WEEK 1

1.All medical terms have:

a. A combining vowel • EPI/GASTR/IC
b. Two roots o Epi-prefix
c. A suffix ▪ above
d. A prefix o Gastr- root
2. Which element appears at the beginning of a ▪ stomach
medical term? o Ic- suffix
. prefix ▪ Pertaining to
3. Which term means inflammation of the gland-
. adenitis Combining Forms
4. Which term means study of cells? • Aden/o - gland
. cytology • Arthr/o - joint
5. Which suffix means to “cut out” or remove? • bi/o - life
. -ectomy • carcin/o - Cancerous, cancer
WORD ANALYSIS • cardi/o - heart
• cephal/o - head
Important elements: • cerebr/o - cerebrum
• Root: foundation of the term • cis/o - To cut
• Suffix: word ending • crin/o - To secrete
• Prefix- word beginning • cyst/o - Urinary bladder
• Combining vowel: vowel (usually 0) that links the • cyt/o - cell
root to the suffix or the root to another root and aids • der,m/o or dermat/o - skin
pronunciation
• electr/o - electricity
• Combining form: combination of the root and the
• encephal/o - brain
combining vowel.
• enter/o - intestines
• erythr/o - red
• gastr/o - stomach
• glyc/o - sugar
• Hemat/o/logy - blood/process of study - study of
blood • gnos/o - knowledge
o Hemat- root • gynec/o - Woman, femal
o O - combining vowel • hemat/o or hem/o - blood
o Logy - suffix • Hepat/o - liver
• electr/o/cardi/o/gram • iatr/o - treatment
o Electr means electricity - root • leuk/o - white
o O - combining vowel • log/o - study of
o Cardi means heart - root • nephr/o - kidney
o O - combining vowel • neur/o - Nerve
o Gram means record - suffix • Onc/o - tumor
• Gastr/itis • opthalm/o - eye
o Gastr- root • oste/o - bone
▪ stomach • path/o - disease
o Itis- suffix • ped/o - child
▪ inflammation • psych/o - mind
o Note: Drop combining vowel when suffix • radi/o - x-rays
starts with a vowel (as in “itis”) • ren/o - kidney
• Gastr/o/enter/o/logy • rhin/o - nose
o Gastr- root • sarc/o - flesh
▪ Stomach • sect/o - to cut
o O- combining vowels • thromb/o - clot, clotting
o Enter- root • ur/o - urinary tract, urine
▪ Intestines
•
o O- combining vowels
SUFFIXES
o Logy- suffix
• -ac - pertaining to
▪ Process of study
• -al - pertaining to
• -algia - pain
Three General Rules • -cyte - cell
1. Read the meaning of medical terms from the suffix • -ectomy - excision
back to the beginning of the term and across • -emia- blood condition
2. Drop the combining vowel (usually o) before a suffix • -genic- produced by or in
beginning with a vowel: gastritis not “gastroitis” • -globin- protein
3. Keep the combining vowel between two roots: • -gram- record
gastroenterology not “gastrenterology” • -ic, ical- pertaining to
• -ion - process
• -ist - specialist
• HYPO/GASTRIC • -itis - inflammation
o Hypo- prefix • -logy - process of study
▪ below • -oma - tumor, mass, swelling
o gastr - root • -opsy- process of viewing
▪ stomach • -osis- condition, usually abnormal
o Ic- suffix • -pathy- disease condition
▪ Pertaining to • -scope- instrument to visually examine
 • -scopy- process of visually examining o Focuses on the nervous system
• -sis - state of; condition • Cardiovascular
• -tomy - process of cutting, incision o The heart and blood vessels
• -y - process, condition
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Prefixes 1. Chemical
a. Interaction of atoms
2. Cell
• A-, an- : no, not, without . Structural and functional unit of living organisms
• Aut-, auto- : self, own 3. Tissue
• Dia- : complete, through . Group of similar cells and the materials surrounding
• End-, endo- : within them
• Epi- : above, upom 4. Organ
• Ex-, exo- : out, outside of, outward ans sa taa . One or more tissues functioning together
5. Organ system
• Hyper- : excessive, above, more than normal
. Group of organs functioning together
• Hypo-: deficient, below, under, less than normal
6. Organism
• In- : into, in
. Any living thing
• Peri- : surrounding, around
• Pro- : before, forward ELEVEN ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
• Re- : back, backward, again “RUN MRS. LIDEC” (mnemonic device)
• Retro- : behind • Respiratory- breathing, O2, Co2 exchange
• Sub- : below, under o Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Trans- : across, through between the blood and air and regulates
blood pH. Consists of the lungs and
Pronunciation of Terms respiratory passages
• Urinary- removes waste
o Removes waste products from the blood
• When - is above a vowel, the sound is long. and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and
o Example water balance, consist of kidneys, urinary
▪ ā as in āpe bladder, and ducts that carry urine
▪ ō as in ōpen • Nervous- regulatory, electrical impulses
• When u is above a vowel, the sound is short o A major regulatory system that detects
o Example sensations and controls movements,
▪ Ă physiological processes, and intellectual
▪ as in ăpple functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord,
▪ ŏ as in pŏt nerves, and sensory receptors.
• The capitalized syllable is accented. • Muscular- movement
o Produces body movements, maintains
• Adenitis - posture, and produces body heat. Consists
• Biology of muscles attached to the skeleton by
• Cephalic tendons
• Iatrogenic • Reproductive- continues the species
• Resection o Female Reproductive System
▪ Produces oocytes and is the site of
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY fertilization and fetal development;
produces milk for the newborn;
• Anatomy: scientific discipline that investigates the produces hormones that influence
body’s structure sexual function and behaviors.
o Structure affects the function Consists of the ovaries, vagina,
o Example: skull hard, because it protects the uterus, mammary glands, and
brain associated structures.
• Physiology: scientific investigation of the processes o Male Reproductive System
or functions of living things ▪ Produces and transfers sperm cells
to the female and produces
Topics of Anatomy hormones that influence sexual
• Gross or macroscopic functions and behaviors. Consists
o Structures examined without a microscope of the testes, accessory structures,
• Regional ducts, and penis.
o Studied by area • Skeletal- support/protection
• Systemic: studied system by system o Provides protection and support, allows
o Surface: external form and relation to body movements, produces blood cells, and
deeper structures as x-ray in anatomic stores minerals and fat. Consists of bones,
imaging associated cartilages, ligaments and joints.
• Microscopic • Lymphatic- immune/disease protection
o Structures seen with the microscope o Removes foreign substances from the blood
• Cytology and lymph, combats disease, maintains
o Cellular anatomy tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from
• Histology the digestive tract. Consists of the lymphatic
o Study of tissues vessels. Lymph nodes, and other lymphatic
organs.
Reveals dynamic nature of living things • Integumentary- protection
Considers operations of specific organ systems o Provides protection, regulates temperature,
• Cell physiology prevents water loss, and helps produce
o Examines processes in cell vitamin D, consists of skin, hair, nails, and
• Neurophysiology sweat glands
 • Digestive- mechanical/chemical processing, nutrients
o Performs the mechanical and chemical
processes of digestion, absorption of
nutrients and elimination of wastes.
Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
intestines, and accessory organs
• Endocrine- regulatory, hormones
o A major regulatory system that influences
metabolism, growth, reproduction, and
many other functions. Consists of glands,
such as the pituitary, that secrete
hormones.
• Cardiovascular- transport- nutrients, wastes,
hormones
o Transports nutrients, waste products, gases,
and hormones throughout the body; plays a
role in the immune response and the
regulation of body temperature. Consists of
the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
Questions
1. Knowledge of the structure of body parts help us to
understand their function. Which of the following is
an accurate example of that principle?
a. The basic structural unit of the body is the cell
b. The internal environment of the body is maintained
in a relatively stable condition
c. Moveable joints allow us to bend our fingers to
perform many different actions
d. Each tissue type is composed of cells that have a
similar structure and function
e. Negative feedback is not homeostatic
2. Which of the following systems carries necessary
compound like oxygen and nutrients throughout the
body?
. Nervous
a. Cardiovascular
b. Urinary
c. Lymphatic
d. Respiratory
3. The integumentary system
. Regulates body temperature
a. Breaks down food into small particles for absorption
b. Controls intellectual functions
c. Produces body movements
d. Coordinates and integrates body function
Characteristics of Life
1. Organization
a. Condition in which there are specific relationships
and functions
2. Metabolism
. All chemical reactions of the body
3. Responsiveness
. Ability to sense changes and adjust
4. Growth
. Increase in size and/or number of cells
5. Development
. Changes in an organism over time
i.Differentiation
1. Change from general to
specific
ii.Morphogenesis
1. Change in shape of tissue,
organs
6. Reproduction
. New cells or new organisms
Homeostasis
• Homeostasis, from the Greek words for “same” and
“steady,” refers to any process that living things use
to actively maintain fairly stable conditions
necessary for survival.
• Values of variables fluctuate around the set point to
establish a normal range of values.
• Set point: the ideal normal value of a variable
• What is the set point for body temperature?
What are Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressures
• 120 / 80
o 120: Systolic Blood Pressure
▪ Pressure exerted when blood is
ejected into arteries
▪ Normal systolic blood pressure is
120 mmHg or below
o 80: Diastolic Blood Pressure
▪ Pressure blood exerts within
arteries between heartbeats
▪ Normal diastolic blood pressure is
80 mmHg or below
Set points
• Respiratory rate - 16 bpm
• Heart rate - 60 to 100 bpm
• temperature - 37 to 37.5 degrees celsius
• BP - 120/80 mmHg (mercury)
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
• Two types: negative and positive
• Components
o Receptor: Monitors the value of some
variable
▪ aorta
o Control center: establishes the set point
▪ Brain (medulla oblongata)
o Effector: can change the value of the
variable
▪ Medulla oblongata signals to lower
the heart rate to decrease bp
o Stimulus: deviation from the set point;
detected by the receptor
o Response: produced by the effector
o
Negative Feedback
1. Receptors monitor blood pressure
2. Information about the value of the variable is sent to
a control center. In this case, nerves send
information to the part of the brain responsible for
regulating blood pressure.
3. The control center compares the value of the
variable against the set point.
4. If a response is necessary to maintain homeostasis,
the control center causes an effector to respond. In
this case, nerves send information to the sweat
glands.
5. An effector produces a response that maintains
homeostasis. In this case, stimulating sweat glands
lowers body temperature
a. Effector (sweat gland) responds to changes in body
temperature
Positive Feedback
• When a deviation occurs, the response is to make
the deviation greater
o Unusual in normal, healthy individuals,
leads away from homeostasis and can result
in death
o Example of normal positive feedback:
childbirth
▪ Cervix send info to the brain
▪ Brain instructs muscle dilators
▪ pain/labor is not a set point, it has
the contract uterine muscles for a
child to be delivered
o Example of harmful positive feedback: after
hemorrhage, blood pressure drops and the
heart’s ability to pump blood decreases
▪ Unhelathy body
▪ low platelet count
 Liver
ANATOMICAL POSITION Pancreas
• Body erect, face forward feet together, palms face Spleel
forward Stomach

OTHER BODY POSITIONS Right middle lateral region = Right Lumbar Region:
• Supine: lying face upward Gallbladder
• Prone: lying face downward Liver
Right colon
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
• Superior (cephalic) vs. Inferior (caudal) toward or Left middle lateral region = Left Lumbar Region:
away from the head Descending colon
• Medial vs. Lateral relative to the midline Left kidney
• Proximal vs. Distal used to describe linear structures
• Superficial vs. Deep relative to the surface of the Center point, Region of the navel = Umbilical Region:
body Duodenum
• Anterior (ventral) vs. posterior (dorsal). Anterior is Umbilicus
forward; posterior is towards the back
Right lower lateral region = Right Iliac Region:
RUQ- right lobe of liver, pylorus of stomach, head of Cecum
pancreas, right kidney, right suprarenal gland Appendix
RLQ- majority of ileum, cecum, appendix
LUQ- left lobe of the liver, spleen, stomach, jejunum, left Left lower lateral region = Left Iliac Region:
kidney, left suprarenal gland Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
4 Body quadrants in abdomen
Lower middle, Region inferior to the navel = Hypogastric
Right upper quadrant: Region:
(RUQ) Sigmoid colon
-Right lobe of the liver Urinary bladder
-gallbladder
-part of pancreas
-part of small and large intestines PLANES
• Median (through the midline) and Sagittal (same
Left upper quadrant: plane, but to the left or right of median
(LUQ) • Frontal or Coronal divides body into anterior and
-left lobe of liver posterior sections
-stomach • Transverse/Cross divides body into superior and
-spleen inferior sections
-part of pancreas • Oblique: Other than at a right angle
-part of small and large intestines
PLANES THROUGH AN ORGAN
Right lower quadrant: • Longitudinal: cut along the length of an organ
(RLQ) • Transverse/Cross: cut at right angle to length of the
-cecum organ
-appendix • Oblique: cut at any but a right angle
-right ovary
-right fallopian tube
-right ureter BODY CAVITIES
-part of the small and large intestines • Diaphragm: divides body cavity into thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities.
Left lower quadrant: • Mediastinum: contains all structures of the thoracic
LLQ) cavity except the lungs
-left ovary
-left fallopian tube SEROUS MEMBRANES
-left ureter • Cover the organs of trunk cavities and line the cavity
-part of the small and large intestines • First represent an organ
o Inner balloon wall represents visceral
9 abdominal regions serous membrane
Upper right region inferior to the ribs = Right Hypochondriac o Outer balloon wall represents parietal
Region: serous membrane
Gallbladder • Cavity between two membranes filled with
Liver lubricating serous fluid that is produced by the
Right kidney membranes
Small Intestine • Inflammation of the serous membranes

Upper left region inferior to the ribs = Left Hypochondriac

Region:
Colon SEROUS MEMBRANES: NAMED FOR THEIR SPECIFIC CAVITIES
Left kidney AND ORGANS
Pancreas • Pericardium refers to heart
Spleen • Pleura refers to lungs and thoracic cavity
• Peritoneum refers to abdominopelvic cavity
Region superior to the stomach = Epigastric Region:
Adrenal glands
Duodenum YT VIDEO 1
The Human Body | Facts About the Parts of the Human Body o brain connects to the rest of the body
System through the spinal cord which branches out
into similar and smaller nerves throughout
the body
• the human body's made up over o the nervous system is the body's wiring
o 100 trillion cells system it transmits messages to and from
o 206 bones the brain that are both a voluntary and
o 320 pairs of muscles involuntary
o 5 vital organs ▪ the involuntary messages are
it is a remarkable biological machine with so many systems things we can't control like a
working together to allow for: heartbeat feeling pain and reflexes
• life ▪ Voluntary messages are things we
• movement are aware of like reaching for a pen
• cognitive function or speaking.
• growth • The pins and needle sensation happens when a
• repair nerve is compressed and the signal is disrupted.
• reproduction and • Injury to nerves can cause permanent paralysis and
• so much more numbness
• Nerve diseases can cause loss of memory,
these systems include the: uncontrollable shaking, a loss of feeling, muscle
deterioration, and seizures
• To examine and measure brain structure activity and
• central nervous system nerve function, doctors can perform an MRI a CT or
• the circulatory system an EEG scan
• the respiratory system the • The healthy brain and nervous system needs a varied
• digestive system and healthy diet and lots of vitamin b1, b9, zinc,
• the immune system calcium, magnesium, and, vitamin C in particular.
• the reproductive system • Because the brain is over 70% water it's very
• the skeletal structure and important to drink a lot of water too
• musculature • The study of the brain is called Neurology

The heart and the circulatory system

• The human bodies made up of a head neck torso two
arms and two legs the average height of an adult
human is about five to six feet
• human bodies made to
o stand erect
o to walk on two feet
o to use the arms to carry and lift and
o has opposable thumbs we can get able to
grasp
The brain and the nervous system
• human brain is the central command system for the
whole body
• it's a mass of about one hundred and eighty billion
neurons
• neurons have multiple synapses that create a
network of over 100 trillion connections
• tiny electrical currents and chemical messengers
send information around the brain at 268 miles per
hour
• there's enough electrical current in your brain to
power an LED light bulb about 12 to 25 watts
• an adult brain weighs about three pounds and if you
hold your fists together with your thumbs touching
that's about the size of your brain
• the folds in the brain increase its area of size
• a baby's brain is nearly smooth while an adult brain
looks a lot like a walnut with lots of little folds
• brain tissue needs both oxygen and glucose to
function it uses
• 20% of the Bloods oxygen and glucose and brain cells
begin to die after around 5 minutes of no oxygen
• different parts of the brain have different functions
▪ the main structure in the brain are:
• the frontal lobe
• the parietal lobe
• the occipital lobe
• the cerebellum
• the temporal lobe and
• the brainstem
• The heart is one big pump which is made of muscle
fibers. It's job is to circulate blood around the body
so that oxygen nutrients can be delivered to the
cells. Carbon dioxide can be removed and infections
fought.
• A healthy adult heart beats around 60 to 80 beats
per minute
• Children's heart beats are faster around 100 to 120
bpm
• The heart has four chambers to pump blood:
▪ the oxygenated blood enters the
right atrium then into the right
ventricle where it goes to the
lungs. Once oxygenated, it enters
the left atrium down into the left
ventricle and a big squeeze of the
left ventricle pushes blood into
various arteries.
o Blood is transported around the body
through blood vessels that are split into two
functions:
▪ carrying oxygenated blood away
from the heart and
▪ carrying deoxygenated blood
towards the heart
o blood vessels carrying oxygenated blood in
order of large to small are called the
arteries, arterioles, and capillaries.
o Vessels carrying deoxygenated blood in
order of large to small are called veins and
capillaries
o There are so many blood vessels in the
human body that if you laid them out end
to end, they would span 60,000 miles
o red blood cells carry oxygen around the
body. they're so small that 2.5 million can fit
on the head of a pen.
o an average adult has about five quarts of
blood and the heart pumps 83 gallons an
hour or 2000 gallons every single day .
o it takes around 60 seconds blood to leave
the heart, circulate around the body, and
then return back to the heart
 o the heart is protected by the ribcage and
the sternum and because the heart is a
muscle, physical exercise helps to keep it
healthy and working well so you can live
longer
o Heart disease is one of the biggest killers in
America every single year. Eating too much
fat and animal products can cause
cholesterol to build up in the blood vessels
and when a blockage occurs it can cause a
heart attack.
▪ Smoking, excess alcohol, too much
salt, drug abuse, stress, and high
blood pressure can all lead to heart
disease, heart attack, and stroke
▪ common signs of a heart attack
will include difficulty breathing, a
pain in the left arm, a heaviness on
the chest, flu-like symptoms,
sudden pain in the chest or turning
blue
▪ both anxiety and acid reflux can
sometimes feel like a heart attack
but you should always call
emergency services if someone
thinks they're having a heart
attack
• the study of the heart is called cardiology
the lungs and respiratory system
• the function of the lungs
o is to exchange oxygen from the air to the
bloodstream when you breathe in and
carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the
air when you breathe out humans have two
lungs side by side but they're not the same
size
• the left lung is slightly smaller to make room for your
heart
• each lung is divided into lobes
o the right lung has three lobes; and
o The left lung to when breathing air enters
• the respiratory system through the
o Nose or mouth paired in the nose
o and mucus in the sinuses trap dust and
germs and
o air travels down the trachea is warmed and
moistened
o the trachea branches into left and right
bronchi
o each bronchus branches into smaller and
smaller bronchi bronchioles and
o finally into alveoli
• pair of lungs weighs 2.9 pounds they have a spongy
structure for a lot of surface area for gas exchange
when laid out flat that cover an entire tennis court
the lungs can't expand and contract on their own
this movement is controlled by the diaphragm under
the ribcage and the muscles between the ribs
• the lung capacity will depend on a personal size
fitness and even the altitude where they are on the
earth
o average adult male has a 1.5 gallon lung
capacity
o most adults breathe 12 to 20 times per
minute which amounts to thousand nine
hundred gallons of air per day
• an average person could hold their breath for about
two minutes the
• epiglottis is a flap that protects the lungs from food
o and liquid when we swallow coughing and
sneezing is the respiratory systems
mechanism forgetting rid of irritants like
dust and pollen
o asthma is a respiratory condition where the
Airways constrict as a result of an irritant
and breathing can become very difficult a
person is still able to live with only one lung
but their ability to do physical exercise is
limited because the lungs are the only
organs that exchange oxygen and carbon
dioxide is very important to keep them
healthy
o clean smoking in air pollution damages lung
tissue and leads to lung diseases like cancer
and emphysema
o the study of lungs is called pulmonology
the digestive system
• the purpose of the digestive system is to break down
food into components the body can use like:
o glucose for energy
o protein for building and repairing cells and
extracting vitamins minerals and amino
acids a cell function
• the digestive system begins with the mouth:
o where teeth mash food the tongue moves it
around and saliva lubricates there and
begins digestion
o upon swallowing food travels down the
esophagus and into the stomach where acid
kills bacteria and breaks down food further
o the liquid food then enters a small intestine
where the acid is neutralized and enzymes
break down fat protein and carbohydrates
for absorption by tiny hairs called villi
o after traveling through 20 feet of small
intestine through passes into the large
intestine or colon where water is absorbed
in bacteria very extract and manufacture
important vitamins
▪ a colon is around 5 feet long
o the final stop is the rectum where in the
adjustable food matter and gas are passed
through the anus as feces and flatulence
o the study of the digestive system is called
the stomach
• the stomach is a muscular sac
o with hydrochloric acid
▪ to protect yourself from the acid it
has a mucous lining
• an adult stomach can hold not 0.5 gallons of food
and liquid and there are nerves in the stomach that
tell your brain when it's empty or when it's full
• vomiting is the body's way of rejecting food and
liquid that is bad for the stomach
the small intestine
• after leaving the stomach partially digested food
called chyme enters the small intestine
• the small intestine is 16 to 20 feet long in an adult
human being it's called small because it is narrow
about the thickness of your thumb
• in the small intestine the gallbladder secretes gall to
break down fats and the pancreas secretes insulin to
manage blood sugar levels
• inside the small intestine millions of tiny hairs called
villi increase the surface area so that nutrients can
be absorbed into the bloodstream
• food moves along the intestine through like
contractions called peristalsis
• celiac disease is a condition of the small intestine
the large intestine
 • the large intestine or colon is about five feet in
length and it's called large because it's wider than a
small intestine
• digestion creates up to 1.3 gallons of fluid and the
main job of the colon is to reabsorb most of this fluid
so things move slowly
• they can take 18 to 24 hours for food to leave your
digestive system
• the large intestine hosts billions of beneficial
bacteria called gut flora or the microbiome
• they manufacture and extract certain vitamins in
fermentation by the gut bacteria creates gas
• fiber is very important for a healthy gut
• diseases and disorders of the colon include
o irritable bowel syndrome and
o colon cancer the immune system
the human immune system
• the military of the body
• it's comprised of white blood cells and antibodies
• these seek out and destroy foreign bodies including
o viruses
o bacteria
o parasites
o fungi and
o abnormal cells
• white blood cells are created in bone marrow and
carried in the blood and lymphatic system
• a single drop of blood can have 25,000 white blood
cells
• when white blood cells attack, they envelope the
pathogen and destroy it
• the remains are carried away into the lymph system
• the immune system is able to remember infections
and fight them off better through antibodies
• vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to
create antibodies for specific disease by polio or
measles without actually getting it
• the person is then protected against that disease
• it's important to get vaccines even if the disease is
no longer common because of the herd immunity
effect
o a form of immunity that occurs when the
vaccination of a significant portion of a
population or herd provides a measure of
protection for individuals who have not
developed immunity
• Stress, smoking, lack of sleep, poor diet and diseases
like HIV and AIDS can weaken the immune system
making you vulnerable to infection
• allergies and allergic reactions are false alarm and
the result of an overactive immune system
• allergic reactions can cause anaphylactic shock and
swelling where a person can't breathe
• autoimmune diseases like lupus mean that the
immune system attacks his own body and not just
the germs
• being too clean isn't always a good thing without
germs to develop antibodies the immune system
doesn't develop or learn what's harmful and what's
not
• the study of the immune system is called
immunology
the reproductive system
• The reproductive systems function
• Is to create new life so that genes can be
passed along to future generations a woman's
reproductive organs include
o a pair of ovaries that form eggs and
o the uterus where our baby Jia States until
it's ready to be born
• a man's reproductive system includes
o the testes where sperm is formed and
o a penis for delivering sperm into the uterus
when an egg and sperm cell fused as a
result of sexual intercourse
• conception occurs and the baby begins to grow
o the gestation period for a human baby
is 40 weeks or nine months and
▪ during which it grows from a few
cells into a fully formed baby
humans can reach reproductive
age at around 13 years old with
good nutrition puberty is arriving
sooner
• with every generation a woman produces one egg
every 28 days
o if it's not fertilized menstruation sheds the
uterine lining
• a man's ejaculate can have as many as 300 million
sperm cells
• sexually transmitted diseases include
o hiv/aids
o Chlamydia
o syphilis and
o HPV which can cause cervical cancer
• the most common cancers of the reproductive
organs include
o ovarian and cervical cancer and women
o testicular and prostate cancer in men
• the study of women's reproductive organs is called
gynecology
• the study of men's reproductive organs is called
andrology
the skeleton
• humans are vertebrates meaning they have a
backbone or a spinal column
o an adult skeleton has 206 bones
o a baby has 300 bones of and some fuse
together as they grow
o half of these bones are in your hands and
feet
o the largest and strongest bone in the body
is the femur
o the smallest bones are in the middle ear
o where bones meet is a cushion of cartilage
o bones are held together by tough ligaments
• Bones consists of
o hard bone which gives structure
o spongy bone which is still hard but has
more air pockets
o Bone marrow where blood and stem cells
are produced
• a healthy human bone come with stands three
times your body weight in force arm and leg
fractures and breaks are more common in growing
children
o because the growth plates there are
vulnerable
o when a bone fractures or breaks is able to
repair itself
▪ special bone cells will surround the
injury former callous breakdown
the injured bone and replace their
even healthy bones are continually
maintained by the body
• bone is made mostly of calcium for strength
• collagen for flexibility which is why it's important to
eat lots of green leafy vegetables
 o an adult reaches their full height in their
20s
o and maximum bone density in their 30s
• We can view the bones of a human body by using an
x-ray
• Diseases of the bone include:
o osteoporosis and arthritis
• And the study of burns is called osteology
MUSCLES
• The human body is incredibly flexible, unable to
move in thousands of ways. All thanks to 320 pairs of
skeletal muscles.
• muscles are made where muscle proteins form
strands of muscle fiber. These then form bundles
which make up largest skeletal muscles
• Skeletal muscles occur in pairs when one muscle
group contracts, the opposing pair relaxes
o for example to raise your forearm your
bicep contracts and your tricep relaxes
• bones can't move by themselves. That's the work of
your muscles.Where ligaments connect bones to
each other, tendons connect muscle to bone.
• electrical signals which are carried by nerves to and
from the brain will instruct your muscles on how to
contract or relax
• The muscles are responsible for creating body heat.
They twitch so slightly, you don't even feel it. This
generates enough heat for metabolism . Your
muscles are built and repaired when tiny tears in the
muscle fiber are filled in with new muscle cells and
the muscle needs oxygen and glucose to function
and protein to repair and regenerate
• the body has three kinds of muscle:
o skeletal for movement
o cardiac for the heart and
o smooth for the digestive system
• around 40 percent of a person's weight is comprised
of their muscle mass is also denser than fat which is
why two people at the same size can have different
weights
• the largest muscle in the body is the gluteus
maximus and your jaw muscles are the strongest
they can exert 200 pounds of force
• The study of muscles is called myology.
YT VIDEO 2
Positive And Negative Feedback Loops - Negative Feedback
Loops - Positive Feedback Loops
Control of homeostasis.
• There are many different feedback control loops in
the body, and these homeostatic control systems
can be based on positive or negative feedback.
• The key difference between positive and negative
feedback is their response to the change.
Negative feedback control loops
• Negative feedback control loops are the more
common of the two, and they respond to a change
by helping the body maintain a stable, homeostatic
condition.
• An example of this is when body
temperature starts to change.
o When it is cold out, and body
temperature decreases below the
set point range, which is a normal
range that the body tries to stay
within, the negative feedback loop
will cause the body to shiver,
producing heat, and ultimately
body temperature will return to
within the set point range.
• The negative feedback loop will do the same if body
temperature increases, like during exercise.
o The negative feedback loop will cause the
body to sweat, which will reduce body
temperature to within the set point range.
Positive feedback control loops
• Positive feedback control loops do not help the
body maintain a stable, homeostatic condition.
• Positive feedback control loops amplify the change
that is happening to the body.
o So, let’s say that someone has a bacterial
infection.
▪ The immune system signals the
brain to increase the body’s
temperature set point, causing the
person to have a fever.
• This can be a natural normal reaction, however, in
some instances, it could create a harmful positive
feedback loop,where metabolic rate is elevated and
the body is producing heat faster than it can get rid
of.
o So, a person may be shivering and sweating
at the same time.
o if body temperature increases above 108
degrees fahrenheit, or 42 degrees celsius, it
could be extremely dangerous and even
fatal.
• In a couple of instances, positive feedback control
loops can be beneficial to the body.
o Let's say someone gets a cut in a blood
vessel wall.
▪ A positive feedback control loop
begins, and platelets, which are
floating around in circulating
blood, recognize the damaged area
and begin to stick together to slow
the loss of blood and patch up the
tear in the wall.
▪ They also release chemicals that
attract more platelets to the area
to help stop the blood loss.
▪ Eventually a blood clot is formed,
the loss of blood is kept to a
minimum, and the positive
feedback loop ends.
• and that be the positive and negative feedback and
control systems for homeostasis.
DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY
LECTURER: EARL JOHN R. TRINIDAD, RRT, RSO, MBA-HP (IP)
X-ray Room 3 - For special procedures
• X-ray tube
o Focal spot
o Field size
o Adjustable height
• Grid
• Flat panel detector
• SID
• Control Console
X-RAY ROOM
2 aircons
• One - back up, in case the other one is not
functioning
• Maintain equipment
Tube
• Similar with 108 lab
Fluoroscopy
• For the live
• Usually used in OR
Table
3 back up batteries for flat panel detector • Label enables technologists to match information
Joystick with patient identifying barcodes.
• Tube control • Barcode- distinguish it that no two barcodes
are the same
PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY

WHAT IS COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY

• A “cassette-based” system that uses a special solid-

state detector plate instead of a film inside a
cassette.
• The use of CR requires the CR cassettes and
phosphor plates, the CR readers and technologist
quality control workstation, and a means to view the
images, either a printer or a viewing station
(BEFORE: negatoscope).
• The image plate can be reused and erased thousands
of times. IMAGING PLATE LAYERS
THREE MAJOR COMPONENTS
• Protective Layer: This is very thin, tough, clear
• Phosphor Imaging Plates plastic that protects the phosphor layer from
• To acquire x-ray image projections handling trauma. Made up of Fluorinated Polymer
• PIP Reader (scanner)/ CR reader material to protect the phosphor layer.
• To extract the electronic latent image. • Phosphor Layer: This is the active layer. This is the
• Workstation layer of photostimulable phosphor that traps
• For pre and post processing of the image. electrons during exposure. It is typically made of
barium fluorohalide phosphors.
• Reflective Layer: This is a layer that sends light in a
BEFORE COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY, THERE WAS SCREEN-
forward direction when released in the cassette
FILM RADIOGRAPHY
reader. This layer may be black to reduce the spread
1. Examination scheduled of stimulating light and the escape of emitted light.
2. Study forms printed • Conductive Layer: This layer grounds the plate to
3. Folder prepared reduce static electricity problems and to absorb light
4. Escort patient to exam room to increase sharpness
5. Load cassette • sharpness- maka zoom
6. Position patient • Support Layer: This is a semi rigid material that
7. Perform examination provides the imaging sheet with strength and is a
8. Process film base for coating the other layers. It is made up of
9. Reload cassette PolyEthylene Terephthalate.
10. Hang film • Backing Layer: This is a soft polymer that protects
11. Image quality control the back of the cassette. The radiation dose from a
a. Repeat CR. Made up of lead foil to protect IP from
b. To radiologist backscatter radiation.
c. Escort patient out
12. Films to folder and file

STRUCTURE AND MECHANISM

• The CR cassette contains a solid-state plate called a

photostimulable storage phosphor imaging plate
(PSP) or (IP) that responds to radiation by trapping
energy in the locations where the x-rays strike.
• The first system consisted of a phosphor storage
plate, a reader, and a laser printer to print the image
onto film.
• In DDH, the laser printer is in reading room
PHOTOSTIMULATED LUMINESCENCE
and reception are
• Ordinary/regular printer that requests the • Computed Radiography uses Barium Fluorohalide
image with Europium (BaFl:Eu) because it emits light after
• When your patient requests for copy of an x-ray exposure.
result, there’s no need for payment for the • Received smoothly
1st time • Europium is present in only small amounts since it
allows the electrons to be trapped more effectively.
IMAGING PLATE

• It is housed in a rugged cassette that appears similar

to screen- film cassette.
• It is handled in the same manner as a screen film
cassette.
• Like the traditional x-ray film it also has several
layers.
• Cassettes contain barcode labels on the cassette or
on the imaging plate through a window in a
cassette.
COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY IMAGE RECEPTOR Developing 5 min 22 s

• Uses an x-ray sensitive plate that is encased in a Rinsing in stop bath 30 s -

protective cassette
• Same type of cassette as film-screen radiography Fixing 15 min 22 s
•
COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY READER Washing 20 min 20 s

• CR Cassette is inserted into the CR Reader. The IP is Drying 30 min 26 s

removed by the machine, and is fitted into a
precision drive mechanism.
• CR Reader converts the latent image into visible
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image, which is then seen on the monitor ready for
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editing.
• The completed image is then transferred to an image TOPIC 2
buffer, usually a hard disc, which can be stored
temporarily until it is transferred for interpretation IMAGE EVALUATION
or to an archival computer.
• Archiving - capability to retrieve what is • Part of film critique which is part of revalida.
stored Revalida is an exam in order to become an intern
and serves as a final exam too.
IMAGE PROCESSING (COMES AFTER X-RAY EXPOSURE)
CRITERIA FOR IMAGE EVALUATION
• Computed Radiography Processing Steps (No
Darkroom needed) • Visibility of anatomy Structures (Contrast Resolution)
• Imaging plate is digitized by the scanner o Refers to the brightness or density of the
then erased for immediate reuse image sling with image contrast
• The digital image is then displayed on a o Image becomes visible to the human eye
computer monitor for evaluation with because sufficient IR exposure/density
specialized software permits perception.
▪ Contrast media is not included by
• Film-Screen Radiography Processing Steps
the hospital insurance
• Manual: While in the dark room, immerse
▪ That is why rad techs are advised
film in developer, fixer, and washer
to perform it properly the first time
solutions. Hang film to dry.
because it is covered by the
• Sometimes chemicals can irritate
patient.
eyes, why you need PPE
• Accuracy of Recorded Structural Lines (Spatial
• Automatic: While in the dark room, feed
Resolution)
the film to the automatic processor and
o Achieved by maximizing the amount of
wait.
spatial resolution or recorded detail by
minimizing distortion
FILM AND COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY COMPARISON • Implant
• We can differentiate between structures
FILM COMPUTED
RADIOGRAPHY • To be safe for mri

IMAGE BRIGHTNESS AND DENSITY

Exposure Film Imaging plate
medium (reusable)
• Brightness and density as the amount of luminance
(light emission)
Processing Darkroom No darkroom
conditions and conditions or • Brightness is the proper term for the luminous
chemistry required chemistry required intensity (measured in Candela)
• Density is defined as the amount of overall blackness
Processing 8 minutes 1-3 minutes on the processed image
time (depending n scan o The more mAs, the darker
resolution) • Decreased Brightness= Increased density (inverse
relationship)
Evaluation Film viewer Computer with
viewing/analysis CONTRAST
software
• Brightness level to differentiate tissues
Archiving Film archive room PC, cloud/remote • Term used in both digital and film-screen imaging to
(humidity and network server described the variations in brightness and density
temperature- • Radiograph must exhibit differences in brightness
controlled) levels in order to differentiate anatomic tissues.
• The number of shades of gray that can be stored and
Availability Unique master Unlimited copies with displayed by a computer system is called grayscale
copy possibility to access
from any location DYNAMIC RANGE

• Proper term that describes the range of brightness

displayed on the monitor.
APPROXIMATE TIME • Can be classified as High and Low Contrast.
o Numbers
MANUAL AUTOMATIC o Like look up table

Wetting 15 s - HIGH CONTRAST

 • The differences between adjacent densities that
comprise contrast are great
• Results in fewer shades of gray
• Not necessarily the most desirable
o No information
LOW CONTRAST
• Differences between adjacent densities are minimal
• Results in more discernible shades of gray
o Discernible- able to differentiate
• Provides a bit more diagnostic information
Optimal - differentiate properly
SCALE OF CONTRAST
• This is the number of useful visible densities or
shades of gray, divided into long scale and short
scale.
• Long Scale Contrast
o Demonstrates slight difference between
structures, has a maximum total number of
densities
• Short Scale Contrast
o Refers to an image that demonstrates
considerable differences between
structures, has a minimum total number of
densities
• Physical Contrast
o Total range of density/exposure values
recorded by image receptor (after xray has
passed thru patient)
▪ Amount of contrast in primary
beam, exposure value
• Visible Contrast
o Total range of density/exposure values that
can be perceived by the human eye when
looking at image
▪ Amount of contrast in the image
▪ How much contrastang maigo sa
patient and in the image
MANIPULATING CONTRAST - how to change
EXPOSURE INDICATOR
• For film-screen image receptor
o Use appropriate exposure factor upon
exposure of patient
▪ Not much we can do
• For digital Image Receptor
o Primary method for adjusting with DR
Systems is through window manipulations
▪ Window - monitor
▪ Edit through computer
o Digital images undergo post-processing,
using both Look-Up Table and Histogram to
manipulate contrast of final image that is
displayed
SPATIAL RESOLUTION
▪ We need a higher resolution so
that when we zoom it, we are still
able to distinguish, what if and
problem is sa spine, very small
detail but causes extreme pain or
paralysis if it tears tissue
• Low Resolution
o Has longer wavelength and visualizes lines
further apart.
IMAGE NOISE
• Background information received by IR
• Contributes no useful diagnostic information.
Serves only to reduce quality of image.
• Cause: Small patient - big factors or vice versa
• Two Types of Image Noise:
o Quantum Noise
▪ Visible as brightness or density
fluctuation on image
▪ Produce grainy image that can be
corrected by increased exposure
factors
• Example you take a
picture at night with low-
light conditions, grainy
ang picture, has sand
o Electronic System Noise
▪ Random background information
detected but does not contribute
to image quality
IMAGE DISTORTION
• Misrepresentation of the size and shape of the
anatomic part
• Size distortion = magnification or enlargement
• Shape distortion = Elongation or Foreshortening
o Elongation= Object will look much longer
o Foreshortening= Object will look shorter
• SID and OID play important role in image distortion,
and angulation
o If we increase oid, there will be air gap,
magnification
• Provides a numeric value indicating the level of
radiation exposure to the image receptor (FPD / IP)
• Records the amount of radiation dose used
o IP - CR/PSP
o FPD - DR
• Optimal ranges of exposure indicator values are
vendor specific and vary on type of procedure
• Postprocessing adjustments can only be done if
exposure indicator is within acceptable range
• In most hospitals, this is the exposure index

• Ability of radiographic image to demonstrate

adjacent structures and determines quality of
recorded detail
• Greater Spatial Resolution = Lower Unsharpness
(inverse relationship)

RECORDED DETAIL

• Determined by the Matrix Size and Pixel Size

• Divided into High Resolution and Low Resolution
• High Resolution
o Has shorter wavelength and visualizes lines
very close together
IMAGE ARTIFACTS
▪ Better
• Unwanted images on radiograph
 • These can make visibility or anatomy, pathology, and
identification difficult or impossible
• Decrease overall image quality
• Can be classified as plus-density and minus-density
o Plus-Density: artifacts have greater density
than area of interest (dark image artifact)
o Minus-Density: artifact have less density
than area of interest (brighter image
artifact)
• Fog and Image Noise are also examples.
PATIENT ARTIFACTS
• Clothing Artifacts
o bra, shirt buttons, belt, hair bun
• Foreign Body - physical objects in external
environment
• Motion Artifact - caused by sudden movement of
patient during exposure
HAIR BUN (clothing artifact)
Glasses in pocket (foreign body)
Motion artifact (most common especially in children and
senior citizen)
EXPOSURE ARTIFACTS - OCCURS UPON EXPOSURE
• Light Bulb Effect
o Cause: High kV, scatter radiation, or
improper collimation
o Appearance: Darkening of lower and outer
portions of an image., Uneven brightness
o Remedy: Reduce back scatter by lowering
kV or collimating properly.
• Twin Artifacts a.k.a Double Exposure
o Cause: Two subsequent exposure on same
imaging plate
o Appearance: Duplication of images
o Remedy: Proper knowledge of using x-ray
equipment
• Delayed Scanning:
o Causes: Delay between acquisition and
processing of image (12 hours beyond)
▪ Natagalan ang pag acquire ng
image after exposure
o Appearance: Fading of image
o Remedy: Proper knowledge of
radiographers to check that no delay occurs
between acquisition and processing
• Exposure through back of cassette (placing the back
portion of cassette facing front)
o Cause: Lack of paying attention
o Various patterns according to cassette
design
o Remedy: Pay attention when placing
cassette
EQUIPMENT ARTIFACTS
• Detector Drop Artifacts (FOR DR)
o Description: Wireless flat panel detector get
dropped
o Cause: Disruption of the readout circuitry or
loss of adhesion between scintillation and
TFT layers.
o Avoidance/Remedy: protective Cases, Use
Handgrip
• Liquid Contamination Artifacts
o Description: Electronic equipment was
contaminated with liquid
o Cause: Liquid infiltration into detector that
damage the circuitry
o Avoidance/Remedy: Use watertight
protection, avoid drinking near the
equipment
• Crack on the imaging plate Artifact
o Description: Visible cracks or kinks in the
image
o Cause: Damaged imaging plates (external
forces)
o Avoidance/Remedy: Change imaging plate
• Disparity Artifact
o Description: defective scanning of the CR
reader resulting in alteration of contrast
o Causes: malfunctioning of reader
o Remedy: Periodic cleaning of CR Reader
• Malfunctioning Rollers:
o Description: Half-read image
o Cause: Slipping of feed rollers
o Periodic cleaning and recalibration of feed
rollers
• Plate Reader Artifact
o Description: Visible white line is present in
the digital image
o Cause: direct collection in the light optics of
CR reader
o Remedy: regular cleaning of the CR Reader
PROCESSING ARTIFACTS
Communication Error Artifact
• Description: Missing lines or pixels in
resulting image.
• Cause: power failure during image
transmission
• Remedy: repeat procedure
Grid-line Suppression Failure
• Description: Grid lines appear on
Radiograph
• Cause: Wrong type of Grid use
• Remedy: Ensure grid line frequency
matches recommendation by manufacturer
Midgray Clipping Artifact
• Description: Loss of contrast in certain areas
• Cause: Poor contrast enhancement
• Avoidance/Remedy: Adjust image processing
settings
Poor Identification of Values of Interest
• Description: Image appears washed out
• Cause: Failure of proper exposure recognition
• Remedy: Proper use of collimation
DISPLAY
Display Monitor
• Primary monitors are monitors used by radiologists
for diagnostic interpretation
• The monitor of the technologist should also be of
high quality
• A display monitor having diagonal dimensions of 54
cm is adequate to view images sized 35 x 43 cm
o Display monitor have default measurement
Types of Monitor
• Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) and liquid crystal displays
(LCDs)
• LCDs are replacing CRTs and newer technology, such
as plasma-type monitors, continue to developed
 1. Cathode Ray Tube
• Creates an image by accelerating and
focusing electrons to strike the faceplate
composed of a fluorescent screen
• CRT monitors scan at least 525 lines per
1/30 of a second
• Major components of a CRT monitor are the
electron gun encasing a cathode focusing
coils and deflecting coils and the anode
• This type of display monitor typically has a
curved faceplate, and its dimensions are
deeper
o Bigger mechanism
2. Liquid crystal display
• This monitor passes light through liquid
crystals to display the image on the glass
faceplate.
• Additional components include a source for
the electrical signal and light waveforms
and polarizing filters.
• The electrical signals can vary the light
waveforms that pass through the crystals
for viewing on the faceplate.
• The LCD monitor has a flat faceplate, and its
dimensions are thinner
o Flat screen monitor
• Passes light through liquid crystals to
display the image on the glass plate
• Into life detail
• What we have in our RT lab
• Monitors today, same with the laptops
• Thinner dimensions
• Most x-ray rooms want to maximize their
space, the reason for this use
Viewing conditions
• Radiologists use their arrays to see the image
• Ambient lighting - placement of display monitors
and the level of the light in the room
o Lighting must be good otherwise it might be
painful to the eyes
• Positioning the monitor away from any direct light
sources reduces amount of reflection on the
faceplate of the monitor
• Maintaining a low level of ambient lighting can help
the enhance the viewer’s perception of image
brightness and contrast displayed on the monitor
o Just the right amount of light to enhance
perception
o Not super bright
Performance criteria
• Digital images are captured and processed to display
a specific matrix size
• Better quality, performance, specs, monitor
• Luminance is a measurement of the light intensity
emitted from the surface of the monitor and is
expressed in units of candela per square meter
(cd/m2)
• Monitors that have a higher luminance ratio are
capable of displaying a greater grayscale image
o Better quality or higher luminance ratio,
better spec, greater grayscale
Laser printers
• Printers allow for display of images, if we print
images, then we use laser printer
• Introduced in 1983 by the Fuji Computed
Radiography system
• Types of laser:
o Infrared 780-830 nanometer
o Solid State diode approx 670-680 nm
o Helium neon HeNe: 633 nm
• Laser printers are available that use wet or dry
printing methods
• We use photo paper
• In hospital systems, per department must have their
own printer
• Connected to all computers in the radiology
department
o Ct scan, mri, x-ray connected to laser
printer
IS FFD AND SID THE SAME?
• YES, FFD=SID
• FFD - focus to film distance
• SID not synonymous with SOD (source to object
(patient) distance) while SID is the distance between
the source to your image receptor
DATA MANAGEMENT
Network
• It is a manner in which many computers can be
connected with one another
• In some countries, national network are used for
medical data
o Korea for example
• In the radiology department, in additional to
secretarial workstation, the network may consist of
various types of devices that allow storage, retrieval
and viewing of images, PACS workstation, a
departmental mainframe, hospital mainframe.
o Departmental mainframe - the doctor has
copy of the patient data and image
Hospital information system
• This is also known as Master Patient Index or
Patient Administration System
• Master patient index or patient administration
system
• Database application which primarily stores the
demographic and contact details of the patients as
well as national identifiers and local identifiers
o Identifiers - ID,ex. philhealth ID
o Demographic - male, female, age, minor,
senior, adult, gender or sex,
o contact details
o National identifiers - naka pa treatment in
other parts of country
o Local identifiers - hospital to hospital
• Communication between the his and other text
based imaging informatics components is carried
using the HL7 standard
o HL7 standard - written results or word
abased after x-ray, laboratory
• Hospital Information System Comprises everything:
o Outpatient
o Nursing
o Inpatient
o Radiology
o Laboratory
o Clinical
o Pharmaceutical
o Operation theater - live, real time
Therefore, the information is easily obtained by the
whole hospital organization.
Radiology Information system
• This is a generic name for an application or group of
application used to handle the textual data related
to imaging procedures
• The first RIS were simply created as a replacement to
the paper diaries that was widely used at that time
o Chances are before mass production of
printer, result of x-rays are handwritten
 • RIS are unique to radiology, other department have
similar systems
• Information of the Radiology Information System can
be shared with the HIS
o Information of the RIS can be shared to the
HIS
o RIS - radiology
o HIS - whole hospital
• A few characteristics and essential features of an RIS
o Order – Registration of patients
▪ Before we start a procedure,
patient must enter, name, concern,
doctor
o Scheduling of Various Imaging Procedures
▪ Not all of modalities are walk-n
except for x-ray
▪ USD, ct scan - needs to be
scheduled, Unless emergency
▪ Contrast media procedures
o Interpretation reports
▪ Most needed
o Billing preparation
▪ Some hospitals have cashier
• Functions of the RIS may include:
o Patient registration
o Exam scheduling
o Patient tracking
o film archiving
▪ 2014 patient, 5 years later, come
back, follow up check up from x-
ray before
▪ We can easily recover data
because of RIS
o Report generation
PACS
• The concept of moving images digitally was by albert
jutras in canada in the 1950’s
• Early pacs were developed by the U.S military in an
effort to move images among veterinary
administration (VA) hospital
• It is a centralized computer based system designed
to manage healthcare images acquired as part of the
examination process via the digital image acquisition
modalities
• It can accept any image that is DICOM format
• Serves as the file room, reading room, duplicator and
courier
o File room - Where we store data
o Reading room - recover, bring up, review
the data
o Duplicator - Easy to produce a copy
o Courier - Easy to transfer data
• Many pacs reading stations also have image
processing capabilities
Acquire
• PACS currently receives studies from modalities such
as x-ray, MRI, CT, USD and nuclear medicine
Store
• Annually the PACS receives 860,000 studies from 14
hospital organizations
View
• Radiologists interpret the studies using PAVS while
clinicians and other allied healthcare professionals
access patient’s images and reports using PACS
CARESTREAM VIEW PACS
ELAPSE -shows the date taken
Status:
• final
• Wet read- seen by radiologist but no diagnosis yet
Mod- what modality used
Dx-x ray
Us- ultrasound
Icon with pen- asked for request then given to pt
PACS emergency contingency plan
• A contingency plan is a course of action designed to
help an organization to respond effectively to a
significant future event
o Back up plan
• Contingency plan should include emergency
resource contacts, an overview of the goals of the
plan and instructions for four types of downtime:
power ris, pacs and network
o Downtime: periods of down of the
backbone, issue in a system
• The key successful contingency planning is to have
the operations managers themselves determine
their course of action in the event of downtime. If
guideline as created by the area that has to use
them, they are more likely to be followed
DICOM
• Digital Imaging and COmmunication in Medicine
• First completed in 1985
• National electrical manufacturers association
(NEMA) in collaboration with American College of
Radiology (ACR) developed a standard for
exchanging radiographic images
• This is the universally accepted standard for
exchanging medical images among the modality,
viewing stations and the archive
o For convenience
• this is how the data can be exchanged from one
place to the other
o This is used and not PACS since PACS is only
used for archiving
Teleradiology
• Good example: mobile x-ray, trucks, vans that go to
other areas
• Images acquired in other locations
• It is a term used to describe the reading of images
from outside of the hospital's walls.
• This is where images are acquired in one location,
stored on a single PACS, but reported from a
different physical location without the images being
copied. It is common place in four main
circumstances:
o Delivery of specialty coverage of large areas
o Where equipment is available to acquire
images, but a specialty reporting post is
temporarily vacant.
o Outsourcing purposes: commonly where
‘backlog’ reporting is required to help
reduce the number of outstanding
unreported case
 o Home-based reporting: to allow reporting • The technologist performs the examination and
staff primarily based in the acquiring depending on the type of image acquisition device,
institution to report from home overnight the images are processed and repeated as necessary
or carry out ad-hoc additional reporting and sent to the appropriate PACS devices
sessions. • The requisition is either take to the radiologist or the
radiologist may pull the images from an electronic
Post Processing worklist
• Computer software
• These are computer software operations available to
the radiographer and radiologist that allow manual Pacs based workflow
manipulation of the displayed image. • Order entry
o Patient given request form
o Type image data
Image manipulation o Receptionist endorse to radtech
• Window level and window width • Exam performed
o Alter the image brightness and contrast • Image processed
o These are image processing parameters o Edit image
that controls that can alter the image • Image interpreted
brightness and contrast of a digital image • Transcribed record
• Black white reversal
o Reverses the grayscale from the original
radiograph
o If the radiologist have doubts
o To verify missed blockages
o Is a postprocessing technique that reverses
the grayscale from the original radiograph.
• Background removal or shuttering
o Shuttering is used to blacken out
o Shuttering is used to blacken out the white
collimation borders, effectively eliminating
veil glare.
o Shuttering is a viewing technique only and
should never be used to mask poor
collimation practices.

Image orientation
• Orientation of the anatomy of interest is too large to
fit on on casserre
• Special cassette holders are used and positioned
vertically
• This refers to the orientation of the anatomy on the
image plate.
• The image reader has to be informed of the location
of the patient’s head versus feet and right side
versus left side.

Image stitching
• This is done when an anatomy or area of interest is
too large to fit on one cassette.
• In some special cases special cassette holders are
used and positioned vertically corresponding to foot
to hip or entire spine study.

Image annotation
• Allows selection of preset terms or manual input
• It allows selection of preset terms and or manual
text input that can be particularly useful when such
additional information is necessary.
• Input of annotation for identification of patient’s left
or right side should never be used as a substitute for
technologist’s anatomy markers
• Ex. prevoid-wala pa nakaihi si pt
• Post void - tapos na nakaihi si pt

Pacs workflow
• The technolist may get the order via an electronic
worklist or a paper requisition
o Order for examination
• The order is input into the ris and the RIS sends a
message to the pacs to find historic images and put
them into short term archive
• The technologist would prepare the room, retrieve
the patient and performs the patient history