxygen by the tissues or cells for cellular metabolism.

What is the other mechanism for controlling respiration?

It is via the peripheral chemoreceptor system.

What are chemoreceptors?

CHEMORECEPTORS

- They are actually neurons that are sensitive to changes in pO2, pCO2 and H ion concentration.
- They will detect these changes that's why they are called chemoreceptors.
- Chemo- from the word chemical - detecting changes in pO2, pCO2 and H ions.
- Location: Mostly in the carotid bodies in the bifurcation of the carotid artery, a few in the aortic
bodies and very few in the arteries found in the thorax and in the abdomen, so therefore most
of the chemoreceptors are in the carotid bodies.
- What changes do they detect? Changes in pO2, a decreasing oxygen concentration or pO2,
increasing carbon dioxide concentration or pCO2, and increasing H ions or a low pH.
- Effect: These changes will be sensed by your chemoreceptors and signals will be sent to the
respiratory center to increase respiratory activity or increase the rate of alveolar ventilation on
the effect of increasing pCO2 and decreasing pH on alveolar ventilation. When the pCO2 and the
pH will become low, it will stimulate the respiratory center, therefore, signals are sent by the
peripheral chemoreceptors to the brain to stimulate increased respiratory activity.

What arterial pO2 level do peripheral chemoreceptors become strongly stimulated?

When the pO2 will fall below 70mmHg, especially when it is the range between 60 to 30mmHg.

 At the X axis:
The arterial pO2 and the carotid body nerve impulses sent per second.

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When the pO2 will fall below 70 going 60 and 30, what will happen?

The more the increase in the rate of transmission of your carotid body impulses towards the respiratory
center stimulating the dorsal respiratory group of neurons to generate inspiratory ramp signal causing
increase in respiratory activity.

 The effect of stimulating the respiratory center decreased respiratory activity by the
chemoreceptors is five times more rapid than the central chemoreceptors.
o Why? Because it takes time for blood to reach the brain that's why it's more rapid to
stimulate increased respiratory activity via the peripheral chemoreceptors so the
increase in the potency of the respiratory activity is more powerful when it comes from
the central chemoreceptors.

REFERENCE: GUYTON BOOK

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