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WELD :iURFACING
AND HARDFACINli ·

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THE WELDING INSTITUTE

Abington HaJJ Abington Cambridge CB1 6AL

0 1980
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 Page

Chapter 1 Weld surfacing in pe rspective

S.S .PEATE and E.N.GREGORY

The mechanism of wear 2

V.H.DAVIES and l.A .BOl TON

. 3 Materials for hardfacing 11

E.N.GREGORY and M.BARTlE

'.J 4 Selection of materials for hardfacing 22

E.N .GREGORY

11 5 Metallurgical aspects of weld surfacing 28

D.J.ElUS and S.S.PEATE

,. 6 Weld surfacing processes 32

A .M.HORSFIElD

7 Welding steelworks rolls 40

K.A.RIDAl and T.BAGSHAW

8 Hardfacing ironworks plant 47

R .J . H A R R ISO N
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9 Applications of weld surfacing to power plant 54
T .R.ROWBERRY

10 Surfacing for impact resistance 58

P.A.SYMONS

-· /11 Hardfacing civil engineering plant 63

E.N.GREGORY

12 The use of weld surfacing to solve some wear problems in a chemical plant 67
P.FURNIVAl

13 Hardfacing valves and rotary feeders 73

S.GRAINGER

14 The weld surfacing of vessels 76

D .J.ElUS

15 Quality assurance in hardfacing 81

S.GRAINGER

Bibliography: Selection and applications of hardfacing materials 85

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T .BAGSHAW, PhD, MMet, is Manager, Advanced Fabrication Department, British Steel Corporation, !
Sheffield laboratories

M.BARTlE, MIM, MIWM, is Materials Technologist, British 'Steel Corporation, Teesside Division

LA.BOl TON, BSc(Metaliurgy), GradlM, is Technical Coordinator, Plant Improvement Section,

British Steel Corporation, Battersea laboratory

V .H.DAVIES, BTech(Metaliurgy), MIM, is Technical Coordinator, Plant Im provement Section,

British Steel Corporation, Battersea laboratory

D.J .E lUS, MIM, MWeldl, is Market Development Manage( BOC Murex, Rotherham
P.FURNIVAL, BSc, is Materials Engineer, Materials Group, Imperial Chemical Industries Limited,
Agricultural Division

S.GRAINGER is General Technical Manager, Deloro Stellite (UK) Limited

E.N.GREGORY, FIM, FWeldl, is Head of Production Welding at The Welding Institute I

R .J.HAR RISON, MIM, FWeid I, is Senior Metallurgist, British Steel Corporation, Scunthorpe Group

A.M.HORSFIELD, MA, FIM, FWeldl, is Technical Director, Welding Rods Limited (formerly
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of ESAB AB, Gothenburg, Sweden)

S.S.PEATE,AMBIM, MWeldl, is General Manager, Sarclad International Limited

K.A.RIDAL, BSc, PhD, FIM, is Executive Director, Sarclad Internation~1 Limited

T.R.ROWBERRY, BSc, DipTech, ACT, is Group Leader, Scientific Services Department,

Central Electricity Generating Board, Midlands Region
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P.A.SYMONS, AMISE, is Manager, Technical Services, Brinal Limited I
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1- W eld surfacing in perspective
s. S. Peate and E.N. Gregory *
In 1966 a Government enquiry chaired by
Professor Jost estimated that each year British
industry lost in excess of £500M through worn
engineering components and their consequential
effects. The enquiry concluded that this sub-
stantial loss could be largely avoided, and the
reputation of British engineering goods on the
world market greatly enhanced, if science and
technology were correctly brought to bear on
the problem.
Much has been done since that time to
make engineers, technologists, and management
~ore acutely aware of the problems that wear
presents. The two new engineering disciplines
of tribology and terotechnology have emerged
to focus attention on the growing and pressing
need to consider caiefullythe fitness for pur-
pose of an engineering component; not just in
the short term but on a total life basis that
recognises the true cost of reliability, main- (~
tenance, and the loss of plant availability.
In general, manufacturing plant in British
industry is replaced less frequently than in
other countries. However, we continue to move
rapidly towards more onerous conditions of
higher plant loading, speeds, and operating
temperatures. If these factors, as well as how
ma npower and material costs have escalated in
recent years, are considered, it becomes easy
to see that the problem is one of growing
importance. If the potential savings could be
quantified today on the same basis as the Jost.
enquiry, ' a figure around £1500M could be
anticipated.
THE INFLUENCE OF WELDING TECHNOLOGY
There can be very few examples of heavy
engineering plant in use today which do not have
some form of welding content; consequently it
can be inferred that welding technology must
represent a significant design influence. It has
been realised for a long time that welding
permits large engineering components to be
fabricated from smaller subassemblies, which
provides an opportunity for manufacturers to
employ smaller, more cost effective plant, and
often at higher utilisations. Fewer manufac-
turers realise that welding technology also
supplies an effective means of protecting the
surfaces of engineering components that are
subjected to 's ome form of attack in service.
Although surface coatings can be applied in a
* Joint Technical Editors
varie ty of ways,. in heavy engineering welding
is the principal method.
Weld surfacing is, therefore, one tech-
nique that can make a valuable contribution
towards a reduction in the enormous losses that
are incurred each year by British industry as a
result of worn components and their adverse
effect upon production.
WELD SURFACING
Almost any welding process can be used for
surfacing, although the size, shape, and base
material composition ~of the component are
important considerations which affect the choice
of process and economics. Each welding
process has its advantages and disadvantages;
so too have surfacing materials. The problem
is one of selecting the most appropriate
",";'~eqUiSite to the solution of this problem must be
the correct identification of the wear mechanism
involved: is the poor component performance
the result of abraSion, .e rosion, corrosion, or
high temperature oxidation? The diagnosis can
Significantly affect the choice of both welding
process and surfacing material. If the correct
selection is made dramatic improvements in
component performance and operating costs
often result.
Probably the greatest use of weld surfa-
cing at present is for the reclamation of existing
worn or damaged components which would other-
wise be scrapped. In many instances no attempt
is made to improve the service performance
of the component, but simply to restore it to
the original dimensions with a compatible sur-
facing material. This may be a deliberate
policy on the engineer 1 s part to overcome some
short-term difficulty, or an expedient because
he is unable to obtain a new replacement within
a satisfactory period. With a little more ' thought
he could still reclaim the component quickly
and economically, producing a component that
is in no way inferior to the original and at the
same time improves service performance,
perhaps dramatically.
DESIGN
Most engineering components used in heavy
industry embody a degree of metallurgical com-
promise, because of the conflicting reqUirements
of the working surface and the bulk mechanical
properties. In general , wear resistance
increases at the expense of toughness. This
means, for example, that a component which
1
 2-The m echanism of wear
V. H. Davies and L. A. Bolton
Wear of plant and equipment is incurred by all
fields of industry and has, until quite recently,
tended to be accepted as a fact of life. Damage by
wear phenomena leads to enormous economic
losses across the many branches of industry
and, although wear itself may not alone limit
the life of, and investment in, a piece of
plant, it is certainly the cause of a large
expenditure on maintenance and remedial
repairs. However, a considerable part of this
expense could be saved by the practical appli-
cation of present-day technology. Corrective
measures could, it was estimated in a 1966
Government report, save more than £20M in
the British steel industry alone and a staggering
£ 515M within UK industry as a whole. *
The implementation of tribological principles
in the industrial environment has, in the past,
been unacceptably slow, but now, with an
increasing awareness of the economic impli-
c a tions attached to component reclamation,
frequent maintenance, and reduced plant 'avail-
ability, progress is accelerating. Tribology,
the science of friction, lubrication, and wear,
is becoming an accepted and necessary factor
which is gradually ousting the traditional
'replacement syndrome' of the past.
This Chapter is devoted to one aspect of
tribology, i. e. wear, which can be described
as 'the progressive removal of material from
a surface stemming from relative movement at
that surface.' Wear as a phenomenon can be
caused py a number of specific mechanisms
and the practical situation is often complicated
by the simultaneous operation of several of
them.
The material requirements necessary to
combat these various forms of wear vary
enormously, and indeed may often conflict with
J .<' '.' the other mechanic~i requirements of a
component. To select the most appropriate
material for wear resistance in any given
situation it is therefore of utmost importance
to identify and understand the forms of wear
which could occur. It is necessary to know
the conditions under which the worn component
was operating and whether they varied signifi-
cantly during the service life. Combining this
,.
*This figure can be estimated to h.ave increased,
as a result of inflation, by at leasl\ a factor of
3 to a value of approximately £1500M at
present-day costs.
4
'environmental' information with a visual or
microscopic examination of the worn surface it
is, then, possible to build up a picture of the
various wear mechanisms which have the most
critical effect on component life.
It must be recognised that friction and
wear resistance are not intrinsic properties of
a material but are characteristic of the total
engineering system and its operating environment.
Any change in stress, speed, or temperature,
for example, can have a significant effect on
the type of wear or wear rate of a component.
It is primarily for this reason that specialists
in wear have attempted, in the past, to
eliminate as many of these variables as
possible to simplify experimental conditions.
Thus, although we are now building up an i
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understanding of the following speCific wear I
mechanisms, under controlled conditions, it j
requires some empirical judgement to select I
the most appropriate materials for many of
the more cpmplex practical situations. 1
ADHESIVE WEAR
Adhesive wear is one of the most prevalent
wear mechanisms encountered in engineering
situations; accounting for some 15% of
industrial wear. This process, which occurs
between two rubbing surfaces, is variously
described in practical circumstances as
scoring, scuffing, galling, or seizure. It is
generally identified by surface tearing or
material displacement as a result of the
relative motion between mechanically bonded
surfaces, which may produce wear debris in a
loose form. This generation of loose wear 1
debris inevitably leads to the possibility of
wear being accelerated by the initiation of J
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abrasion.
To explain the adhesive wear process it
is necessary to have an understanding of the
real contact which occurs between two surfaces.
Any smooth surface is, on the microscopic
scale, rough and consists of a series of jagged
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peaks and valleys. If two of these apparently
smooth surfaces are placed in contact and an
attempt is made to slide one across the other,
a drag or frictional force attempts to prevent
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the motion. This frictional force is caused by
the plastic deformation which occurs when the
peaks, or asperities as they are known, wedge
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together. The resultant high contact forces
cause local welding between asperities which
become highly stressed if the surfaces are
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now forced to slide across each other.
Continued movement results in the asperities
fracturing at the weakest point thus allowing
sliding to continue. The amount of adhesive
wear which occurs during this displacement
depends upon a number of factors ' including the
applied load, speed, temperature, true contact
area, and cleanliness of the rubbing surfaces.
It is also dependent on the crystallographic
structure of the surfaces, in that materials of
similar structure have a greater tendency to
weld together. Thus two chemically clean
surfaces of a similar crystal structure may
adhere strongly ' to each other simply when
placed in contact.
The volume wear is proportional to the
load applied and distance travelled by the
relatively moving surfaces, i. e. Volume wear
kWy, where W is load and y is displacement,
Fig. 1. The rate of wear takes into account the
contact area of the surfaces and the time of
relative motion, thus:
Rate of wear = ~
At
= kPV
where A is contact area, t is time, and P is
pressure.
The constant, k, in these equations is
known as the 'wear factor' and can vary quite
dramatically depending upon the materials in
contact, or the 'wear-pair' as they are known.
It is related to the mutual solubilities of the
wear-pair, which give an indication of their
welding propensity. The true contact area of
the surfaces is a function of the con!act yield
stress of the softer material. Thus the wear
factor, k, is dependent upon the mechanical
properties of the contacting materials, with
lower yield point materials giving rise to
larger areas of true contact, thereby causing
greater wear.
The work-hardenability of the contacting
materials also influences the wear rate. The
Contact
area, A
plastic deformation which occurs during asperity
contact can cause material to work-harden in
the area of the microwelds. Subsequent
relative motion of the bodies will then cause
fracture to occur at the base of the asperities,
as these are now the weakest pOints, leading to
gross surface damage and the production of
loose wear debris.
Adhesive wear is likely to be most severe
when materials of Similar crystal structure rub
together under load with little or no lubrication.
Under these conditions particles will be torn
from one or both surfaces forming wear debris.
When operating under heavy loads and high
speeds the wear debris will appear as 'large,
mainly metallic particles (severe wear).
Operation under light loads and low speeds,
however, will produce a fine oxide wear debris
(mild wear), Fig. 2.
If the two metals rubbing together are of
dissimilar crystal ·structure considerably less
surface adhesion occurs, which consequently
reduces their susceptibility to adhesive wear.
Considerable dissimilarity of crystal structure
is, however, rarely achievable and therefore a
lubricant is usually required to separate and
cool the surfaces and thereby maintain a low
wear rate.
The ability of a surface to form a low
shear strength film, by oxidation or smearing
of a soft microconstituent, can also reduce
adhesive wear. Similarly, many surface
diffusion treatments rely on their ability to
alter the surface structure of a metal to pro-,
duce nonadhesive or antiwelding characteristics
and so enhance the wear properties of the
rubbing metal surfaces. Noskuff, Sulfinuz, and
Tufftriding, are typical surface treatments
which are widely employed to improve the wear
resistance of cast iron and steel components
operating under adhesive conditions.
Scuffing
This particular process of adhesive wear
occurs during the initial stages of the rubbing
of metal surfaces under poor lubrication con-
/
Increased oxidation allowing
re-formation of surface filmS!
Severe wear
Breakdown of surface films
Time/load
2 Adhesive wear: effect of load and surface films
5
ditions. It is essentially a rlllDing-in problem
and is particularly likely to occur to a new
component if full load and speed are applied
too qUickly or if the finish of the rubbing
surfaces is poor. This type of wear can occur
in engine cylinders during their initial running':'
in period and can be identified on cast iron
piston rings as a series of roughened bands on
the contact faces. Scuffing can also occur
after a considerable amount of service time if
there is a lack of lubrication. Because of the
high loads and speeds associated with the
scuffing process severe surface damage often
occurs. The necessity for somewhat lengthy
periods of rwming-in, which improve the
surface finish of the mating parts, can be
significantly reduced through the use of suitable
surface diffusion treatments.
Lubricant impregnation of some of these coat-
ings has been seen to enhance their effective-
ness. Coatings used are typically phosphating,
Tufftriding, and Sulfinuz for steel and anodised
coatings for aluminium. Spray coatings of
aluminium and the use of rubber and PTFE
inserts have been adopted in some instances to
separate the mating surfaces and take up the ·
relative movement between them.
ABRASIVE WEAR
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Abrasive wear, which accounts for more than
50% of industrial wear problems, occurs when
material is removed from a surface by the
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cutting or gouging action of hard particles.
The rate of wear depends on the degree of
penetration of the surface by the abrasive and
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is therefore related to the surface hardness of

Fretting
Fretting, another form of wear, occurs when
two contacting surfaces undergo very small
oscillatory movements. Small particles of
wear debris are removed from the surfaces by
adhesion · and may be prevented from immedi-
the material.
Systematic investigation has shown the
considerable influenc;,e that the reiative hard-
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nesses of abrading and abraded material have
on the wear rate. If the attacking material has
a far greater hardness than the surface upon
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which it is acting, considerable wear takes

ately escaping by the small slip excursion.
The wear debris can either rema.in trapped
between the mating surfaces, leading to a
condition of seizure, or it may ooze from the
jOint resulting in a loss of fit. This wear
debris is often in a highly oxidised state and
appears as a characteristic red -brown deposit
on ferrous base materials and a black deposit
on aluminium alloys. Typical situations which
are prone to fretting wear are jOints,
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place. If, on the other hand, the .abrasive is
softer than the surface, .the wear rate is low
and generally little advantage may be gained in
increasing surface hardness in an effort to
reduce wear. In the region where hardnesses
of the attacking material and the surface are
approximately equal, any slight change in
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hardness of either material can cause a sub-
stantial change in the wear rate, Fig. 3. To
create a stable situation it is therefore
I I

stationary bearings acting under vibrating con-

ditions, splined couplings, and press fits on
shafts.
advisable to ensure that the ratio of material
hardness to abrasive hardness is greater than
this critical value.
III
The wear rate through fre~ting is known The relative hardnesses of some common
to increase on an apprOximately linear basis
with the normal load being applied, the ampli-
tude of oscillatory movement, ·· and the number
minerals and material phases are shown in
Table 1.
It should be noted that the average bulk
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of oscillations. The actual wear rate arising
from adhesive wear tends to slow down after a
certain time owing to the formation of a buffer
hardness of a material is not necessarily
directly related to wear resistance. This is I
zone by the trapped wear debris, and sub-
sequent wear is considered to continue by a
process of fatigue and abrasion. An increase
in the applied load can sometimes stop the
/----- Soft liner
fretting process by preventing any relative
movement of the mating surfaces.
Fretting can be reduced or eliminated by / I
design changes or damping out the vibration but, /
when this is impracticable, some other methods ____ __I /~--- Hard liner
of reducing the wear can be applied. Temporary
protection can be achieved through adequate
sealing and lubrication of the component which
reduces the adhesive tendency. This may also
be achieved on a more permanent basis by the
Mineral/abrasive hardness
application of surface coatings and treatments
utilising the dissimilar metal contact system to
reduce adhesion between the surfaces. 3 Effect of abrasive hardness on material wear

6
Table 1 Hardness values of some abrasives and material phases

Raw material/mineral hardness, HV Material phase/liner hardness, HV

Coal 32 (approx. ) Ferrite 70-200

Gypsum 36 Pearlite 250-460
Lime 110 Austenite 170-350 .
Calcite 140 (to 600 in cast chrome iron)
Fluorspar 140 Martensite 500-1010
Coke 200 Basalt 700-800
Iron ore 470 Cementite 840-1100
Glass 500 Chromium carbides 1200-1800
Feldspar 600/750 Alumina 2000
Sinter 77 0 (approx.) Niobium carbide 2000
Quartz 900/1280 Tungsten carbide 2400
Conmdum 1800 Silicon carbide 2600
Vanadium carbide 2800
Boron carbide 3700
Diamond 10000

Abrasive weai' is a Simpler proce~s than

(a)
(b)
(e)
4 Types of abrasive wear: (a) gouging abrasion, (b) low stress
abrasion, and (c) high stress abrasion (left) rod and ball mills
(right) roll eroshing
.particularly obvious with work-hardening
materials, such as austenitic manganese steel,
which develop a hard surface during impact or
severe working. Unless these conditions occur
and a hard skin is developed, austenitic
manganese steel shows little advantage over
mild steel in many abrasive applications.
Thus when considering the hardness of a
material it is the as-worked or worn surface
hardness which is relevant. The size and
volume concentration of hard phases, i. e. car-
bides, phosphides, borides, etc. , in the material
also have a considerable effect on the overall
abrasion resistance by forming a hard protec-
tive barrier in the surrounding softer matrix.
adhesive wear and the best understood of all
the wear mechanisms. It can be divided in a
practical sense into three main types, i. e. goug-
ing abrasion, low stress abrasion, and high
stress abrasion, Fig, 4.
Gouging abrasion
Gouging abrasion, Fig.4a, involves the removal
of sizable particles from a surface by the
action of a coarse material. The high
pressures and impact conditions cause the
abrasive to cut into the wearing surface and
produce large gouges and scratches which are
generally visible to the naked eye. This
process is normally encOlUltered during trans-
portation or size ~eduction of large lumps of
material and necessarily involves a certain
amount of impact and consequent plastic
deformation of the material surface. It often
occurs in the impact area of chutes, in
pulverisor mills, and in digger shovels and
demands reasonable toughness in the liner
material to resist fracture. Therefore some
resistance to abrasion may have to be
" sacrificed to obtain the necessary impact
resistance of the component.
Austenitic manganese steel is often used in
such applications in view of its excellent tough-
ness and ability to form a hard wear-resistant
surface.
Low stress abrasion
This form of wear results from the sliding
action of free-moving particles over a surface,
Fig.4b. The stresses involved are generally
low and do not exceed the crushing strength of
the abrasive. Material is removed from the
surface at low impingement angles by a
scratching or micromachining process. Thus
sharp, angular abrasives produce the most
severe conditions of wear. In view of the low
stress conditions, impact resistance and tough-

7
ness of the wearing surface are not generally
critical and therefore relatively brittle, hard,
wear-resistant materials may be used. The
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inherent hardness of the surface minimises
penetration by the abrasive and consequently
reduces the wear rate.
Low stress abrasion occurs typically on
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chutes handling free-flowing minerals, where
little or no impact occurs. Alloy cast iron
and cer'amic tiles are therefore often used to
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advantage in these applications.
High stress abrasion
High stress abrasion, Fig. 4c, occurs in
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equipment where abrasive materials, often
minerals, are trapped between two loaded
surfaces. This condition occurs in milling
equipment, rock drills, and final crushers
30 45 60 90
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Impact angle, 0
where size reduction of relatively small
mineral particles takes place. The wear
surface is subjected to very high stresses
5 Erosive wear: effect of impingement angle on materials I
which not only cause mineral particles to At larger angles of impingement, however,
penetrate the surface but may result in fracture
of the brittle phases present (carbides, borides,
etc.) and plastic deformation of the matrix.
erosive particles impact and cause deformation
of the surface which can result in spalling or
pitting. Thus it is ·necessary for a material
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Such conditions are often experienced in ball
mills and grit-contaminated bearings. Surface
damage, which is caused by scratching, fatigue,
to adsorb a greater amount of energy without
deformation or cracking to exhibit a high
erosive wear resistance. In this respect
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and plastic deformation, can be reduced by use resilient rubbers and polymers can give good
of a material with an appropriate combination
of high yield strength and hardness to absorb
the high specific contact pressures involved
results because of their low eiastic modulus.
Through plant design it is possibie to
exert a considerable influence on the rate of
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and resist the rubbing action of the abrasive.
EROSION
erosion by affecting both impingement angle
and particle velOCity. Thi s is particularly
true of slurry pipework systems, where pipe
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This wear mechanism, which is strongly size and bend radii are critical factors in the
related to abrasive wear, results from the
impingement of free-flowing solid particles or
liquid droplets on to a surface. These
determination of these parameters. DeSign,
therefore, not only plays a large part in
influencing the selection of erosion-resistaJ?t
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particles or droplets are carried in a fluid
stream, generally at relatively high velocities
compared with those experienced under low
materials but can be considered as a method,
in its own right, of controlling erosion.
CONTACT FATIGUE
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stress abrasion conditions. The rate of
erosion is dependent on the kinetic energy of
the eroding particles and the way in which this
energy is dissipated when the particles impinge
The wear mechanisms discussed so far have
involved the progressive loss of material from
a surface. Contact fatigue occurs in machine
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on a surface. Ductile .surfaces tend to suffer components, such as bearings or gears, which
indentation and gouging damage, but on brittle are subject to rolling contact and may appear
materials the particle energy is dissipated as a sudden loss of material from the surface
through crack propagation. The extent of this through pitting or spalling. This wear mech-
damage is dependent on particle size, shape, anism is attributed to the cyclic loading of two
concentration, velocity, and angle of attack, surfaces in mutual contact and usually occurs
the last being the most critical in terms of without major loss of surface material. It is
materials selection, Fig. 5. closely related to the general phenomenon of
At relatively low angles of impingement fatigue failure which is encountered in many ~.~
erosive wear occurs as a result of the cutting engineering environments, and is similarly I
or machining process and its wear rate is subject to an 'incubation period' prior to the
critically dependent on surface hardness, as appearance of surface damage.
with low stress abrasion. This form of Components that roll, or roll and-Blide,
erosion is often encountered in slurry transport against each other under high loads exhibit a
systems and shot-blasting equipment. For fatigue life that is strongly dependent upon the
such conditions the hard alloy irons, ceramics, stresses present at the component surfaces.
or chromium plating are often used successfully. These high surface stresses cause the

8
 propagation of cracks which may eventually
become joined, resulting in the formation of
large loose particles. There are two basic
mechanisms of contact fatigue, one resulting
from surface-initiated cracks and the other
from cracks initiated within the material bulk,
frequently at voids, inclusions, or hard car-
bide particles.
Contact fatigue originating from a surface
crack usually occurs on hard components in
counterformal contact when both rolling -and
sliding occur at the surface (cams, tappets,
gears, etc.). The debris formed is generally
triangular in section resulting from the acute
angle of crack propagation and steep exit angle
of the crack. This type of wear failure is
known as pitting, and when it occurs on a
rotating component it generally exhibits, at
least in the early stages, an arrowhead
appearance. An increase in surface hardness
of the component generally increases its pitting
resistance. Also, as this wear mechanism
originates from surface defects, the surface
finish is very important. These two factors
can, however, conflict in that an increase in
surface hardness reduces the surface-
adjustment tendency of the component. This
property can be critical in the production of a
suitable surface finish during running-in. It is
therefore common practice to manufacture one
of the contacting surfaces slightly softer than
the other to assist this surface-adjustment
process.
Contact fatigue, which originates from a
subsurface nucleated crack, occurs when pure
rolling, or rolling and sliding, contact gives
rise to stress concentrations in a plane
slightly below the surface. This crack
propagates parallel to the surface with sub-
sidiary surface cracks appearing. mtimately,
these minor cracks join up forming loose
rectangular particles. These particles
generally remain held in their original position
but can, in certain circumstances, fall out of
the surface. In case-hardened components
when insufficient depth of hardening exists,
this cracking frequently occurs at the interface
between the core material and the case-
hardened surface layer and may lead to severe
spalling. This type of wear mechanism also
occurs in plain bearings and is sensitive to
the bearing temperature and the availability of
lubrication. Hard materials are also desirable
in this situation, but are less conformable and
become more dirt-sensitive. As a compromise,
the material which is chosen is usually just
strong enough to give adequate performance.
- CAVITATION WEAR
Cavitation occurs when a liquid is subjected to
rapid changes of pressure causing the formation
of gas or vapour bubbles in the lower pressure
regions of the liquid. When entering areas of
higher pressure these bubbles become lIDstable
and collapse. When this occurs at a liquid/
metal interface a pressure equalisation takes
place and the continual attack on a surface by
these collapsing bubbles leads to a mechanism
of wear known as cavitation wear or cavitation
erosion. The continual implosion of bubbles at
the metal interface causes cyclic stressing and
surface fatigue of the metal surface. This
typically exhibits itself as surface pitting which
can act as a nucleation site for corrosive
attack by the liquid medium, espeCially if any
protective films have been ruptured.
This type of wear damage is normally
associated with components such as ships'
propellers, pump impellors, and water-cooled
components where a sudden change in direction
of liquid occurs. There is no direct relation-
ship between cavitation wear and the properties
of the material involved. However, at high
rates of cavitation erosion it has been shown
that materials with a high ultimate resilience
characteristic exhibit a better resistance to this
type of wear. This is essentially a measure-
ment of the capacity of a material to dissipate
the energy of the bubble implosions and can be
expressed as:
(tensile strength)2
Ultimate resilience liz - -
elastic modulus
The relative cavitation erosion resistance of
some commonly used materials is indicated
in Table 2.
CORROSIVE"WEAR
Wear is primarily a remov al of surface
material by mechanical action, which would
tend to discount any contribution from corrosion.
In many instances, however, chemical action
upon a material surface can affect the process
of mechanical wear; this is known loosely as
corrosive wear. Corrosive wear involves the
interaction of the wear surface and a corrosive
environment. Under such conditions it may be
the corrosion product which is being removed
Table 2 Resistance of various materials to
cavitation
Stellites
Nylon
Nickel-aluminium bronze
Austenitic stainless steel
t
Increasing
Stainless steels cavitation
Monel resistance
Manganese bronze
Cast steel
Bronze
Cast iron
9
more easily than, and in preference to, the
base material. This then exposes the base
material to further corrosive attack.
Conversely, in some circumstances the
corrosion product can reduce the t~ndency for
materials to wear. Thls is particularly true
of the adhesive wear process, where the wear
rate can be drastically reduced by the presence
of an oxide film.
It is therefore a fact that considerable
variation in wear rate can occur with most of
the aforementio~ed wear mechanisms owing to
the influence of corrosion. For this reason it
. reqUirement. There are, however, many
is essential to examine the environmental
conditions, and thereby determine the likelihood
of corrosion occurring, prior to making any
final decisions in terms of materials selection.
SUMMARY
When a component becomes unacceptably worn
in service it is common practice to replace it
with a new unit. Its limited service life is
accepted and allowances usually made in the
maintenance schedule for its routine replacement.
Direct replacement is often the most
economic proposition. However, in some
situatiorls there are more cost-effective methods
of 'replacement' available. It may be possible
through redesign to reduce component wear to
a more acceptable level, or indeed to make
replacement far Simpler and quicker, thus
minimising maintenance delays. Alternatively
it is possible to manufacture a new component
from a more wear-resistant material and
thereby improve its service life. In this
respect the relevant wear mechanisms, service
environment, and design limitations are all
criticai considerations in the selection of an
appropriate material.
In many instances design limitations,
operational requirements, and economics · place
restrictions on the bulk properties of a
component. However, the properties required
to combat wear are essentially specifiC to the
surface, and the use of surface treatments or
coatings may therefore afford a compromise of
those requirements. In this way it is, for
example, possible to combine good care tough-
ness with high surface hardness and wear
resistance, or to minimise component cost by
applying only a thin coating of expensive wear-
resistant alloy on a relatively cheap base
10
material. The latter technique can offer
distinct economic advantages on components
which are wear-sensitive, i. e. r equire replace-
ment after only a small amount of wear has
occurred. The maximum benefit can thus be
gained from the wear-resistant coating before
I
scrapping the cheaper base material.
A number of surface treatments, including
carburising and nitriding, have been used for
many years to enhance the service life of new
I
components and as such represent a design
surface coatings, both flame sprayed and weld
applied, which are used primarily to reclaim
I
or rebuild worn components though they 'are
equally capable of producing a wear-resistant
surface to improve life of a new component.
It is perhaps because these coating processes
lend themselves to reclamation work that they
have not been adopted as widely as they could I
be for wear protection of new components.
This poor utilisation, in part, highlights the
continuing need for communication between
engineers, tribologists, and desi~ners, not
I
only to identify and solve individual wear
problems but also to encourage the implemen-
tation of these solutions and create an aware- I
ness of their economic potential.
There is no simple panacea for wear
problems nor is there ever likely to be. Each
requires careful study and choice of a delicate
I
balance of materials properties to achieve
optimum wear resistance for specific conditions.
The final economic decision depends not only on
the relative cost : life ratio of the various
candidate materials but also on the effect that
their increased life has on the reduction of
maintenance costs and production delays.
These are particularly significant factors in
large integrated works, where the cost of
maintenance and production delays can far
outweigh that of the component which failed.
I
In this instance it may be necessary to choose
a material which will achieve not only long I; I
service life but will also suit the maintenance
frequency of the plant. A reliable and predict- ·~
able service life can therefore be as important
as a long one, and in this context the per- I, I
"" •. I1
formance of plant trials is not only valuable in i
iI···
ranking the wear resistance of competitive ~I
:. .
rna terials but also in the accurate prediction .,
J
of their service life and therefore their i
economic viability. ~II
.~~
j.:f ..;
~ Ii
I
!
~I I
~~ '
~'
3-M aterials for hardfacing
E.N.Gregory and M.Bartle

PROPERTIES OF HARDFACING ALLOYS

Hardfacing alloys have to resist wear that may
be caused by a number of factors including
abrasion, impact, erosion, heat, and corrosion,
900
any of which may act singly or in combination.
Resistance to corrosion can be obtained
by depositing alloys that do not come under the 800
, heading of hardfacing alloys, e.g. the many
.' types of s tainless steel. Such alloys are not 700
considered in this Chapter but some of the hard-
facing alloys, particularly those which are
nonferrous, also have a good resistance to 600
corrosion in certain environments. HV
Impact may be light, as when the teeth of 500
an excavator bucket encounter small loose rocks
in sandy soil, or it may be heavy, as experienced
400
by the jaws of a large rock crusher. When
sand flows down a chute wear is caused by low
stress scratching abrasion, but, when a rock 300
drill bit is rotated against a rock face under
heavy pressure, wear of the bit takes place by

- -- -- ---
high stress grinding abrasion. Widely different
properties are required by hardfacing alloys to
resist these different wear mechanisms and all
200

100
- - --
the possible combinations of abrasion, impact,
and high temperatures.
Hardfacing alloys vary in hardness from 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
250 to over 1000HV compared with about 150HV
Carbon, %
for normal constructional steels. There is,
however, much confusion over the relationship 2 Relationship between hardness and carbon content of carbon
between wear resistance and hardness and it is steels-manensitic (quenched);--pear!itic {air coo/} (after
commonly thought that higher hardness will Bullens)
always result in increased wear resistance. sand sliding down a chute, it is generally true
This is probably because under conditions of that the highest wear resistance is obtained by
simple abraSion, as in the above example of the use of the hardest available hardfacing
alloy. Similarly, a constructional alloy steel
~.r. ' ' ''_ t r
' fi \( '" "'-':-v" .~' " .- will have its resistance to simple abrasion
::..,-r.' , - ;-~__ :'~, ,:- :~'I.{ :' ~"j");.ii~ ~ increased if its hardness is increased by heat

, -~ '
." :--:# : .~1-'1(~::""- ~-L~:::..'>-:,
\---;-1-'~:..r .
'-::~~ ,~~ \ .
-.~':";"';.,},' ~
treat~~~~ver, for the same level of hardness, the
' hardfacing alloy will have a much longer life

~>" :?~Y4 S'<; \'~tt~~i~5~,; ::: t~: =':~70~~ol:a~~~~~~el,;::! t~i=~r-

;(t., . .:.;. .. ,. -,.-:~- -,~ ""'; '~..... '~-'4~ ~ t~ structures. The structure of mild steel in the
'" ' -: ' '""'I_r~~ -., " "": .,, ~ l:; .~ -,~ , ~ " }~- normalised condition, i. e. air-cooled from
~ ~..-..( ~- "> - ; ,-9~~ '-4 I 9000C . ts f f ·te d
-~~, ~~, ~~i~ -'~ ~ S~ :;.~ ~~ ;~~~~~~~F~g~ ~h::~:nes~ e;~ut
, • ...( A • - ' . ' .

r 1, and is ;;OHV.

~\~.~ ' I iI\ ~. ~ . " -~ , ~ '_.Y' :~~:n:~~~~q~:n~~~c:::C:~~i:~S t:t ~;;~n~~te

,
. ; . ~.'". .+.'-l-<1' '~:.-
. '" A ','-i_~'>- \:>1 - i.: --~-'.. ~ -ir"
J:(
_ - having a hardness that depends on the carbon
"!l.. .,
~
, ;. ' ";, \,', " , ...:. , ..r:.~ , "\t/-'"
, . ) -"t-- '" ~ ~
"' ..... . ~ . -~- ~
content, Fig.2. In mild steel with a carbon
.1 ' \ &. '--"_q j~. - >_.,:.- r~\. 7"" 1 _ ~--,-- content of 0.2% the hardness when quenched from
900 0 C is approximately 400HV, ,Fig.3. The
Microstructure of mild steel in normalised condition showing martensitic mild steel will resist low stress
ferrite and pearlite x 180 scratching abrasion better than the air-cooled

11

3 Microstructure of mild steel water-quenched from 90lPC
showing martensite x 272
pearlite mild steel because this type of abrasion
is caused by indentation of the metal surface and
increased hardness gives greater resistance to
indentation.
If the martensitic and .the pearlitic mild
steels shown in Figs 1 and 2 are held in contact
with a grinding wheel it will be found tl~at the
martensitic steel is worn away more rapidly
than the pearlitic; the order of abrasion resist-
ance is therefore reversed.
The reason that a pearlitic mild steel has
higher resistance to high stress grinding abrasion
than a martensitic can be appreciated if the
microstructure is examined in more detail.
Figure 4 shows the microstructure of one of the
areas of pearlite at high magnification. The
structure consists of alternate lamellae of ferrite
and iron carbide the latter having a hardness of
approximately 1200HV. These hard laths of iron
carbide resist the action of the grinding wheel
to a greater extent than martensite of lower
hardness and also protect the lamellae of ferrite
from wear. If fine abrasive particles are intro-
duced between the grinding wheel and the mild
4 Microstructure of normalised mild steel showing iron carbide
and ferrite lamellae in pearlite x 540
12
steel the ferritic areas may become rapidly
worn away and the iron carbides may fracture
under the high stress because of lack of support.
Therefore, the wear pattern can change depending
on the nature of the abrasive media and the level
I
of stress. A hardfacing alloy is designed to
resist a combination of abrasive conditions; the
microstructure of a typical martensitic hard-
I
facing deposit is shown in Fig. 5. The combina-
tion of a network of carbides containing chromium,
tungsten, or vanadium, etc. and a matrix of hard
alloy martensite provides resistance to both low
I '
stress scratching abrasion and high stress
grinding abrasion.
I
5 Microstructure of martensitic steel hardfacing alloy showing
chromium carbide network in matrix of martensite x 340
I
Under conditions of impact, for example
in rock crushers or on railway pOints and
crossings, the property of toughness is required
I
to prevent the removal of metal by the battering
action which occurs. ' Toughness is inversely
proportional to hardness so that the harder
hardfacing alloys will not behave well under
I
conditions of heavy impact. Their brittleness
results in small pieces of the alloy breaking
away which leads to rapid wear. Combinations
I
of abrasion and impact sometimes occur together,
as in a blast furnace charging bell in which the
heavy charge of scrap metal, pig iron, lime-
stone, and coke is dropped on to the surface ,"
of the bell. In such instances a compz:omise (I
has to be made in the selection of a hardfacing
alloy which is tough enough to withstand the I
impact but also has good abrasion resistance.
Alloys are available ranging from those of
low hardness and abrasion resistance with high
impact resistance to hard alloys having only a
low resistance ' to impact. The intermediate
alloys have useful combinations of resistance
to both abrasion and impact.
When wear takes place at elevated tempera-
tures the hardness at room temperature is even
less of a reliable guide to wear resistance
because, as the metal surface is worn away,
·< ,~ ' the high temperature promotes oxidation of the ': l
freshly ~xposed metaLor reaction with whatever: .
gaseous' or other environment is present. This
':. chemical reaction, which is in effect high tem-
perature corrosion, causes rapid wear to take
place so that hardfacing alloys for high tempera-
ture service require two properties. Firstly,
high temperature hardness which promotes
resistance to softening at the service temperature,
and, secondly, the inclusion of alloying elements
such as chromium in sufficient quantity to cause
the rapid formation of surface films resistant
to oxidation. These properties are necessary
for alloys applied to valves or valve seats operat-
ing at high temperatures, or to the seating areas
of blast furnace bells which form a gas-tight seal
with the charging hopper.
The choice of hardfacing alloy must be made
with as much knowledge as possible of the service
conditions under which the component is expected
to operate. Given this knowledge, the selection
must be made from the bewildering range of
hardfacing alloys available.
CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOYS
Hardfacing alloys can be generally classified by
dividing them into four Groups. Iron-based alloys
are separated into those containing less than
and those containing more than 20% alloy additions.
The nonferrous hardfacing alloys can be classified
as cobalt- or nickel-based and the fourth Group
consists of those containing tungsten carbides.
Typical alloy compositions classified in this way
are shown in Table 1.
An alternative system of consumables
classification has been devised by a Hardfacing
Working Party set up within the British Steel
Corporation (BSC). This classification is shown
in Table 2 and is to be included in a four-part
series of standards to be issued within BSC under
the general heading 'Applied Surfaces ,for Wear
Protection' as:
Part 1 Weld deposited surfaces
Part 2 Spray deposited surfaces
Part 3 Wear resistant linings
Part 4 Typical applications of applied surfaces
These standards are being compiled because
widespread enquiry has revealed that, even within
BSC, there have been many instances of ineffectuiil
attempts at hardfacing where it seems that there
ha ve been shortcomings in the technique or
inadequate advice available on material selection.

Table 1 Classification and composition of typical hardfacing alloys

Typical composi ti on. % AWS
Hardness, Deposition
Group Description Specification
HV method
Fe C Cr Mn Mo V W Co Ni B A5.13-70

Iron-based containing l ess than 20% alloy additions

Carbon steel R 0.5 250 Gas
Martensitic alloy steel R 0.1 0.7 250 Arc
Martensitic alloy steel R 0.1 3.5 350 Arc
Martensitic all oy steel R 0.25 1 0.3 350 Arc
Martensitic alloy steel R 0.35 3 450 Arc
Marbmsitic alloy steel R 0.45 5 0 .75 650 Arc
Martensitic stainless
R 0.1 12 400 Arc
steel
Martensitic stainless
R 0.25 13 450 Arc
steel
High speed steel R 0.8 4 0.5 2 6S0 Gas, arc Fe S-A*
High speed steel R 0.7 4 0.5 1.S 650 Gas, arc Fe 5-B*
Higb speed steel R 0. 4 4 0.5 1.5 600 Arc Fe 5-C*
Austenitic Mn steel R' 0.7 0.5 14 4 600 (max.) Arc Fe Mn-A*
Austenitic Mn steel R 0.7 0.5 14 600 (max.) Arc Fe Mn-B*

Iron-based containing more than 20% alloy addition s

Austenitic Cr Mn steel R 0.35 14 14 0.4 600 (max.) Arc
Higb s peed steel R 10 15 2.5 750 Gas
Austenitic steel R 0.1 18 500 (max.) Arc
Austenitic iron R 4 30 700 Gas~ arc Fe Cr-Al*
Martensitic iron R 2.5 28 600 Gasp arc

Nonferrous
Co-Cr-W 26 R 3 400 Gas, arc Co Cr-A
Co-Cr-W 1.4 31 R .1 500 Gas. arc Co Cr-B
Co-Cr-W 2.5 32 12 R 3 630 Gas , a rc Co Cr-C
Ni-Cr-B 0.4 11 R 2.5 400 Gas, arc Ni Cr-A
Ni-Cr-B 0.6 13 R 3 530 Gas, arc Ni Cr-B
Ni-C r-B 4 0.8 15 R 4 720 Gas, a rc Ni Cr-C
Ni-Cr-Mo-W 5 0 , 06 15 16 4 II 300 Arc AWS A5.U-69
E Ni Mo Cr-1

Carbides AWS AS.21-70

Tubular rod s 50-60% tungsten carbide gr anu les Carbides Gas WC-20/40
40-50%Fe >1BOOHV WC-40/120 etc,
4 Arc deposit Arc WC-40/120 etc.
>1000HV
Sinte red rod s 50-80% tungs ten carbide. up to 11)% > 900HV Gas, ar c

. Cr or Ni. 10-50%Fe

Also covered by AWS A5.21 - 70 'CompoSite surfaCing welding rods and electrodes I

13
 .....
>I>- Table 2 Consumable classification - British Steel Corporation

Classtftoation Typloal oomposition, % Deposited

hardness Characterlstios app110able to deposit Typloal applloations
Group Type Fe C Cr Mn Mo V W Co NI B Nb Cu Notes Vlokers, HV

Up to 250 Tough, crack-free, maohinable, low

Repair of steel oomponents
responds wear but good Impaot reslstanoe,
Carbon Bal 1.35 bu!ldup, alternate layers In
to heat Maximum buildup and buttering
steels laminated surfaces
treatment layers: by gas or electric arc welding

Properties depend on composition :

wide range mainly martensltlc struc-
Alloys
2 250-650 ture, Higher alloys: harder and
I.ow
Bal
0,1 j / j J J J J Indloated
thus
responds more wear-resistant, but lower
Punches, dies, earthmoving
equipment, gear teeth, railway
alloy 0.5 to heat alloys give touglmess and Impact
total up pOints
steels treatment reslstanoe - generally maohlnable' -
to 12%
low crack susoepUb!llty may require
pre- and post-heat treatment

Suitable for metal-to-metal wear

Alloys Improved wear reslstanoe over
~ Indloated
350-650 up to 600 0 C. High C types suitable
Martensitic
chromium
Bal
0.1
1.7
].0
15
/ / j / J thus
responds
to heat
class 112 with Increased oxidation
and corrosion resistance. Medium
for hot-work tool applications.
Shear blades, mill rolls, roll
total up Impact resistance decreasing with
steels treatment necks, crane wheels, hot-work
to 10% high C types. May require preheat
dies. and punches

Higher carbide types provide good

4 600-750 wear resistance, moderate Impaot
High 0.3 10 hot resistanoe. Suitable for elevated Hot-work dies, punches, shear
Steels speed
Bal
1.5 max.
.to 20 12
hardness temperatures. Lower oarb lde types blades, Ingot tongs
steels to 600 0 C Cor higher Impact. Generally
grlndable: anneal to machinE)

Used as ductUe buttering layer,

5 As-deposited Tough, high corrOSion, and heat
Austenitic
Bal
0.07 17 j J 7
Mo and Mil
total up to
200 up to 500 resistant with low abrasive weat;
e.g. when depositing high Mli
steels on to carbon steel base to
stainless 0.2 32 22 on work- resistance. Impact resistance
10% avoid brittle band zone, Furnace
steels hardening lower than olass 1/6
parts, ohemlcal plant

Tough, impaot-reslstant: work-

ha~ens under heavy Impact. Base
metal ooo11ng necessary during
6 Cr, Ni, As-deposited Heavy impact appl!catlons.
, Austenitic, 0.5 j 11
j j j Mo, and V 200 up to 600
welding to reduoe l!kely carbide
Crusher and excavator eqUipment ,
Bal embrlttlement. Working tempera-
manganese 1.0 16 total up to on work- railway points and crossings,
tures not to exceed 2000 C. Butter-
steels 10% hardening crusher hammers
Ing layer may be desirable on
carbon steel base metals. Aro weld
appllcatlon only

Simllar to olass 1/6 but high chro-

Austenltlo 0.3 12 12 J j J Mo, VI As-deposited mlum Inhibits carbide embrlttle-
Bal and NI 200 up to 600 ment, thus can be deposited on to Crusher and excavator equipment.
chromium 0.5 15 15
total up on work- oarbon steels: not restricted to rallway polnta and hammers
manganese
to 4% hardening 200 0 C worldng temperatures. More
steels
abrasion-resistant than class 1/6

Indloates possible presence of significant oonstltuent

f~"';~ )'o;.t.f.:r''''
\...... ~oI'.;; ~,~}~
~.;.;::~.;>: .
~..: ..,d.w) ~ll~;:j iWZlIl:¥J eil ~ (i.E iiIliJ t:fii ~ .. .. - - .. .. .. 111M
 Table 2 continued

Classification Typical oomposltlon, % Deposited

hardness Characterlstlcs applicable to deposl t Typical applioations
Group Type Fe C Cr Mn Mo V W Co NI B Nb Cu Notes Vickers, HV

300-600 Buttering layer to ohrome

Austenitic Bal 4
12 / / ! responds
High abrasion resistance, moderate
Impact resistance. Grlndable; pre-
Irons. Crushing equIpment,
20 to heat pump casings, Impellors ,
Irons and post-heat to reduce crackIng
treatment excavator teeth

Mn, Mo, V. 500-750 High abrasive wear resistance, low to Suitable for conformal contacts
2
1 j j j j j j W, Ni, Nb, responds moderate impact resistance (Ni: hard in adhesive wear situations .
Martensitlc Bal
4 10 total up to to heat type). Nb improves wear resIstance S,crapers. bucket tips, forming
irons
25% treatment In hot conditions up to 400 0 C rolls, cutting tools

V, w. Co, Very high abrasion resistance, low to

500-750
High
3 20 j j j Nb. for
responde
moderate Impact resistance. Pre-
Shovel teeth . screen plates,
chromium Bal sPecial hIgh and post- heat treatment to reduce
6 40 to heat grizzly bars, bucket Ups
austenitic temperature oracklng. Grlndable. Oxldation-
Irons treatment
Irons, applications resistant

4 Very high abrasion-resistance, low

500-750
High Impact. Good hot hardness and
2.5 20 2 responds Ball mill I!ners, scrapers,
chromium Bal oxidation resistance, Susceptible to
4.5 30 max. to heat screens, Impellors
martensltic cracking: reduced with pre- and
Irons " treatment
post-heat treatment

Extremely abrasion-resIstant wIth low

600-800
j j j j impact resIstance; latter improved by
HIgh
2 20
j j / responds
to 'heat
additIon of Nb, Good oxIdation resist- Hot wear applicatIons, e . g.
chromium Bal anoe and hot hardness to over 600 0 C screens . .s crapers.
5 40 treatment
complex with Mo am Co. Pre- and post-heat pulverisers, sInter plant
hot hardness
irons treatment to reduce cracking. ,M/ c
to 600 0 C
by grinding

Preheat 1500 -300 0 C may be necessary

for thicker sec't ions. Peening of
85 deposit for stress rel!ef, Slow cooling
2 160
NIckel min. necessary - avoid excessive local
heat - soft, machinable tough deposit,
suitable for thin sections

Preheat 150 0 -300 0 C may be necessary Classification 3/ 1, 3/ 2, and

3 for thicker sections, Peening of 3/3. General purpose buildup
2
Nickel 3 0.35 60 25 deposit for stress relief, Softer heat- buttering layer for cast irons.
Nlckel- 2. 5 130
alloys 6 0 . 55 70 30 affected zone - min. residual Cylinder blocks , gearboxes,
copper
stresses - easily machinable: strength pump housings
between classes 3/ 1 and 3/ 3

Preheat 1500 -300 0 C may be necessary

for thicker sections. Peening of
45
Nickel- Bal 2 200 deposit for stress relief. High
60
iron strength and toughness. Easily
maohlnable
f-' indicates possible presence of Significant constituent
C)1

'7"&!:Qp..:z.u:!7ug.u!'::$.:t::Ql!tit};::c(r... ..., 1.iHo-<', .....

-O:;~U'''' ·~?"t:JJ,''li ,,\<,!;('<IDSUl'~ \. '-' \~x:;'.'Il~~;)..I;) ~~""",_~.' _ __ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __
...... Table 2 continued
OJ

Classlfication Typical composition, % Deposited

hardness Characteristics applicable to ~epos!t Typical applications
Group Type Fe C Cr Mn Mo V W Co Ni B Nb Cu Notes Vickers, HV

Exoellent resistance to corroB~on,

4
Fe, C, Mo, W, erosion, and oxidation by hot gases .
Nickel- 30 Blast furnace bell and
Co, Nb, are Tough, good impaot, and thermal
molybdenum- 2.5 17 15 12 Bal 250-500 hopper seats, valves,
max. max. bu t will shock reslstanoe. Hot ha rdness up to
ohromium- dies, chemioal plant
vary 500 0 e. Wear resistance inoreases
tungsten
with alloy oontent

Resistant to abrasion, erosion, and

Nickel
alloys Nickel- ) j j j Fe, C, Mo, Si
corros ion and metal-to-metal wear Valves, seating rings,
Bal 200-750 at elevated temperatures. Additions Corge dies, pump
(cont'd) chromium- 25 total up to 10%
oC W improves high temperature shafts, chemical plant
boron
pr operties

Nlckel- 20 Primarily oorrosion- reslstant to Pumps, valves,

Bal 200-300
molybdenum- 20 30 HCI, salt spray, and alkalis chemical plant
Iron

Cobalt-
0. 7 25 3
chromium- Bal 350- 400
1.4 32 6
tungsten
low alloy

2
Cobalt-
chromium- 1.0 25 7
Bal 400-500
tungsten 1.7 32 10 Abrasion, erosion, cor roston, nnel Valve coatings, pump
medium combinations of these faotors at shafts. sleeves. Wear
4
alloy e levated temperatures . Hardness rings, hot shear
Cobalt
retained at high temperature, . blades. Ingot tongue
alloys
Manufao tu rer of speclallst guidance bits , dies. Steelworka
Cobalt- necessary on seleotion mill equipment
1.7 25 II
chromium- Bal 550-650
3. 0 35 20
tungsten
high alloy

4
Cobalt-
1.2 20 10 20
ch,romium- Bal
2.0 25 15 25
tungsten-
nickel alloys

Copper ,
Up to 40%Zn, balance Cu
zinc, Good resistance to adhesive wear,
brasses anti-seizing properties. and Bearings, s lid eways ,
reasonable corrosion resistance gears , s hafts,
Copper
propellers
alloys
Copper, P~imarily intended Cor lubricated
silicon, Up to 4%SI, balance Cu bearing applications
silicon
bronzes
indicates possible presence of significant constituents

rZ2 ~~r."J j ·;-""'1

~~: ;.:.:;.-; ..: ;; Er~~j ~~~ rzz;~jj lt~~ E:~~rm l~~£S £ff;:"~
.io\.
~ e~
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~ Iii:liI eiI !H fta 1fiJ.,
 Table 2 co~tinued
Classification Typical composition, % Deposited
hardness Characteristics applicable to deposit Typical applications
Group Type Fe C Cr Mn Mo V W Co NI B Nb Cu Notes Vickers, HV

3
Copper,
aluminium, 8-15%Al, balance Cu Good resistance to adhesive wear ,
5
aluminium anti-seizing properties, and
Copper
bronzes reasonable oorroslon resistance Bearings, slideways , gears, shafts,
alloys
(cont'd) propellers
4
Primarlly intended for lubricated
Copper,
bearing applications
tin, 4-12%Sn, balance Cu
phosphor
bronzes

+ 10 mesh
(+ 1.7mm)

2
- 10 + 20
mesh
(-1. 7mm Min. of 40% tungsten carbide normally In an iron base matrix but can
+ 74Q~m) be In a copper or cobalt matrix
Extreme wear resistance and Impact
Sinter plant high wear areas : main suction
3 Classification is according to the tungsten carbide pcrtic1e size resistance dependent on particle
fan Impellors, sinter breakers, etc.
6 - 20 + 40 size range, dispersion, and matrix
Crusher hammers, scrapers, various
Tungsten mesh The designation -10 +20 mesh means material which will pass through hardness
carbide (-745 + a sieve of 10 mesh and does not pass through a sieve of 20 mesh
150~m)
Figures in parenthesis are the corresponding nominal aperture size
4 of sieve in accordance with BS 410
- 40 + 100
mesh
(-jl90 +
1 9 °~)

5
- 100 mesh
- 150~

Fine mesh powder in suitable binder

7 / to form a paste. Applied to steel
Chromium- .base material and fused by carbon Medium abrasive sliding wear situations.

/
80 20 750-850
boron arc or gas weld technique, Very Chutes, selected fan blade applications
paste hard wear-resistant surface, low
impact resistance
f-'
"'l
/
/
/

••~.~,,,'',y''c:;.L,'''· \. '' '''· ~ ''''..·1·..~\1·; 'X: IC l'. :r"',.Ifr..'I:. " U;'""· ' ,r.!'-:-::: ' h~"':I,"T.;orA""""'~.:r~~ ... _ ._~ _____ •
"7:"":"': "" ~~"""' ''·~ ~ ~A- .'''' -'' . ~'''.~7;t - - - -- --- --- ------ .------.-
In drawing up the plans for the proposed standard
it was decided that it should contain a philosophical
element with the aim of being instructive to the
user. The document is intended to facilitate the
control · of subcontracted work and work under-
taken within BSC 's own workshops. It provides
and sets down procedures for the manufacture
of new components specifically designed for
hardfacing. giving advice on the most economic
combination of base and surface coating materials.
Effect of dilution
The chemical compositions and the hardness
levels quoted in Table 1 apply to undiluted weld
metal which would be typical of multipass welds
or the top run of a two- or three-layer weld
deposit.
The degree of dilution that occurs depends
upon the difference in chemical composition
between the weld and parent metal, the inherent
dilution of the welding process, and the welding
technique. The spray fuse process gives virtually
no penetration into the parent metal and con-
sequently dilution does not occur. On the other
hand submerged-arc welding can produce up to
40% penetration with a corresponding change in
composition of the first layer of weld metal.
Table 3 shows typical clilution levels of different
processes.
The effect of welding technique in reducing
dilution by increasing the degree of overlap of
adjacent weld beads i~ shown in Fig.6.
If an expensive high alloy hardfacing deposit
is to be applied it is obviously desirable to use
a low dilution welding process, but this is not
always possible or indeed economic because the
low dilution processes generally have low deposi-
tion rates, so that, . if large areas are to be
hardfaced, the high deposition rate processes
have to be used. In this situation dilution must
be controlled by welding technique.
1 . lO"ilu,;oo
6 Effect of welding technique on dilution
IRON-BASED CONTAINING LESS THAN 20% ALLOY
ADDITIONS / way pOints and crossings.
Carbon steel
Plain carbon .:;teel containing up to 0.5%C can
be deposited by gas or arc welding to produce
18
Table 3 Dilution levels of different welding
processes
Process Dilution, %
Spray fuse Nil
Plasma spraying Nil
Oxyacetylene <5
Powder welding <5
Manual metal-arc 10-30
Flux-cored 10-30
Submerged -arc 10-40
a weld deposit having a hardness of about 240HV
which can subsequently be heat treated to higher
hardness if required. The weld metal has high
tensile and compressive strength as well as high
impact strength. The resistance to abrasion is
fairly low and the main application of this alloy
is in building up castings of similar composition.
I
It can also be · used as a buffer layer between a
softer base metal and a harder surfacing alloy.
Very few manufacturers of consumables supply .
this type of filler metal because its abrasion
I
resistance is low and buffer layers can be made
with hydrogen-controlled basic covered electrodes
of appropriate strength.
Low alloy steels
The martensitic alloy steels are the most widely
used hardfacing alloys and are - characterised by
low cost and a wide range of properties depending
on the composition. They contain, in addition to
carbon, varying amounts of chromium, manganese,
I
molybdenum, and nickel as well as smaller
additions of tungsten and vanadium.
Molybdenum, manganese, and nickel pro-
mote hardening of the steel to form a martensitic
or bainitic matrix; chromium, molybdenum;
tungsten, and vanadium form wear-resistant
carbides. The hardness of the weld metal varies
with the composition and can range from
250-800HV. As the hardness increases there
is an increase in abrasion resistance and a
·I
h
"
'
decrease in toughness or resistance to impact.
Weld deposits having a hardness less than
300HV are machinable with normal tools but
harder alloys require special tools and some can
be shaped only by grinding. In some instances
a weld can be softened by annealing and rehardened
after machining. Typical applications for these
alloys are hardfacing agricultural and earthmoving
equipment, crushing machin!=lry, gear teeth, rail-
/
Martensitic stainless steel
The martensitic stainless steels which contain
about 12%Cr have increased heat and corrosion
resistance. Their resistance to abrasion under
metal-to-metal wear in the 300 0 -600 0 e range of
temperatures has led to their successful use for
hardfacing steel mill rolls and rollers. They
are also used in other metal-to-metal wear
situations such as roll necks and cra~e wheels, "
and the higher carbon varieties can be used to
tip metalworking tools.
High speed steels
The high speed steels classified as Fe 5-A and
Fe 5-B under the AWS system are very similar
to the H42 and H41 grades, respectively, of the
molybdenum hot work tool steels classified by
the American Iron and Steel Institute and the
Society of Automotive Engineers. The Fe 5-C
alloy has a reduced carbon content which makes
it more suitable for applications requiring greater
toughness. High speed steels are by definition
tool steels that can be used to cut metals at rapid
rates and withstand tool temperatures of
500 0 -600 0 e without softening. The hardnesses
quoted in Table 1 are those of as-deposited welds
and can be reduced to approximately 300HV by
'asuitable annealing treatment to allow machining
operations to be carried out. The weld deposit
can be subsequently rehardened by quenching and
tempering.
These alloys are used for hardfacing metal
cutting tools, hot-work dies, ingot tongs, and
other components that require wear resistance
at elevated temperatures.
Austenitic manganese steel
Weld metal containing 12-14%Mn has an austenitic
structure that is soft (200HV) but which work-
hardens at the surface to about 600HV under
conditions of heavy impact. In the soft as-
deposited condition there is little resistance to
low stress scratching abrasion, which occurs,
for example, when digging in sandy soil, and
the weld metal is steadily lapped away.
If heavy impact is involved, as with rock
crushing hammers, the weld metal deforms and
work-hardens at the surface giving high resist-
ance to further impact. This type of deposit
will also work-harden if used for digging in soil
that contains boulders, and the surface will
develop resistance to abrasion by the soil
particles. Manganese steel deposits may develop
cracks in service but this does not necessarily
reduce the life because the alloy has high resist-
ance to the propagation of cracks. This is .. ~
contrary to the behaviour of most alloys in which
a crack cons iderably reduces the stress required
for failure.
Fourteen per cent manganese steel is some-
times used in the form of cast inserts, water-
quenched from 10000C to produce a fully austenitic
structure. The inserts, which may, for example,
be in the shape of digger teeth, are welded in
pOSition and when they have worn they may either
be replaced or built up to their original dimen-
sions by hardfacing with manganese steel
electrodes.
Manganese steel castings contain 1% or
more of carbon which precipitates in the form
of carbides on slow cooling which causes
embrittlement. ~4e heat treatment involving
quenching prevents) carbide precipitation and
'·. t
produces the tough fully austenitic structure.
It is impossible to apply this heat treat-
ment to the majority of weld deposits to prevent
carbide precipitation and consequent embrittle-
{
ment so the problem is overcome by lowering
the carbon content of weld deposits to ab9ut 0.7%.
At normal weld metal cooling rates this carbon
level is held in solution in the austenite and is
not precipitated. If the cooling rate of the weld
metal is slowed down by preheating or by allowing
the component to become too hot during welding,
carbide precipitation and embrittlement can occur.
For this reason 14'% Mn steel is not available in
the form of rods for gas welding which would
produce severely embrittled weld deposits.
Both the nickel- and the molybdenum-
containing 14%Mn steel electrodes can be used
either to hardface or join manganese steel parent
metal. When hardfacing a carbon steel or a low
alloy base metal a manganese steel electrode is
likely to develop a brittle interface because of
the formation of martensitic alloys by dilution
of the weld deposit. This brittle zone may contain
cracks and will certainly develop extensive crack-
ing followed by spalling of the weld deposit if
heavy impact occurs in service. The solution
to this problem is to butter the faces of the
carbon or low alloy steel with. austenitic stain-
less steel before surfacing with the manganese
steel. In welding manganese steel inserts to
carbon steel the same problem can occur and
the weld should be made with austenitic stain-
less steel electrodes.
Austenitic manganese steel electrodes are
used where conditions of heavy impact occur in
service as in rock crushers, railway points and
crossings, or excavating equipment working in
rocky soil.
IRON·BASED CONTAINING MORE THAN 20% ALLOY
ADDITIONS
The dividing line of 20% which separates Groups 1
and .2, Table I, is purely arbitrary and from
technical considerations there is a great deal in
favour of combining the Groups into one. From
economic considerations, however, there is
.justification in separating the more highly alloyed
and therefore more expensive alloys from the
generally cheaper varieties which include the
,
\
least expensive martensitic alloy steels. ~
f
Austenitic chromium manganese steel'
!
This alloy is used for similar applications to E
the austenitic manganese steels of Group 1 but
19
I
l
f
has certain advantages over these which must
be set against the higher cost. It was developed
in the USA from the low nickel stainless steels
which were introduced during the nickel shortage
in 1952-3. In these steels each percentage of
nickel was replaced by twice the percentage of
manganese and by increasing the carbon content
to the 0.35% level the impact resistance was
markedly increased . . Because of the high alloy
I
content tbese electrodes can be used to weld
direct on to the carbon steel base metal without
the formation of a brittle martensitic interface,
and they can also be used to weld manganese steel
I
inserts direct to carbon steel. Because of the
high chromium content the weld metal cannot be
cut or gouged with a gas flame.
7 Microstructure of high chromium austenitic iron weld deposit
I
showing hexagonal chromium carbides and smaller carbides in
High speed steel
A number of high speed steels are available in
Group 2 which have a wide range of compositions
matrix of austenite {Courtesy BOC-Murex} x 175

but all contain tungsten, chromium, molybdenum,
and vanadium either separately or together.
These are used mainly for tipping the edges of
metal machining tools. Because only a small
deposit is used each time a tool is tipped the cost
per tool is low.
Austenitic stainless steel
Stainless steels which contain around 18%Cr and
8%Ni have good impact resistance and low abrasion
resistance. Their impact resistance is inferior
to that of the austenitic manganese steels and they
are also more expensive. Therefore their main
use is for buttering carbon or alloy steels before
manganese steel is deposited. As stated above
this avoids the formation of brittle alloys which
occurs at the interface between manganese steel
and carbon or alloy steels.
NONFERROUS
I
Cobalt-based
The most widely used hardfacing alloys in the
nonferrous Group are those based on the ternary
I
system cobalt-chromium-tungsten originally
developed un~erthe trade name Stellite. Cobalt
endows the alloys with hot hardness so that they
can be used at service temperatures above 600 0 C
I
without softening or deformation. The presence
of chromium forms a closely adherent oxide film
which provides oxidation resistance, and this
I
element together with tungsten brings about
appreciable secondary hardening by the precipita-
tion of carbides, Fig. 8 •
The lower carbon alloys, typified by
I
Co Cr-A in the AWS claSSification, are widely
used fo1," hardfacing the mating surfaces of valves
subject to impact at elevated temperatures. I
Examples are exhaust valves of internal com-

Austenitic and martensitic high chromium irons

Often referred to aschromium carbide types these
bustion engines for motor vehicles or aircraft,
dies, and shears for hot work. I
alloys contain about 30%Cr and the microstructure
of the deposit consi$ts of chromium carbides in
a matrix which can consist of austenite, martensite, I
or a mixture of both depending on the composition,
Fig. 7 • These alloys are available in the form
of cast rods, or steel tubes containing chromium
carbide particles, and can also be produced as a
I
chromium steel core wire with additional alloying
additions extruded into the flux coating.
Austenitic iron has excellent resistance to
loose abrasives such as sandy soil and is second
in this respect only to tungsten carbide. For
abrasion under higher stresses, i. e. by grinding
abrasion, the martensitic iron is superior and
this alloy will also withstand medium impact if
adequately supported so that it doe~_ !:!S>t deform.
Typical applications for these alloys are agri- 8 Cobalt-chromium-tungsten hardfacing alloy:
cultural machinery, mine and quarry screens A - carbides Cr~3 with edging of Cr23C6
B - eutectic of Cr~3 and C23C6 type carbides
and chutes, sand-blasting plant, and steel mill C - carbides of M~ where M maybe Co, Cr, W, Fe, Ni, or V
guides. x 225

20
 The higher carbon varieties are harder and
have higher abrasion resistance but lower resist-
ance to impact. These alloys are used for metal-
to-metal wear under abras ive conditions where
their high polish and low coefficient of friction
give good bearing properties and resistance to ,- '
indentation.

Nickel-based
The most common nickel-based hardfacing alloys
contain chromium, boron, and carbon, and have
a microstructure which consists of wear-resistant
chromium carbides and borides in a nickel-
chromium matrix. Weld deposits have high
oxidation resistance up to 950 0 C and retain
their hardness well at temperatures up to about
500 0 C. Corrosion resistance is excellent against
steam, salt water , and salt spray. Resistance
to low stress scratching abrasion is good at all
temperatures and increases with carbon content,
but resistance to high stress grinding abrasion
is low. Deformation produces cracks in the
extremely hard chromium borides (4000HV) so
that the alloys should not be used under conditions
of impact.
Typical applications involve abrasion and
corrosion at elevated temperatures and include
valves, seating rings, and screw conveyors.
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum-tungsten
These alloys are used primarily for corrosion
resistance but also have good -heat resistance.
The composition listed in Table 1 corresponds
to that of Hastelloy C, which is used extensively
for surfacing the seating areas of blast furnace
bells and hoppers, where advantage is taken of
its excellent resistance to erosion and abrasion
by hot furnace gases carrying fine abrasive
particles. This alloy has also been used S\lccess-
fully for surfacing hot-work tools such as die
blocks.
9 Oxyacetylene deposit of tube carbide (Courtesy B.0C-Murex)
geneous deposit consisting of un melted carbide
p~rticles in a steel matrix, Fig. 9. The matrix
which is formed by the steel tube contains tungsten
and carbon from incipient melting of some of the
carbide, and this alloyed matrix provides good
support for the unrnelted carbides. This type of
deposit is useful for cutting operations such as
rock drilling in which the matrix is slowly worn
away to expose the cutting surfaces of the tungsten
carbide particles.
Metal-arc deposition causes most of the
tungsten carbide granules to melt and produces
a more homogeneous alloy cast iron even when
the electrode contains the coarsest grade of
carbide, Fig .1 O. The few granules that remain
unmelted sink to the bottom of the molten pool
and, because of the degree of penetration into the
base metal, often lie below the original surface
level.
The tungsten-iron alloy has a hardness of
over 1000HV and has v~ry high abrasion resist-
ance but does not equal the extreme wear resist-
ance of the weld metal produced by oxyacetylene
deposition.

TUNGSTEN CARBIDE
Tungsten carbide has extreme wear resistance and
hardfacing rods contain tungsten carbide particles
which consist of both WC and W2C in a steel tube;
the relative amount of tungsten carbide to steel
is about 60/40. The sizes of tungsten carbide
granules vary from 200 to 8 mesh (0.0002 to 3mm)
and welding rods generally contain different
ranges of mesh sizes, e.g. 10/20, 20/30, etc.,
depending on the service conditions. The tubes
may be bare for oxyacetylene deposition and either
bare or coated for arc welding. Rods are also
available in sintered form which contain up to 80%
10 Microstructure of tungsten-iron-carbon hardfacing deposit
tungsten carbide. showing secondary W-Fe carbides and eutectic colonies in
Oxyacetylene deposition produces a hetero- matrix of martensite (Courtesy BOC-Murex) x 250

21
4- Selection of m aterials for hardfacing
E.N. Gregory
The classification of typical hardfacing alloys
into four Groups (as shown in Table 1, Chapter
2) is quite arbitrary but has some merit in
that it is simple to remember and gives some
indication of the likely cost of an alloy which
increases roughly with the Group number. The
detailed descriptions of these alloys give some
indication of their applications, but to make
rational selection easier it is helpful to compare
them in terms of their properties.
PROPERTIES REQUIRED
The main factors to conSider, apart from cost,
when choosing a hardfaCing alloy are:
1 Resistance to abrasive wear; in low stress
scratching abrasion this is synonymous
with high hardness. When high stress
grinding abrasion OC9urS the inherent wear
resistance of carbides of some sort is
necessary
2 Resistance to impact, i. e. toughness
Table 1 Comparison of pr9perties of different types of hardfacing alloy. Figures in parentheses
indicate Group to which alloy belongs
LOW - - - - - - - - - ABRASION RESISTANCE
-..
HIGH ........~--------- IMPACT RESISTANCE - - - - - - - - - - LOW
22
3. Resistance to heat and corrosion; the two
are linked together because the same type
I
of composition serves both purposes
Resistance to abrasion and impact are mutually
exclusive because high hardness is obtained at
the expense of toughness.
Consideration of the above factors is
simplified if the prinCipal types of alloy are
assembled in a chart which compares their
properties on a general basis. Table 1 shows
the most widely used types of alloy assembled
horizontally in order of increasing abraSion
I
resistance from left' to right (which shows the
corresponding decrease in impact reSistance)
and vertically down in order of increasing
I
resistance to heat and corrosion. A chart such as
this gives only a general picture because there
will be variations in heat and corrosion resist-
ance between alloys in each horizontal line, and
I
vertical lines will not necessarily intersect
alloys having similar abrasion or impact resist-
ance. In addition to this it is difficult to
---------4--- HIGH
LOW
HEAT AND
CORROSION
RESISTANCE
HIGH
' .'j
U
Table 2 General properties and applications of martensitic alloy steel . hardfacing alloys of different
hardnesses
Hardness, Abrasion Impact
HV resistance resistance
250 Low High
350 Low High
450 Medium Medium
650 High Low
800 High Low
predict the behaviour of a hardfacingalloy under
complex working conditions which could vary
from heat phis heavy impact to low stress
scratching abrasion in a corrosive environment.
Despite these limitations, Table 1 indicates the
gerieral principles that should be considered for
the selection of a suitable alloy.
This type of chart may also be of value to
the welding consumables manufacturers because,
if they list all their hardfacing alloys in this
manner, it is easy to see the gaps that should
be filled if a comprehensive and matched set
of alloys is to be marketed. Furthermore, it
is possible that the manufacturer may discover
unnecessary duplication in his range of products,
the proliferation of which may give a temporary
advantage to the enthusiastic salesman but is
not in the long-term interests of either the
supplier or the customer.
CHOICE OF ALLOY
Abrasion plus impact resistance
For various combinations of abrasion and
inpact in the absence of heat and corrosion the
low-priced martensitic alloys of Group 1 are
the first choice.
The abrasion resistance increases with
hardness and the impact resistance decreases
so that, with a range of alloys with hardness
from 250-800HV, a considerable armoury is
available in the fight against wear. Abrasion
resistanee---can be quantified by means of an
abrasion-testing machine of which a number of
laboratory types are available. Unfortunately the
results are severely restricted and apply only
to the precise conditions of wear that occur in
Typical applications
Metal-to'-metal wear: rails, shafts
axles, dog clutches; machinable
Metal-to-metal wear coupled with
abrasive particles: track links
track rollers; machinable
Metal cutting and forming tools, e. g.
shear blades for cropping steel bar;
machinable with special tools
Excavator buckets and teeth;
bulldozer blades, crusher jaws and teeth;
agricultural implements; cane and bean
knives, ripper teeth; unmachinable, must be ground
Brickmaking equipment; cane and bean knives,
ploughshares, ballast tampers, mill hammers;
unmachinable , must be ground
,,<t:~
the test and bear little or no relation to the .. ..r--: '
results that are obtained in service. Likewise
impac t strength, as measured in a Charpy
impact testing machine, is associated with the
energy required to break a notched specimen
and cannot be related to the impact blows in
service which tend to deform the surface of a .-
"r -,
component and result in cracking and chipping
of that surface.
In hardfacing we are not concerned with
precise numerical values of ab~asion or impact
resistance, although the hardness level will
give some indication of whether the wear
resistance in terms of low stress abrasion or
of impact is high, medium, or low.
Table 2 shows some typical applications
of martensitic low alloy steel hardfacing
deposits. These alloys are available in the form
of covered electrodes or as tubular wires.
Maximum abrasion resistance
For extreme abrasion resistance tungsten
carbides are used either in the form of tube
carbide or sintered rods. The maximum abra-
sion resistance is achieved when a large volume
of unmelted tungsten carbide granules is
obtained in the weld deposit and when there is
minimum dilution of the weld by parent metal.
The m a.x imum recovery of carbide granules
occurs when the oxyacetylene or the TIG-
welding process is used. Alternatively, an
automa tic arc welding process with a consum-
able s teel filler wire can be used if the car-
bide granules are added to the weld pool
behind the arc.
These tungsten carbide granules supported
in a high strength matrix become exposed as it
23
wears away and act as very efficient cutting
surfaces in operations such as rock drilling.
Tungsten carbide alloys find widespread
use in oil well drilling, coal and mineral
mining, and quarrying in which the many types
of drill bits used have their lives ext~nded con-
siderablyby hardfacing. Tool joints in drill-
pipes are also protected by hardfacing with
tungsten carbide. The tough surface presented
by the tungsten carbide granules has also
proved most advantageous for providing nonslip
surfaces for horseshoes.
For the most suitable selection of the
mesh size of carbide in the tubular welding rod
or electrode the advice of the electrode manu-
facturer should be sought because this choice
will depend on the practical application experi-
ence which is built up by each manufacturer.
Tube carbide rods deposited by the
manual metal-arc (MMA) process produce sub-
stantially homogeneous welds with most of the
primary carbides melted. The resultant tungsten
alloy steel deposit has lower abrasion resist-
ance than a weld containing unmelted carbides,
and is not as suitable for applications in which
the cutting properties or extreme abrasion
resistance of tungsten carQide granules are
required.
In fact .t he applications of homogeneous
tungsten carbide deposits are not well defined.
The arc welding electrodes were developed
from the oxyacetylene welding rods by covering
them with flux, presumably on the assumption
that similar deposit charaCteristics could be
obtained in combination with a faster welding
process. This hope has certainly not been
realised despite the claims of some suppliers
that the use of low weldirg currents and
correct, but undefined, electrode manipulation
would limit solution of the tungsten carbide
granules.
Whatever the arc power and however the
electrode is manipulated the majority of the ·
carbide granules which pass through the arc
are melted, and the weld should be considered
as a high hardness martensitic alloy steel
having very good abrasion resistance and low
impact resistance. This difference between
the arc and oxyacetylene deposits of tungsten
carbide types accounts for their relative posi-
tions in the top line of Table 1.
The high tungsten deposit has much better
heat resistance than the oxyacetylene weld in
which the primary tungsten carbide particles
become oxidised rapidly at around 500 0 C.
However, the arc deposit is not generally used
for heat-resisting applicatiOns.
The austenitic and martensitic irons often
referred to as the chromium carbide types have
slightly lower abrasion resistance than the
tungsten carbide types but are somewhat cheaper
and are used extensively in earthmOving and
24
quarrying operations. Because of their
increased heat resistance they can be used for
some hot wear applications such as hot coke or
I
iron ore sinter chutes .
Maximum impact resistance
I
The 14%Mn steels, one of which also contains
14o/o Cr, have the maximum resistance to heavy
impact and are therefore entered at the left-
hand side of the top line of Table 1. These
I
alloys do not soften on heating but, as explained
before, become embrittled because of carbide
precipitation, and therefore have poor heat
resistance. These alloys are available as
covered electrodes or tubular wires for ar.c
deposition only, because oxyacetylene welds
would become embrittled Owing to the high heat
input and low cooling rate.
Heavy impact in service is often accom-
panied by abrasion, as in rock crushers in
which the hammers produce large quantities of
abrasive dust. Abrasive conditions are there-
fore present right at the start of the crushing
operation and may wear away the corners of
I
the hammers. If these are made of cast
14%Mn steel, or consist of a carbon steel base
hardfaced with 14%Mn steel, the corners may
I
be rapidly worn by abrasion before work-
hardening by impact has had a chance to build
up abrasion resistance. It is common practice
to protect the working faces of hammers with
I
an abrasion-resistant weld deposit until they
are run in, and the high chromium irons are
often used for this purpose.
The necessity to run in manganese steel
before it is used under abrasive conditions was
demonstrated in World War 2 when tank tracks
made from this alloy bella ved well in the
desert if they had been used on metalled roads
beforehand. Replacement tracks fitted in desert
workshops wore out much more rapidly.
Although the impact resistance of the 18-8
chromium-nickel steel is high and it work-
hardens in service, it is not as good as the
14%Mn steel for resistance to heavy impact and
tends to deform to a greater extent in the
initial stages of work-hardening. It can be
used to hardface components subject to shock
loading in service such as wobbler or spade
ends of reversing mills.
Abrasion plus impact plus heat resistance
If any degree of heat resistance is required, as
in rolling mills, e.g. primary mill rolls,
pinch rolls, or table rolls, martensitic low
alloy steel weld metal may be used from
Group 1 provided it contains a minimum of 5%Cr;
although higher heat resistance and hot strength ,
is obtained by the use of one of the martensitic f:l,.
stainless steels which come in the second n
[j
horizontal line of Table 1.
~ I
0': I
-·-' 1
" I
I
 ,/

The 18-S Cr-Ni stainless steel is also

useful for resistance to heat and high impact,
for example in work rolls of primary mills,
although its main use is as a buffer layer on
mild or low alloy steel before depositing 14%Mn
steel.

Maximum heat and corrosion resistance

The cobalt- and nickel-base alloys have the
highest heat and corrosion resistance and come
in the bottom line of Table 1. As described
previously both types contain a range of alloys
having high abrasion or high impact resistance,
depending on the composition, so that there is
considerable overlapping of the alloys .
The wear resistance of these alloys will
depend on the precise service conditions, such Deposition by oxyacetYlene welding of Co·Cr·W alloy on internal
as type of atmosphere and temperature of seat of 100mm Mo steel globe valve body used for high temper-
ture, high pressure, steam. 3()()O-3500C preheat provided by gas
operation, and the most suitable choice of burners and maintained during welding by surrounding with fire
alloy should be left to the manufacturers who bricks. Normalising, machining, grinding, carried out after weld·
have built up wide experience over many years. ing (Counesy Deloro Stellite [UK] Ltd)

APPLICATION OF HARDFACING ALLOYS

Great economies can be obtained by ~he correct
application of hardfacing alloys some typical
examples being shown in Figs 1~7. In the
reclamation of a worn component to its original
size it is important to appreciate that many
hardfacing alloys are not designed for the
deposition of thick weld deposits and should be
restricted to a thickness of two or three
layers or up to a maximum of Smm. This
applies particularly to the harder alloys which
are susceptible to cracking in multilayer
deposits, whereas the lower hardness alloy
steel or 14%Mn steel alloys can be built up in
heavy deposits without difficulty.
It is, however, more economical to
replace the majority of worn metal by welding
to within 6 to Smm of the final surface level
by the use of basic covered ferritic electrodes
of the types covered by BS 639: E51--B;
AWS A5.1-69:E7016; ISO 2560:E51-B.
2 Sheepsfoot tampers being hardfaced with high alloy material by
Generally, an electrode having a tensile
f1ux-cored arc welding (Counesy Stoody Company)
strength of 550N/mm 2 will be satisfactory.
Hardfacing alloys used to form the cutting
edges of tools or knives are deposited in
recesses machined into the edges of the com-
ponent so that the cutting edge is well
supported. If an alloy having a high hardness,
say 650HV or more, is used for surfacing the
edge of a shear blade or a die, deformation of
the base metal sometimes occurs under the
heavy pressures that arise during service.
This leads to mushrooming and spalling of the
hard deposit; this can be prevented by machin-
ing the recess in the tool deep enough to
accommodate three or four layers of weld
metal deposited from different electrodes,
3 Machined runout table rolier.; 300mm diameter x 1800mm long
chosen so that the hardness increases gradually hardfaced by automatic welding with Bulkweldprocess. Average
from the base metal to the final surface. This depth of wear O.15mm after processing three million tonnes of
technique distributes the working stresses over strip in six years (Counesy TriMay Engineering Co. Ltd)

25

4 Steel mill roll journal built up with Cr-Mo-Mn alloy steel deposit
(Coutesy Stubs Welding Ltd and Dowding and Mills Ltd)
5 Granite crusher hardfaced with high Cr-C alloy electrode
(Counesy Stubs Welding Ltd)
a larger area and the hardface is adequately
supported.
Hardfacing components such as knives and
ploughshares is generally restricted to one
side only so that the unprotected side wears
away and the cutting edge is maintained by this
self-sharpening action.
Large areas such as the surfaces of
excavator buckets or impellors do not require
to be ha-rdfaced all over. Local protection
applied in a criss-cross or herringbone pattern
is generally quite adequate, and in earthmoving
operations the spaces between the ridges
sometimes become filled up with hard packed
earth which protects the underlying metal.
26
I
I
t
6 Excavator bucket teeth hardfaced with high Cr-C alloy electrode
I
(Counesy Stubs Welding 'Ltd)
I
I
7 Coal cutter picks oxyacetylene tipped with tube carbide
{Courtesy BOC-Murex}
I
To deal with loose gra vel or rocks that
do not compact easily the spaces between the
ridges of hard metal must be reduced. When
I I
':-
large areas are subject to abrasion it is some-
times economical to protect them with wear-
resistant plates or tiles which have been
hardfaced by automatic welding and bolted or
I
welded into position. The walls of shot-blasting
cabinets have been protected in this manner.
HEAT TREATMENT
When hardfacing medium carbon or low alloy
steels with Group 1 iron-based alloys containing
less than 20% alloy content, preheating is
generally necessary to prevent hydrogen-induced
cracking of the heat-affected zone (HAZ). This-
does not apply to the deposition of 14%Mn steel
which should cool as rapidly as possible to
prevent weld embrittlement.
 The preheating temperatures are generally
lower than would be used for making welded
jOints in the same parent metal because hard-
facing consists of bead-on-plate deposits which
gi ve rise to the lowest restraint of any type of
weld. For example, hardfacing medium carbon
steel rails is carried out with a preheat of
lOOoC whereas a butt weld in the same
material would require a preheat of 200 o C.
Higher preheats are required when
depositing the harder alloys because they are
more brittle, and preheating reduces the
differential contraction on cooling of the base
and weld metals and prevents cracking of the
low ductility deposit. The level of preheating,
which should be applied to mild as well as
hardenable steels, can· be up to 5000 C for the
deposition of alloys of 600HV and higher.
Post-heat treatment is sometimes required
either for the reduction of residual stresses or
to soften hardened HAZs. If a hardfaced com-
ponent in a high hardenability low alloy steel
is to be subjected to shock loading in service
a quite complex and carefully controlled heat
treatment cycle may be required.
When welding tool steels which are heat
treated after welding an electrode must be
chosen to produce a weld deposit that will
respond to heat treatment in the same way as
the tool material. This does not mean that the
weld metal should have the ·same c()mposition
as the tool steel, but it should be able to
tolerate the same heat treatment cycle whether
it is oil, water, or air hardening.
27
5-Met allurgical aspect s of weld surfacing I
D. J. Ellis and S. S. Peate
I
In modern industry increasing use is being made of surfaced materials as a means of achieving the
I
optimum balance of strength, special surface properties, and economy.
The factors which affect the choice of process and surfacing material for a specific application
are quite complex, because no single factor is overriding. When consideration is being given to
weld surfacing components the questions when, why, and how must be asked. The following
I
checklists may be helpful as a guide to answering some of these questions.
CHECKLIST 1 - THE DECISION TO WELD SURFACE I
Stages Factors to be considered Further information
1 Establish facts i

ii
Materials currently used

The ,actual or anticipated

operating conditions of the
Seek advice from experts if
uncertain
Determine the principal reason
I
for sUrface deterioration, wear,

iii
components
Actual or anticipated life
erosion, corrosion, and oxidation
Consult maintenance, service,
I
of component and performance records
iv

v
Minimum economic life
required
Consequential costs that
Ask the user

can result from surface
deterioration
Examine:
I
(a) cost of replaceme~t
(b) labour costs for replacement
(c) lost production costs
I
(d) cost of consequential
damage to other equipment
(e) time scale for replacement
(f) extended customer delivery
date
I
/
"

2 Evaluation of options Change operating conditions Seek advice from experts if

to reduce surface damage necessary

(a) for new design

Ii

iii
Hold extra spares

Change the design and/ or

Seek advice from experts if
necessary
(a) select materials with
I
materials to achieve improved surface proper-
improvement in surface
performance and reduction
ties pos sibly at greater
prime cost
I
of cost (b) consider weld surfacing

(c)
and changes in material of
component(s)
consider metallurgical and
I
mechanical aspects arising
from (a) and (b)
(d) simplify design to facilitate
servicing
(e) incorporate scope for fJ
salvage schemes for parts a!
subject to surface
-deterioration '

(b) existing designs 1 Metallurgical Consider the implications of

weld surfacing, 1. e. previous
thermal his tory, carbon
equivalent, pre/post-heat treat-

28
 nient needed, and metallurgical
compatibility of base and sur-
facing material with respect to
heat treatment response

ii Is weld surfacing feasible? Is the design of the existing

component with respect to size
geometry and access suitable
for weld surfacing?
iii Is weld surfacing Examine factors affecting the
economical? cost of surfacing

3 Decision Cost/benefit analysis Assess the facts and seek

giving a ranking to the expert advice in high cost areas
options open and risks
involved
ii In-service assessment (for If possible carry out full-scale
salvage action on 'one-off' tests, especially where con-
components no such testing sequential cost of failure is high
is possible)
CHECKLIST 2 - BASE MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS

General factors
Surfacing process available
Available forms of particular surfacing alloys
Weight of coating to be applied
Previous methods of fabrication
Processes available on the shopfloor may limit
available options
Som!,!, alloys are available for one or two
prooesses only
Choose appropriate process, consider deposition
rate
Welding, brazing, soldering, shrink bolting,
could fabrication fail during surfacing?

Component, size, base material

Limitations imposed by adjacent areas Are heat-sensitive parts near by?
Previous thermal history Will mechanical properties of base materials
be damaged?
Hardness of base metal Affects surfacing preparation possibilities and
choice of surfacing methods
Machinability Can limit choice of surfacing technique
Strength of component at high temperature May need precautions to limit thermal cycle

Metallurgical and chemical properties of base metal

What is composition of the base material?
Have dissimilar metals been used in
manufacture?
Has surfacing been carried out previously?
Has any previous surface treatment been given?
How much residual stress is locked up in the
part?
Is the metallurgical condition of component
important?
Possibly the most important question in weld
surfacing
Can provide unexpected problems
Can it 'be rebuilt or must the existing surfacing
be removed?
May restrict surfacing technique - can original
surface be removed?
Will the component distort on heating; need it
be stress relieved prior to surfacing?
Need specific metallurgical structures be
preserved or developed?

Physical considerations relating to the base metal

Coefficient of thermal expansion Will expansion of the surfacing be similar -
distortion?
Thickness of buildup needed Consider most appropriaie surfacing material
and process
Thermal mass The thickness of base material and severe
cross-sectional changes are significant factors

29
CHECKLIST 3 - FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF CONSUMABLES
Several surfacing alloys may often be selected to meet the conditions of the application. Some may
perform better than others, they may vary in price, different application processes may be
required, and so on. Below are listed, without specific order, many of the considerations which
will assist selection.
Properties required of applied surface
General factors
What is the service temperature?
What is the working environment?
Are testpieces needed?
Is dimensional rectification needed prior to
surfacing?
Will future repairs be needed?
Will surfacing repairs be needed?
Can the base material be changed to improve
weldability ?
General factors
What is the overall function of the surface?
What are the permitted defects?
Microhardness needed in deposit
Microstructure needed
Resistance to: Abrasion
Corrosion
Oxidation
Erosion
Seizure
Is coefficient of friction important?
What impact forces encountered in use?
Is thermal conductivity important?
Is electrical conductivity important?
CHECKLIST 4 - PROPERTIES REQUIRED OF COATING
Fusion to base material
Is cracking in the surfacing permissible?
Are interactions with base metal deleterious?
General factors
Structure required in surfacing alloy
MachinabilIty of surfacing
30
Comments
Look for required properties in the surfaCing
alloys
Corrosive, oxidising, abrasive, etc?
What conditions have to be accommodated?
Important if difficulties are anticipated i I
Some materials can be built up again, others
need removal before reclamation
Ensure process and consumable availability
Often enables the choice to be extended and
better alloys selected !
Comments
I J
'Wear' is a complicated problem, the particular
I
environme.n t must be critically assessed
Ensure standard can be met
Often specified but may not accurately determine
'wear' resistance
Resistance to a heavy metal load needs a
different structure from, say, high stress
abrasion
High stress? Low stress? Rubbing or impact?
Often affected by minor alloying elements;
consider service stresse~ in relation to stress ,
corrosion
Wet or dry? Static or dynamic?
Solid? Liquid or gaseous?
I
Mating surfaces and conditions are important
Can be very low with many surfacing alloys
Has toughness to compromise hardness; is
subsurface toughness an advantage?
At times yes; a thermal barrier can be
engineered
Bond properties, conductivity of surfacing
material
Penetration and dilution depends on process
Can widen scope in choice of process as well
as of alloy
If so process must minimise heat input and
dilution with base material
Comments
Electrode wires and fluxes significantly affect
microstructure of deposit
Deposit finish is an important factor; heating
and cooling rates can affect hardness of
surfacing
Is degradation of surface in service a problem? Process time/temperature can modify surface
Need deposit metallurgy by controlled? Process temperature can alter composition/
structure significantly
CHECKLIST 5 - FINISHING NEEDED ON DEPOSIT

What surface finish is necessary? Can the part be used I as-deposited ' ; need it be
machined?
How much distortion is permissible? Must heating be uniform; must it be minimal?

i
i

I
I

I
I
E
~
~
~

I
31 r
!
r
f
6...,Weld surfacing processes
A. M. Horsfield
The purpose of this Chapter is to give a
general introduction to the subject of weld
surfacing by the arc welding processes. Other
material covering more specific applications
will be found in subsequent Chapters.
INTRODUCTION
Weld surfacing is a process in which a metal
is deposited on the surface of a base metal
either to build it up to the dimensions required
or to impart special surface properties such
as resistance to wear, abrasion, impact, or
corrosion. It can be used in maintenance and
repair applications to reclaim worn parts, or
it can be used as part of the production process
in the manufacture of new articles.
In both these situations the primary object
is to save money and materials, and what
started out as a process for making an emerg-
ency repair until a new part could be obtained
is today an economic tool enabling manufacturers
and users to cut costs by reducing the consump-
tion of expensive metals such as chromium,
nickel, molybdenum, tungsten, and niobium.
A piece of chemical plant made from
S"Omm thick acid-resisting stainless steel could
often be replaced by one made from 70mm
thick unalloyed structural steel, weld clad with
an Smm layer of the same aCid-resisting
stainless material with appreciable savings in
cost. Instead of stainless steel other materials
such as nickel, Inconel, or even aluminium
b-ronze can be used according to the environment
and service conditions to which the object will
be exposed. Complex, relatively expensive
wear-resisting alloys can be deposited on
carbon-manganese steels to give properties as
good as or better than those obtained from
castings of the same wear-resisting alloy.
This technology has been successfully
applied to steel mill rolls and will be described
in more detail in Chapter 7.
Worn parts are often expensively replaced
instead of being reclaimed by welding. Not
every worn component can be reclaimed
successfully, but before consigning anything to
the scrap heap one should ask oneself the
question: Is it possible to reclaim this by
welding? It is no longer economically sensible
to throwaway worn parts which could be
salvaged by welding, and, although maintenance
and repair welding has grown very much during
the past decade, there is still much to be done.
32
I
I
I
REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
Most reasonably large manufacturers have a
Maintenance Department responsible for keeping
the production units running, partly by
preventive maintenance schemes and regul.-ar
servicing of machinery and partly by repairing
worn equipment and making emergency repairs
I
when a stoppage occurs.
Welding naturally plays a big part in such
work, particularly for emergency repairs or
I
building up worn parts, but unfortunately in far
too many situations such work is regarded as
a temporary expedient 'to keep the wheels going
round until we can get a replacement part' ..
I
I
Today this attitude is wrong in that it
neglects the advances which have been made in
welding technology and thus wastes resources
which could be more profitably employed
elsewhere .
In heavy engineering it has been common-
place to scrap a component once its useful life
I
is over; a fact which a visit to the scrapyards
in any large industrial city will confirm.
USing the welding techniques available today
I
many a scrapped component could have been
reclaimed at least once thus doubling or trebling
its useful life. .
Why then is it so difficult to persuade
I
management to abandon the throwaway philoS-
ophy and adopt a save and reclaim policy?
There are several reasons why this
should be so, and they will be dealt with under
the following headings:
1 Lack of awareness of what can be done
I
2 Fear that the reclaimed part will fail
prematurely
3 The assumption that the cost of a repair
operation will exceed or at any rate
approach very closely the cost of a new
component I
Lack of awareness of what can be done
~
"By this is meant lack of awareness at mana-
gerial level that welding materials and tech-
~
niques are available to weld most metals
including cast iron. The problem here is to ~
?~.~
get the message home to the right person, ~
which means starting as near the top as
;
possible. As most welding manufacturers !;
H 11
know, this is not always easy and calls for ~
!j
:;:. .:
persistence and a different approach from that g
~
(;1
~I ~J
~
~]
~ sa
I
needed to sell filler materials for welding mild
and low alloy steels.
Fortunately, in the large heavy engineer-
ing concerns there is a growing awareness of
the need to reclaim equipment wherever
possible; small and medium-sized engineering
companies are often more difficult to approach.
Fear of premature failure of the repaired part
By this is meant the suspicion that welding will
only make things worse. This attitude is
common amongst Production Managers who at
some stage in their career have been obliged
to learn something about welding. They have
heard about things such as carbon equivalents
and the fact that precautions should be taken
if the carbon equivalent exceeds 0.45, and are
therefore very difficult to convince that certain
commonly used medium to high carbon steels
can be welded with any degree of success.
It is also unfortunate that, when a repair
weld does fail, it attracts far more attention
than the hundreds of successful welds whose
service life exceeds expe'ctations.
It is worth mentioning here that the
causes of failure are often obvious to the
specialist and can usually be traced to ignor-
ance in the choice of either the filler material
or the welding technique or both.
The weld can be regarded as four distinct
zones, Fig.l:
1 Metal A: base material unaffected by the
welding process
2 Metal A: heat-affected zone
heat from welding has been
cause structural changes in
If the heat input is high the
itself be further subdivided
3 Mixed zone: first weld layer whose com-
position consists of approximately 70%
filler metal and 30% base material.
These figures depend very much on the
welding process and welding parameters
used. Dilution, i. e. the percentage of
base material in the deposit, can be any-
thing from lO to 60%. As a general rule
it should be kept as low as possible
Four zones across welt'! area: metal A is base material, metal B is
weld surfaced material
4 Metal B: i. e. more or less undiluted
filler Iretal which gives the desired sur-
face properties. Naturally the influence
of the base metal becomes less as the
number of layers is increased. Normally,
after the third layer, the weld metal is
almost entirely free from base metal
It is quite clear that the composition and
state of the base material are going to affect
the properties of the first layer of weld metal
deposited since the first layer will always be
diluted with the base material. To avoid
possible difficulties it is therefore highly
desirable to know the composition of the base
metal, particularly its carbon content, before
attempting a repair. The carbon content can
have a great effect on the hardness of the first
layer, particularly if the surfacing composition
is a low carbon chromium-molybdenum type.
There is also a risk of cracking in the HAZ if
the cooling rate is too fast, and a rutile elec-
trode was used instead of one that was basic
covered. If the base metal compositi~n is
known it enables the best electrode to be
selected and the optimum welding procedure
and heat treatment to be worked out. If the
base material is particularly difficult to weld
it may be necessary to find a compatible
material to use as a buffer layer (often a fully
allstenitic stainless type) before depositing the
final layers.
If troubles are going to occur they usually
do so in the first layer, but it is possible that
the defects will not be noticed until subsequent
layers have been deposited. The increased
(HAZ). The
level of contraction stresses and residual
sufficient to
stresses may then cause cracks to open up.
this region.
Two types of surfacing application were
HAZ can
mentioned in the Introduction, 1. e. reclaiming
worn and the production of new parts. Most
cases of failure occur in the former group for
the simple reason that the object in question is
made from a material whose composition is
usually unknown. The person responsible for
the repair has therefore probably made a guess,
or at the most done a spark test, and arrived
at the wrong conclusions, thus greatly increas-
ing the likelihood of using the wrong filler
material and the wrong welding technique.
If the maker of the part is known the
first step should be to contact him and ask for
the composition of the part in question. When
this is not possible a chemical analysis and
metallographic examination should be carried
out wherever possible, and all cracks (including
subsurface ones) should be removed completely
before attempting a repair. This means that
the part must be carefully tested nondestructively
and thoroughly cleaned and degreased before
welding. ..
Where weld surfacing or hardfacing is an
33
integral part of the design of the component
the problems are much simpler, since the
welding metallurgist cim now select the
materials he needs to give the desired results.
He can in fact go a stage further and design
the component for subsequent reclamation after
a calculated amo).IDt of wear has occurred.
This is a very important concept which
could save many millions of pounds annually if
only it was adopted more widely.
Components subjected to wear should be
designed in such a way that. they can
be resurfaced economically after a
predetermined amount of wear has taken
place
Of course not everything can be designed in
this way, but it is being applied to steel mill
rolls with very promiSing results. Other suit-
able objects which could be dealt with in a
similar way are blast furnace bells and hoppers,
crane wheels, crushing hammers, hot shear
blades, etc.
The big advantage of planned reclamation
is that the useful life of the object can be
increased many times at a cost little greater
than that of the original component. Component
life can thus be maximis~d and costs minimised.
It is in this field, i. e. the design of parts for
fabrication and subsequent reclamation by weld-
ing, that much work remains to be done.
The cost of repair is too great compared with the
cost of a new part . For example, at 800A the deposition rate is
This is often given as the reason for not
attempting a resurfacing or repair operation on
a worn component, but before deciding whether
this assumption is true it is first of all
necessary to decide which welding process is
the most . economical. There are three arc
welding processes to choose from:
1 t. Manual welding with MMA electrodes
2 Gas-shielded metal-arc (GMA) welding
using alloyed wires (either solid or
tubular*). Usually carried out under a
gas shield of argon, C02, or argon/C0 2
mixtures, but wires are also available
which require no gas shield or external
flux
3 Submerged-arc welding using alloyed wires
(solid or tubular) and plain or alloyed
fluxes
The choice of process depends first of all upon
availability of suitable filler material com-
positions, and it is here that MMA welding
*When tubular wires are used the process is
sometimes refelTed to as flux-cored arc
welding.
34
using covered electrodes offers the widest
range.
Solid wires for GMA or submerged-arc
welding are available in a restricted range of
compositions, but metal-filled tubular electrodes
are available in quite a wjde range. Tubular
wires of the self-shielding type are also
available in a wide range of compositions.
In stainless cladding using wire, solid
wires are available for GMA and submerged-
I
arc welding . in all the standard qualities, and
the same applies to strips for strip cladding.
Assuming that suitable filler material is
available the next factor to influence the choice
of process is the size and configuration of the
workpiece and the type of surfacing operation
to be carried out.
SUBMERGED-ARC WELDING
For a workpiece such as a large steel mill roll
I
in which the weight of surfacing material to be
deposited is measured in tonnes rather than
kilograms it is essential to use a high
deposition process such as submerged-arc,
I
preferably with twin electrodes connected to
the negative pole of a DC power source.
With such a system, deposition rates up
I
to 25kg/hr at 1200A are possible for each weld-
ing head. Note that negative polarity has two
advantages: it decreases penetration into the
base material and increases the deposition rate
of the electrode by an appreciable amount.
about 9kg/hr electrode positive and 13kg/hr
electrode negative.
Since in most instances a certain working
temperature has to be maintained, and it is
usually better to weld the job to completion
without stopping, the increased deposition rate
on negative polarity is very valuable apart
from savings in labour costs.
I
Blast furnace bells and hoppers have been
reclaimed using the submerged-arc process in
a so-called twin-hot/twin-cold system, i. e. twin
current-carrying wires are used in the normal
way, but two non-current-carrying wires are
fed into the arcs to increase deposition rate
and decrease dilution. The current-carrying
wires are normally connected to the negative
pole, the cold wires being accurately fed into
each arc at a predetermined rate.
Deposition rates varying from 30J<g/hr at
llOOA to 42kg/hr at 1400A can be obtained by
this process. Since the amount of weld metal
'..
D
~
,-
J '
to be deposited in this application can be about
5000kg, deposition rate is clearly important
if the surfacing operation is to be economic.
In twin-wire welding the electrodes are
fed through the same contact nozzle and are
thus electrically in parallel. The welding
currents quoted above are thus divided evenlY
between each electrode. A series of curves
showing the deposition rate for different modes Table 1 Submerged-arc welding
of submerged-arc welding is given in Fig. 2.
The wires used are metal-filled tubular types Main characteristics
4mm diameter; the deposition rates would be
somewhat lower with solid wires. 1 Fully automatic process
. The submerged-arc process has also been 2 High deposition rates (15kg/electrode/hr)
used to surface small diameter shafts. In such 3 Wide range of consumables available
cases a single electrode is used since there 4 Excellent deposit appearance; minimum
are difficulties in supporting a large weld pool fintshing required
on small diameter workpieces. An advantage 5 Equipment expensive
of the submerged-arc process is the ease with 6 Regular maintenance of equipment
which it can be mechanised. necessary
The main characteristics of submerged- 7 Suitable for workshop use only in sub-
arc welding are summarised in Table 1 .. stantially fixed installation ,although
special portable equipment for "in situ
GAS-SHIELDED METAL-ARC WELDING
deposition is available
This process, sometimes referred to as metal 8 High penetration and dilution but can be
inert gas (MIG) welding, can be used for semi- reduced by appropriate procedure and
automatic welding or in fully mechanised technique
systems using solid or metal-filled tubular 9 Generally limited to simple round or flat
wires. As with the submerged-arc process components
the choice of solid wires is limited because 10 Strip electrodes and equipment available
many of the highly alloyed compositions needed for strip cladding
for hardfacing are difficult or impossible to
produce in wire form. It is for this reason Typical applications
that tubular wires made from a mild steel
sheath with the alloying elements in the form 1 Steel mill rolls and rollers
of metal powder placed inside are being used 2 Crane wheels
in increasing quantities. Such material is 3 Shafts
4 Blast furnace bells and hoppers
50
48 easy to draw or roll to the required diameters,
46 and an increaSingly wide range of compositions
44 is becoming available. The process can also
42
Twin hot - twin cold 40mm extension be used without shielding gas using the so-
Electrode negative called self-shielding or open-arc type of
40
tubular wires. A comprehensive range of
38 Cold electrode feed
compositions is available, and, as external
36 speed 900-1400mm/min
shielding is unnecessary, longer wire extensions
34
can be used to improve the deposition rate.
32 Where very high deposition rates are
30 concerned GMA welding cannot compete with
'- 28 the multiwire submerged-arc process described
--
.<::
t J)
.Yo 26 in the previous Section. It can, however,
~ 24 compete with the single-wire submerged-arc
e process and the small diameter shaft could
c 22
...
0

.~ 20 easily have been clad, using tubular electrodes

a.
18
and a shielding gas. "
'" 150mm electrode
0
extension The most promising applications for GMA
16
Sing"le electrode welding are those in which the workpieces are
14 negative fairly small or where the area to be clad is
12
small and irregular so that a visible arc is
10 essential. Here the choice is either stick
8 electrodes (MMA) or GMA. In terms of
6 deposition rate GMA is superior to MMA
4 welding. A normal stick electrode, 4mm
2 40mm extension diameter, will deposit about 1. Bkg weld metal
per hour actual arc time. Using a 2.4mm
100 300 500 700 900 1100 13001500
diameter flux-cored wire about 4-:- 8kg/hr can
Welding current, A be deposited.
Figures obtained from Commission AG 5
2 Deposition rate for different modes of submerged-arc welding of CEFE (a European committee representing

35
filler material manufacturers) have shown that
the cost of the weld metal deposited by the
GMA process is approximately half that of MMA
weld metal. The calculation, . which was made
in the Netherlands, took into account:
Labour cost
Depreciation of we lding plant
Gas consumption
Power consumption
Efficiency of flux-cored wires (85%)
Duty cycle (arc time factor): 45% for GMA,
30% for MMA
Net price of consumables
Note that the efficiency of the flux-cored wires
was taken as 85%. If the wires were only
metal filled (no flux) the efficiency would be at
least 95%, but in practice slag formers are
present so that each kilogram of wire gives
about 850g of weld metal.
The actual costs obtaineq for lkg of weld
meral were:
MMA electrode
Tubular wire
5mm dia .
1. 6mm dia.
£9.40
£5·. 40
Tubular wire 2.4mm dia. £4.50
This was for a low alloy wire glvmg a hardness
of 250-300HV. Although these figures will vary
according to the composition of the weld metal
Table 2 Tubular flux - core wire welding,
self-shielded or with gas shield
Main characteristics
1 Continuous process that can be used semi-
automatically with a hand-held gun or be
made fully automatic by traversing the gun
or workpiece mechanically
2 Wide range of consumables available
3 Medium penetration similar to MMA arc
process
4 No gas required for self-shielded process
5 High deposition rates of up to 8kg/hr for
C02-shielded process and llkg/hr for
self-shielded process
6 Equipment relatively expensive
7 Regular maintenance of eqUipment is
necessary
8 Restriction on transportation similar to
the GMA process with solid wires
(see Table 3)
Typical applications
1 Blast furnace bells
2 Quarrying and mini'lg equipment
36
it is clear that, for a given weld metal com-
position, the labour c ost will alway s be lower
with the GMA process .
Since the semi - automatic welding machines
maintain a constant arc length the final result i·
I
is not so dependent on the skill of the welder I
as it is when the MMA process is used.
A summary of the main characteristics of
the GMAprocess using tubular wires is given I:
in Table 2, which also applies in many respects
to self-shielded processes. The GMA process
using solid wires is also very suitable for
surfacing with nonferrous metals such as copper
and its alloys, nickel alloys, and stainless
steels. .
Submerged-arc can be used for certain of
these alloys too, such as lnconel, stainless
steel, aluminium bronze, and Monel, but again
the most suitable process to choose depends
upon the size and shape of the area to be
surfaced. For the internal cladding of pressure
vessels and chemical plants with stainless steel
or Inconel, the submerged-arc strip cladding
process has been extenSively used. The GMA
I
process using an oscillating electrode to make
wide, low penetration beads is also a l.lseful
technique to employ on certain types of work-
I
piece. A summary of the characteristics of
the GMA process using solid wires is given
in Table 3.
THE MMA PROCESS
Although predictions have been made that stick
electrode welding will eventually be forced to
give way to GMA or sUbmerged-arc processes
it is still very much alive, and there are good
reasons to assume that it will be with us for a
long time yet. It has the following very
important user advantages:
1 Capital investment is low
2 There are a large ·number of alloys to
choose from
3 There are a large number of electrode
manufacturers to choose from
4 It is a flexible process and the only one
that can readily be used for on-site
maintenance and repair
5 Special compositions can be made easily
and quickly in small quantities
Limitations
1 Low deposition rates mean relatively high
labour costs
2 Results depend upon the skill of the welder
In spite of these limitations the MMA process
is ideal for the one-off job where not more
than a few kilograms of we ld metal need to
be deposited. A typical example is the hard-
facing of the lip and teeth of an excavator
Table 3 Gas-shielded metal-arc welding,
solid wires CJ
Main characteristics

1 Coritinuous process that can be used semi-

automatically with a hand-held gun or fully
automatically by traversing the gun
or workpiece mechanically
2 No slag to remove: therefore reduced
finishillg operation and higher duty cycle
3 High deposition rate up to 8kg/hr
4 Alloys used for hardfacing not generally
available in wire form; consumables
restricted to mild steel (suitable for
buildup), stainless steel, aluminium
bronze, or tin bronze
5 Equipment relatively expensive
6 Regular maintenance of equipment required
7 Necessity for shielding gas makes process
less transportable than MMA welding
8 Welding must be carried out within
approximately 4m of power source,
although this distance can be doubled by
use of booms supporting wire -feeding
equipment. Machines having a push-pull
feed system can operate with the gun up
to 15m from the power source
9 High electric current used for spray
transfer gives deep penetration and high
dilution of weld. This does not apply to
other operating techniques such as dip
transfer or pulsed arc
Typical applications
1 Facing bearing surfaces with aluminium
bronze
bucket, Fig. 3. This is a typical application of
MMA electrodes and is often carried out on
site. An open-arc self-shielding tubular
electrode could also be used, but a gas-shielded
process would be unsuitable unless the work
could be done under cover. In spite of the
fact that the whole bucket is not completely
surfaced its life is increased appreciably and
the treatment can be repeated several times.
In many of these applications involving
bulldozers, dredger buckets, and similar
objects absolute metallurgical integrity is not
required. A few small cracks have no .effect
on the service l~e of the component. Rolls-' -
and shafts and anything subjected to alternating
stresses should, however, be crack-free,
otherwise fatigue failure could occur.
A summary of the main characteristics of
the MMA process is given in Table 4.
DEFECTS IN WELD SURFACING
Several types of defect can occur in weld sur-
facing, the commonest are:
3 Reinforcement of lip and teeth of excavator bucket. Note: check
pattem has been used, complete coverage is necessary only at
edges
Surface cracks
Porosity
Weld metal softer (or harder) than anticipated
Heat-affected zone cracking
Table 4 Manual metal-arc welding
Main characteristics
1 Low equipment cost
2 Equipment requires a minimum of
maintenance
3 Welding can be carried out remote from
power source, e. g. welding cables can be
100m in length
4 Adaptable to small or large complex parts
5 Positional welding possible, e. g. vertical
6 . Can be used with limited access
7 Wide range of consumables available
8 Deposition rates of up to 5kg/hr
9 Skilled operator required for high quality
welds
10 Removal of slag necessary which reduces
duty cycle
11 Granular carbides in tubular electrodes
are usually melted by the arc
TYPical applications
1 Steelworks plant including coupling boxes,
wobbler ends, mill guide plates, hot metal
shears
2 Quarrying and mining equipment including
crushers, conveyors, earthmovers
3 Agricultural equipment . including augers,
sHcers
4 Railway pOints and crossings

37

The first three apply to the deposited weld
metal, the fourth to the base material.
In many situations 100% defect-free weld
metal is not essential and some cracks or
porosity have little effect on the service life
or performance of the welded part. However,
if the surfaced component is subject to tensile
or alternating stresses, e. g. a shaft or' steel
mill roll, cracking must be avoided otherwise
fatigue failure is probable.
Heat-affected zone cracking should be
avoided in all circumstances, but particularly
when alternating or impact stresses are
involved. The danger here is that the crack
will propagate and eventually cause the weld
metal to part from the base material.
Causes of weld defects
When investigating the causes of weld defects
the following suggestions may help to pinpoint
the source of the trouble:
(a)
(b)
filler material was unsuitable
wrong welding procedure was used
(c)
(d)
surfaces to be welded were dirty
there were cracks in the part to be
welded
(e) excessive weld metal dilution was
obtained
The wrong filler material may have been
chosen because the composition of the base
material was unknown or because insufficient
attention was paid to the service conditions
and type of wear involved .
.·If the base material has poor weldability
it may be necessary to use a ductile buttering
layer compatible with both the base metal and
the wear-resistant weld metal. . steel or Inconel
The welding procedure is largely dictated
by the type of material involved and particular
attention must be paid to preheat, heat treat-
ment after welding, and final cooling rate. In
some applications the deposited weld must have
a uniform metallurgical structure if uneven
wear is to be avoided. This is usually
achieved by putting the welded object into a
furnace immediately after welding, heat treating
it, and then allowing it to cool at a controlled
rate. This is often done with steel mill rolls
where uniform wear is essential. In deciding
upon a suitable heat treatment TTT (Time -
Temperature - Transformation) diagrams are
very useful and have been determined for some
of the alloys used in roll cladding. Those TTT
diagrams determined for a particular steel can
also be used for weld metals having a similar
composition.
In repair applications cracks must be
completely removed before welding. After the
workpiece has been prepared for welding it
should be crack-detected to ensure that no
38
I
small cracks remain. The workpiece should
then be cleaned and degreased before starting
the repair.
. Dilution can cause the deposited weld
metal to have a hardness which differs widely
from the value expected, owing to pickup or
•. ~
loss of carbon and alloying ~lements. The
I
greater the difference in composition between
the workpiece and the undiluted weld metal, the
greater the effect of dilution. This effect can
I
be minimised by using an inherently low
dilution process or by modifying the deposition
technique of a normal dilution process. One
example of a low dilution process is gas .
tungsten arc welding (GTA) , often referred to
as tungsten inert gas (TIG) , which is unfortu-
ately slow and therefore suitable only for
relatively small jobs. Manual metal-arc and
t
the semi-automatic gas-shielded processes can
give reasonably low penetration if the arc is
directed more toward-s the previously deposited
weld metal than the surface of the workpiece.
This technique, which is sometimes referred to
as 'shingling', appreciably reduces penetration
I
into the workpiece and hence decreases dilution.
To minimise the risk of porosity and
.. cracking good welding practice should always be
I
I,·
. followed. Remember- that many of the materials
used in surfacing applications are appreciably
more highly alloyed than those used for 'welding
structural steels, so that problems caused by .
hydrogen in the weld metal are intensified,
. particularly in air-hardening steels and weld
metals.
Table 5 Applications of weld surfacing
1 Internally cladding vessels with stainless
~
2 Externally cladding rolls with stainless II
steel or hardfacing alloys
3 Depositing wear-resistant metals
4 ReinforCing excavator buckets and dredger
buckets with corrosion- and abrasion-
resistant welds. Fig. 2
5 Rebuilding hot-working tool forging dies
etc. with cobalt/t.ungsten-alloyed hot
working alloy
6 Rebuilding high speed tools with a high
carbon Cr, Mo, W ,V high speed steel
. deposit
7 Depositing fully austenitic manganese steel
to give a soft deposit which work-hardens
8 Depositing austenitic high carbon/high
chromium-iron alloys for abrasion
resistance combined with corrosion
resistance
9 -Depositing coppe-r-based materials to give
a nonseizing bearing surface combined with
corrosion resistance
10 Buildup of worn parts
.":;"...'.""1-', :
Irrespective of the job or welding process
used, all wires , fluxes, covered electrodes,
etc . should be dry, free from rust, and
stored according to the makers' instructions.
Where the base material is hardenable
thoroughly dried basic covered electrodes or
basic fl1,lXes sho~d be used.
APPLICATIONS
A summary of the main applications of weld
surfacing using arc welding processes is given
in Table 5. There are many others, some of
which are described in detail in subsequent
Chapters. Table 5 is therefore a list of the
main groups rather than a detailed list of
specific jobs which can be carried out.
CONCLUSIONS
The aim of this Chapter has been to arouse
interest in weld surfacing, particularly as
applied to the reclamation of worn parts; but
the importance of the technique in the manu-
facture of certain components has also been
stressed.
As alloying elements become scarcer,
and henceniore expensive, increasing efforts
will have to be made to conserve them by
their correct application. One way of doing
this in applications involving wear, corrosion,
or abrasion is to make the component of
unalloyed steel and then surface those areas
which will be exposed to attack. In many
instances this is clearly cheaper than making
the whole component of stainless or wear-
resisting steel.
To ensure minimum costs the correct
filler metal and most suitable welding process
must be chosen and correctly applied.
Consumables manufacturers usually have expert
staff ready to give advice. Do not hesitate to
make use of this service.
39
7-Welding st eelworks rolls II

K. A. Ridal and T. Bagshaw I!

The suitability of. different techniques for the
weld surfacing of steel mill work rolls is
£20M. In addition, roll performance influences
mill operating costs through its effect upon
i\

~
considered in terms of economics, deposition product quality, mill scheduling, and roll
rate, quality, and Htpess for purpose. The maintenance. It is essentia.! to
consider all
cOIl~ept of weld surfacing as a method of these factors when endeavouring to improve the
duplex roll construction is illustrated by overall performance of mill rolls.
reference to' development work on the
submerged-arc and electro-slag cladding of
Within any specific type of mill there can
be a number of rolls and rollers, but the
major cost item is normally the work roll.
I1
rolls within the British Steel Corporation.
INTRODUGTION
In recent years there has been an increased
Tables 1 and 2 give some indication of the
Table 1 Roll types* I
awareness of the possibility of using surfacing Work rolls for A uxiliary rolls including
techniques to improve the performance of
steelworks plant. This trend has been the Blooming Edgers I
result of developments inboili equipment and Slabbing Downcoilers
materials technology. Most notllble is the
significant conceptual step of the fully designed
-and engineered weld-surfaced roll, which is
Section
Billet
Plate
Table/ transport
Plate levelling machine
rolls
I
!2reaking away from the constraints of roll Hot strip Billet straightening
reclamation and offers the user much more
scope for improved roll performance and
Rod
Bar
roils
I
reliability. Tube
The influence which the performance of
rolls has upon the technical and economic
operation of a mill varies in degree with the
Cold strip

*Range in weight from a few kilograms to

I
type of rolling mill and product. Rolls have a 40 tonnes
finite life which can be expressed in terms of
the direct cost per tonne of steel produced.
Within the British Steel Corporation (BSC) the
Note: not all roll types in the above list are
technically or economically suited to weld-
I
surfacing technology
direct cost in 1977 terms was approximately

Table 2 Selection of roll materials and manufactUring methods

I
Materials * + Conventional methods of manufacture

A Forged steel Forge, heat treat

B Cast steel S· 1 )
IngI e cast and heat treat
Dup ex)
C Steel base (Adamite) Cast - conventional
centri -spin
D SG Cast..:.. conventional
double pour
E Grain centri -spin with or without
heat treatment
Irons
F Indefinite chill
G Clear chill

*Progressively from A through to G hardness and wear resistance increases

+Progressively from G through to A there if' an increase in toughness, 'bite', and shock resistance

40

wide range of roll types, materials, and
manufacturing techDiques used for conventional
manufacture. The possibility of using weld
cladding to improve the economic life of rolls
has long been recognised through the general
concept of roll reclamation. Most frequently,
submerged-arc welding has been employed for
the maintenance welding of auxiliary rolls and
rollers. Success in this field has encouraged
s ome steelworks and maintenance welding
c o mpanies to try to extend the technique to the
cladding of mill work rolls, but in m~ny
instances results have been disappOinting.
This has been caused mainly by inadequate:.
(a) weld metals
(b) welding equipment
An alternative concept is that of duplex
roll construction, for which the economic and
technical objectives are more precise. No
longer is the aim simply to deposit an available
weld metal so as to achieve further life in the
mill. It is necessary to assess the technical
r equirements of the mill in detail, and to
compare in economic terms what might be
achievable with alternative production routes.
In concluding, for example , that a weld-
surfacing procedure is appropriate for a
primary millroll, it is necessary to consider
a number of possible designs for the duplex
surfa ce . Figure 1 indicates diagrammatically
three available options. Furthermore, it is an
essential requirement that the appropriate
surfacing process, weld metals, arbor casting
or forging, and even machining techniques are
available so as to ensure that the overall
manufacturing route is economically and
technically sound.
WELD-SURFACING TECHNOLOGY
What then are the main surfacing techniques
available and how do they c.o mpare? Firstly,
the surfacing technique must be capable of
semi-automatic operation. Manual welding is
inappropriate for the purpose of roll manu-
Table 3
Spray
Potential deposition rate, kg/hr-1 > 20
usual deposit thickness, mm >4
Deposit character (a) single layer +
(b) multilayer
Dilution in first layer, % Essentially ze ro
Bond type Mechanical
* Plasma MIG > 30kg/ hr- 1
+ Spray and fuse
.... '.~ ."'11
~ general-purpose deposits
m high performance deposits
Examples of weld·surfacing procedures for primary mill rolls:
(a) complete surfacing for rolls which wear uniformly along
the barrel, (b) for first surfacing of rolls on which greater wear
occurs in certain passes; for subsequent resurfacings procedure
3 is adopted, and (c) duplex surfacing for rolls on which it is
economic to deposit more expensive weld metal in selected
passes
facture or reclamation. There are four main
processes, three are essentially in general
use - metal spraying, gas-shielded metal-arc,
and submerged-arc welding - and the fourth -
electro-slag surfacing - is · seen to have a
Significant growth potential. Some of the main
characteristics of each process are summarised
in Table 3.
Metal spraying
A wide range of proprietary techniques is
available ranging from arc spraying using wire
electrodes through to powder-deposition
techniques. A metallurgical rather than a
mechanical bond can be obtained by subsequent
fusing of sprayed coatings: Deposition rates
can be quite high" but the $pray process is
particularly suited to small rolls and thin
layers. The technique allows the deposition
of very hard coatings. Also, by controlling
the degree of porosity it is possible to improve
the lubrication properties of the surface.
Although extremely wear-resistant
materials, such as tungsten carbide, can be
GMA Submerged-arc Electro-slag
> 10* > 30 200/400
10-20 > 100 15-100
Multilayer Multilayer Single l ayer
8-50 8-50 > 50
Metallurgical . Metallurgical Metall urgical
41
readily deposited by metal spraying ,the nature
of the bond with the parent metal and the
stresses in the deposited layer impose limits
to the thickness and tbe application for which
such coatings are ·suitable. Conseq.uently, one
would not expect to see this technique applied
to large or higbly stressed work rolls.
Gas-shieldlll;! metal-arc welding
Semi- or fully automatic GMA welding is not
widely applied for work roll surfacing, but has
been successfully used to deposit thin layers of
stainless steel on shafts. It is a multilayer
process and compared with submerged-arc
welding has the advantage of being fluxless.
This aspect migbt be considered significant
where very higb quality deposits are required.
Usually 1. 6 or 2.4mm welding wires are
used and deposition rates are lower than for
submerged-arc welding.
APPLICATION OF SUBMERGED-ARC CLADDlNG-
HOT MILL ROUGHING ROLLS
In general the metallurgical requirements of
hot mill roughing rolls are for hardness levels
of between 3 QO and 650 Shore, and, depending
on actual application, for varying degrees of
resistance to both wear and thermal fatigue_
Roll design usually allows for several
campaigns within the mill, with intermediate
roll dressings, and typically deposits of 50rum
thickness are required to accommodate the
reduction in roll diameter to scrap size. It is
essential, therefore, that the metallurgical
characteristics of the deposit are uniform .
throughout the thickness and tbat the effect of
structural changes associated with beat-affected
zones between adjacent weld beads is minimised.
Tbe submerged-arc clad roll must compete
directly with cast or forged steel rolls, which
m:ty be differentially hardened. In general,
I

Submerged-arc welding
With a single bead deposition rates of up to
I
owing to tbe bigh servfce stress and hardness
requirements, large backup rolls and alloy
iron rolls for use in finisbing stands are not
normally clad by the submerged-arc process.

I
30kg/br are attainable using twin 4mm welding
To summarise, the technical requirements
wires. For large plain barrelled rolls two
for a submerged-arc weld . deposit are:
welding heads can be operated side by side to
give high deposition rates for thick multilayer
deposits. A range of properties can be
obtained, depending upon the composition of the
weld deposit and the subsequent heat treatment
1
2
3
Higb deposition rates (minimum of 20kg/br)
Freedom from significant weld defects
Uniform weld metal composition and
-I
response to heat treatment
procedure. Compositions are restricted by'
4 Adequate properties to meet mill
metallurgical factors affecting both hot and cold
requirements
cracking.
Electro-slag cladding
Spray MIG SA ES
Russian and Czecb literature indicate that the
Expanding
process, which produces a single layer of from activity
15-100mm thickness, can be operated at
deposition rates of 200-400kg/br depending on
roll diameter. Tbe intrinsically high heat
input of the electro-slag process influences the
Selective Growth
solidification pattern and metallurgy of tbe growth ?
surface. The process is most suitable for
cladding plain barrelled rolls.
Each of tbe four welding processes
considered has some relevance to roll surfac- Growth
potential
ing, and in Fig. 2 an attempt is made to
indicate the likely distribution of techniques
between roll types and to suggest the likely
potential for future application. The BSC
development programme is based on an
assessment which considers the metallurgy of
available materials, the type of mill, and
0 Primary + SM

overall economics of the process and com- ~ Auxiliaries

peting roll manufacturing routes. At present,

the submerged-arc weld-surfacing technique ~ Spares

gives good results in terms of both economic

and technical criteria, when applied to primary ~ Cold mill?

mill or hot strip mill roughing rolls. Although

promising results have been obtained on II Others
electro-slag clad rolls, they do not currently
compete economically with conventional rolls. 2 Application of surfacing techniques by roi; type

42
 The BSC and the Swedish welding company
ESAB have completed a joint development
rogramme on submerged-arc cladding of work
p .
rolls, which has involved the design and
development of special welding equipment, the
formulation of a range of consumables for use in
steel mills, along with process and application
know-how. *
Plant development
For the submerged-arc cladding of large rolls
it is necessary to develop special equipment
suited for continuOUS three-shift operation, with
roll preheat temperatures of greater than 3000 C
and resistant to flux dust or fumes. To obtain
satisfactory deposition rates it is necessary to
have a welding system capable of twin-wire
welding .at 1250A if a 4mm diameter electrode
is to be used.
The BSC - ESAB development has resulted
in custom-built equipment which meets these
stringent requirements. The welding head is
the most critical item of equipment, and the
design which has · proved successful incorporates:

(a) a fully sealed, air-cooled motor unit with

integral high reduction gearbox
(b) two trains of five roll wire straighteners
mounted at 90 0 to each other, which
ensure consistent positioning of the elec-
trodes with · respect to the workpiece and
consistent wire spacing
(c) a water-cooled, pneumatically actuated 3 (aJtwin wire submerged-an: deposition, primaiy mill rolf, (b)
cop.tact nozzle which ensures consistent view of Sarc/ad workshop, BSC River Don works
power input to the welding wires
Laboratory
;'"
The difficulties inherent in delivering and development 1-5
recovering large quantities of flux are not always
appreciated. In fact, flux consumption is
approximately equal to the weight of weld metal T
deposited, and it has therefore been necessary Pilot scale Mill trials
to develop a comprehensive flux delivery and Modificationsl development 6-8
recovery system. At the same time, the used
,
slag must be efficiently removed. T
f. Figure 3a and b gives an overall Monitor performanc e
Commercial
impression of the production facility which has production 9-12
I been developed within ESC, River Don Works.

I Welding consumables
To achieve the range of deposits and properties
necessary to meet the requirements of a
variety of mills, there has been a continuing
development programme which, in general 1-5
New development

~
Consumable development

Assessment trials of mill ·requirements. competing technology.

outline, follows the stages shown in Fig.4.
In the laboratory development phase a full
6-8
metallurgy, process factors. economics
Preproduction to full-scale eval uation covering definition
of production procedures. fi rst production roll. and mill
performance monitoring

*The joint ESC-ESAB technology on submerged- 9-12 Commercial production monitoring leading to initiation of
arc cladding has been called SARCLAD further development
technology. SARCLAD is a registered trade-
mark. 4

i
· 43 i"U
assessment of economic and technical require-
ments is made, and then a number of candidate
materials which may be based on several alloy
systems are evaluated. Weldability, analysis
control, heat ~reatment response, temper
resistance, wear rate, and thermal fatigue
6
I
resistance are each considered in detail. To
a chieve uniformity of composition and '~ I
properties it is essential that the weld metal! <U
flux system is stable over a wide range of
single and twin-wire welding parameters. !1 ;.
I

Having satisfied laboratory requirements , the

welding consumable is evaluated under production r
II
conditions. These are designed to simulate 2

totally the production welding situation and

extend to the production of trial rolls under
stringent technical control. Providing the roll i
meets the required quality and metallurgical
requirements, . it is delivered to a mill for
detailed service evaluation. On the basis of (a)
200 400
Hardness, HV
600 l
results, the welding alloy is either released
for production or returned to the laboratory for
further development.
I
Table 4 lists the range of weld-surfacing
~
alloys currently in use. The properties of
these alloys are compared against conventional 3 . . . . Conventional rolls I
roll materials in Fig. 5. The wear performance
of weld metals, as with conventional materials,
I Forge

depends upon both hardness and carbide content.

The 5%CrMo series of alloys is based upon
hot- work die steels and is tougher and more 2
~~~~ Surfacing alloys
heat-resistant than conventional roll steels.
The higher carbon Sarclad 4 alloy competes
effectively with differentially hardened and
E
E
r.-
g.
~~~r&J I
l:
double-poured cast steel rolls. Both the 5 and
12% Cr deposits have markedly better thermal
fatigue properties than conventional roll
~
~

u
0
e '--I
materials~ It has been noted, both in the
laboratory thermal fatigue tests and in service,
that the fine structure of a weld deposit
performs better than the equivalent wrought
I
material. The 12%Cr series of deposits was
selected because of their unique combination of
hardness, strength, and toughness coupled with (bl Alloys tempered 500°-575°C
temper resistance and resistance to oxidation.
They can be heat treated to a uniform metal-
lurgical structure which makes them particularly
well suited to plain barrelled rolls where surface 5 Comparative properties of conventional roll and weld-
finish is important. surfacing alloYS: (a) wear, (b) thermal fatigue

Table 4 Sarclad weld deposits currently available

Recommended
Nominal composition hardness range

Sarclad 1 5%CrMo (0.2%C) 40 - 550 Shore

2 16%Cr-8%Ni-6%Mn Work-hardening
3 12 %CrMo 40 - 650 Shore
4 5%CrMo (0.7%C) 45 - 700 Shore
5 5%CrMo (1.2% C) 45 - - 600 Shore
6 15%CrNi 50 - 650 Shore

44

\-
 Figure 6 shows a selection of clad rolls.
In primary mills excellent results have been
obtained for both blooming/slabbing and
universal slabbing mills, the most Significant
improvement in performance compared to
conventional forged and cast steel rolls ..
Results in hot strip mill roughing applications
are at least equivalent to the best differentially
hardened roll currently available.
ELECTRO-SLAG CLADDING
The characteristics of the electro-slag process
outlined earlier in this Chapter have been used
for the 'production of duplex alloy iron rolls.
The process offers:
1 Single layer deposits
2 The ability to deposit high carbon alloy
irons
3 A refined metallurgical structure free
from defects
For this reason BSC has evaluated electro-slag
cladding for ·the manufacture of hot strip mill
finishing rolls.
Indefinite chill iron rolls are commonly
used for hot strip mill finishing rolls, and
loll between 2 and 3000 tonnes of strip before
returning to the roll shop for dressing. In the
(a)
(b)
6 Weld-5urfaced mill ro/ls; (a) primary, secondary, and billet,
(b) 44 tonne plate
last five years duplex chrome-iron rolls
produced by double pouring and centri-spllnling
have given marked improvements in service
life, particularly in the intermediate stands of
modern hot strip mills. Electro-slag cladding
offers an alternative method of manufacture of
these types of rolL Laboratory results indicate
that the electro-slag process gives a· more
uniform carbide structure in nickel and chromium
white irons than is obtained by conventional
casting techniques. Also, the possibility of
reclaiming hot strip mill rolls by electro-slag
cladding of either iron or steel rolls with an
alloy iron appears economically attrar;:tive.
The BSC has undertaken a major develop-
ment programme over the last five years to
assess the application of electro-slag cladding.
One of the techniques evaluated is shown in
Fig. 7. The arrangement consists of a number
of wire feed units arranged round a static
arbor and water-cooled copper crucible so as
to deposit a uniform shell of iron on the roll
body. The alternative technique, developed by
the Paton Institute in the USSR, is to melt a
centri-spun tube electrode on to a central roll
body. Although Simpler in principle, this
technique proves to be difficult with large rolls
and limits the choice of alloys which can be
deposited.
Roll being clad
7 Schematic of e/ectro-51B{J wrfaeing process
 Both the wire and centri -spun technique
have beep. developed within the ESC Sheffield
Laboratories, and trial rolls produced in a
I
variety of materIals, including nickel and
chromium alloy irons on steel and iron arbors.
The high heat in'put of the electro-slag refining
I
process requires precise process control at all
stages if a uniform interface and alloy com-
position are to be maintained. Figure 8 is a (~
section through a 200mm diameter cladding of
iron on steel. Trials have been undertaken on
sections up to 915mm diameter and have
demonstrated that the process is capable of
I
cladding large plain barrelled rolls.
A number of trial rolls have been
evaluated in both narrow and wide hot strip
mills within BSC, and have demonstrated
9 Electro-filag clad rolls for Corby narrow strip mill I
improved performance over conventional rolls
of similar hardness. Figure 9 shows one pair
of such rolls ready for mounting in the
Although satisfactory technical results have
been obtained, the present indication is that
the performance aciVa.t;tages offered by electro-
I
Corby NO.2 narrow strip mill.
slag clad rolls are insufficient to justify full-
scale manufacture when compared with modern
centri-spinning techniques. However, electro-
I
slag refining is now regularly used for ·t he
manufacture of cold mill rolls and it seems
entirely feasible that electro-slag cladding may
in the future offer an important alternative to
I
centrifugal and duplex casting.
CONCLUSIONS I
The cost-effective application of weld surf~l.Cing
technology to steelworks rolls requires a
detailed understanding of: I
1
2
The mill application
Alternative techniques of manufacture .
I
~

Experience in BSC has shown that it is

necessary to develop welding equipment, process
technology, and special welding consumables for
I
submerged-'-arc cladding to be economic for
large rolls. It is now possible to define appli-
cations where weld-surfaced rolls offer consider-
able improvements in roll performance and
reduce costs in specific applications. It is
likely that,in the future, weld surfacing will
find wider application as a method of manu-
facturing steelworks rolls and related
components.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Dr K. J. Irvine,
Manager, Sheffield Laboratories, ESC, for
permission to publish this material and their
many colleagues who have contributed to the
8 Longitudinal section through NiCrFe clad medium carbon steel development work described.
arbor --

46
f¥!ifX~\;i.f;~";1'; """
:'

8-Hardfacing ironworks plant

R. J. Harrison

INTRODUCTION and high wear rates generally occur in the

In an integrated iron and steel plant, handling main suction fan area.
millions of tonnes of raw materials at the The raw materials used in the sintering
input end and similarly millions of tonnes of process will vary from plant to plant but will
iron and steel in various forms at the output basically consist of those listed below, which
end, it is inevitable that a large number of will give some idea of the likely abrasive media:
abrasion and impact wear problems will occur.
By far the majority of these wear problems Iron ore, both home and foreign
arise on the ore preparation, sinter, and blast Coke breeze
furnace plant, where the handling and processing Flue dust
of the raw materials takes place. The replace- Mill scale
ment of 60% of the traditional English ores with Lime
foreign ores in ironmaking practice, coupled Return fines from the process
with the associated higher processing tempera-
tures in certain areas, considerably increased All these materials will be in a size range of
and complicated the wear problems. less than 6mm and a large proportion have a
In view of this a coordinated study of a very fine range.
wide spectrum of coating materials, the tech- It is important to mention that most plants
niques of application, and the operating environ..... in the BSC are now using a high percentage of
ments has taken place in the Scunthorpe foreign ore fines which, because of their higher
Division of the British Steel Corporation (BSC). Fe content, create much higher abrasive
This has involved in-depth laboratory studi~s conditions.
using metallographic techniques, wear tests Brief general information on construction
using small-scale test rigs, and comparative anq speCification of a typical main suction fan
plant assessments, the objective being to impellor is:
achieve a better understanding of the metal-
lurgical principles involved in the wear process. Impellor diameter 3658mm
Arising from this work, standards of Blade width 610mm
application and material selection have been Nose blades 3658mm
achieved which have been reflected in reduced Shaft length 7925mm
downtime for ?lllintenance and improved plant 254mm min.
Shaft diameter
performance. to 559mm max.
The following four examples are all of Total weight 20 tonnes
"plant items critical to sinter plant operation Operating data, speed 750rev/min
and demonstrate the achievements and therefore Volume capacity 14 744m3/mm
possibilities with hlirdfacing alloys. The pro- Static head 719mm WG
duction figures and costs are accurate only as
far as they appertained in 1975. The impellor construction has been modified
over the years to incorporate various types of
SINTER PLANT MAIN SUCTION FANS wear plate to afford wear protection in the most
critical areas. These have been necessary on
Introduction the cone, centre plate, blades, and nose pieces.
The main suction fan creates the suction to The most successful have been mild steel plate
draw air and the ignition flame through the coated with weld-applied high percentage tungsten
raw mix bed on the sintering strand. It also carbide and chromium carbide materials.
exhausts the waste gases to the main outlet
stack.
The exhaust gases carry over fines from Wear protection
the sintering process; these "act as abrasive
media and cause excessive wear on the fan (a) history
impellor, the fan casing, and all ducting in this The original impellors had no special wear
area. AlthouglL fines extraction ~q~ipment is protection but, with developments in the sinter-
fitted prior to the fans in most modern plants, ing process, wear on them became a significant
the abrasive media are never totally removed cause of maintenance.

47
 During the years on home ore practice,
wear protection developed from mild steel and
special steel wear plates to mild steel plates
with various levels of weld-applied coatings,
the ultimate success being achieved with the
selective use of high percentage chromium
carbide and tungsten carbide, when lives in
excess of 21h years or 2. 5 · million tonnes of
sinter were achieved.
With the introduction of a high percentage
of foreign ore into the raw mix for sinter pro-
duction, wear on the impellors was increased
considerably. This was such that, with the
levels of wear protection which gave the maxi-
mum success on home ore practice, impellor
lives dropped to three to four months.
Considerable development work took place
and with greater use of high chromium carbide
and tungsten carbide deposits the service lives
were improved to just tolerable maintenance
levels. These were inadequate and a coordi-
nated study of a wide speCtrum of coating
material, techniques of application, and a com-
parative assessment of their wear resistance
was instigated. The redeSign of wear plates,
area, and thickness of applied coatings was
considered, and as a result considerable
improvement in impellor life was achieved.
At present it has been found that tubular
tungsten carbide rods deposited by gas welding
give the highest wear resistance and provide
the most economical results. in the main suction
fan environment. Current service lives vary
between sixteen and eighteen months, 900 000-
1 250 000 tonnes of sinter. Some in situ repairs
are necessary after eight months and subsequently
at three to four month intervals.
Development work with similar consumables
for manual electric arc and more automatic
methods of application is continually in hand for
a number of reasons. The assessment of new
materials using small-scale test rigs and
various systems of in-plant test backed with
metaUographic examination is given high priority
to improve the present standards.
Table 1 Sinter plant main suction fan impellors, summary of service lives
Sinter
Wear protection
practice
Home ore Original impellor (En 8)
Mild steel wear plate
Mild steel wear plate, limited
hardfac~ (nose pieces and blades)
Mild steel wear plate, low wear areas
high % Cr, high wear areas high %WC
Foreign ore As above
Extensive high percentage tungsten carbide
48
A summary of service lives through the
periods which have been referred to is given
in Table 1.
(b) hardfacing applications
Internal workshops, with specialised sections
I
equipped to carry out most methods of applica-
tion, are used for the majority of hardfacing
appllca tlons. This probably unique position has
ensured adequate technical support to all appli-
~
., ~
I
cations and has considerably assisted develop-
ment both in methods of application and the
selection and testing of available consumables.
I
The wearing plates hardfaced for the impellors
are 9.5mm minimum thick and vary in shape
and size up to 864 x 610mm; special attention
is given to jigging eqUipment, preheat, and
I
cooling. The details of the present ~pplications
for main suction fan impellors are set out in
Fig. I.
I
Costs and economics of wear protection
It is always difficuft to establish with any accuracy
what in terms of cash is saved by the introduction
I
of improvements to a particular plant component.
The cost of wear protection for each impellor
to the standard set out in Fig. 1 is CUrrently
I
around £5000. Therefore, · based on eighteen
months' service life producing approximately
1. 25 million tonnes of sinter, the present cost
works out at 0.4p/tonne of sinter produced.
I
The value of wear protection is best related
to and measured in terms of improved plant
availability. For example, on present operatil)g
costs of the sinter plant the cost of 1hr down-
time is approximately £150. Thus .a savl)1g· of
only four 8hr shifts' downtime in ·a service life of
eighteen months would justify the present cost
I
of £5000.
SINTER BREAKER TIPS AND BARS
Introduction
The agglomerated sinter cake which is the end
product of the sinter strand has to be broken
Service life
Sinter output,
Months
tonnes
6 350 000
12 700 000
18-20 1-1. 25 million
30 2-2. 5 million
3-4 125 000
16-18 1 200 000

3mm thick
~ 4.5mm,hkk
~ 'mm,okk
5 of tungsten carbide were tested, including a
Diagram of main suction fan impel/or showing recommended
areas of hardfacing. 1 - blade sealing flats,' 2 - blade wearing
plate; 3 - centre plate,' 4 - centre wearing plates; 5 - cone
wearing plates; 6 - nose pieces
down for cooling and to provide the most
suitable-sized burden for the blast furnace. This
breakdown occurs in what is referred to as the
diSintegrator hood, first by natural drop, as it
is' discharged from the end of the moving strand
on to an inclined crash deck, then by rotating
diSintegrator arms which force it between
static breaker bars. The original diSintegrator
arms were fitted with removable tips and
referred to as sinter breakers. More recently
the tendency has been to move over to solid
three- or four-arm type units instead of the
removable tip.
The maximum wear occurs on the breaker
tips and static breaker bars. These are high
temperature areas which have to be taken into
account in the selection of the wear protection. --
Sinter breakers
(a) wear protection
On traditional home- ore practice 26-28%Cr
castings proved to be the most economical for
sinter breaker tips giving lives of up to eighteen
months, 1. 25 million tonnes of sinter being
produced. With the change to a high percentage
of foreign ore raw mixes a sinter was produced
both at higher discharge temperatures and with
higher abrasion values. It was soon evident that
improved breaker units would be necessary to:
1 Maintain the adequate breakdowll of the
hotter and harder sinter for cooling
2 Pr:ovide a more efficient system of
maintenance of the breaker units
Tests carried out have directed BSC to
the solid-arm type quick removal units, the
breaker arms of which being nominal
0.35-0.40%C steel castings or pantographed
from 70mm thick 0.45o/oC plate. The economics
of the two alternatives for the production of
these units, which will also take account of any
benefits to hardfacing applications, are still
under consideration.
Plant tests were carried out to assess
various applications of hardfacing for the
breaker tip. In particular, special applications
solid sintered WC tip. It was found that a
heavy deposit on the leading edge was necessary
to obtain an economical life. This was
achieved using tungsten carbide by adopting
special layering techniques to build up to a
laminated deposit. Alternate layers of a soft
'low carbon steel, as a buttering rod, and then
high tubular tungsten carbide rod were deposited
to a maJ!:imum thickness of 31mm. For the
sides a single layer, nominally 3mm thick, of
tungsten carbide was used. Oxacetylene
application techniques are recommended for the
best results both to provide good tip profile a~d
wear resistance. Adequate preheat to, say,
2500C before application and controlled cooling
during and after completion are essential.
(b) costs
Comparative unit costs and service lives are
given in Table 2. The service life of the
hardfaced type of breaker tip is predicted on
the basis of performance after ten months.
It will be seen that the increased costs of the
I
hardfaced units has had to be justified on the I
basis of maintaining ma.ximum plant availability. I
The increased cost effect per tonne of
i
I
sinter and the initial cost of application have [
had to be considered in the light of the cost i
.;
of sinter plant downtime at £150 /hr . i
t
Breaker bars [
The layout of the static breaker bars, in
!
:
(
relation to the rotating sinter breaker unit, is J
shown in Fig. 2. The bar dimensions are
approximately 2440mm long x 305mm wide x
25mm thick.
The service life for mild' steel bars has
varied between four and six weeks. Similar
49
 Table 2 Sinter breaker tips, summary of service lives

Service life
Sinter Breaker Initial cost Cost/ tonne
practice tip type Sinter output, of unit, £ sinter, p
Months
tonnes

Home ore 26-28%Cr 18 1. 25 million 2500 0.20

tip
Foreign ore 26-28 o/o Cr 9 600 000 2500 0.42
tip
Hardfaced 12-14 900 000 4500 0.50
with high
tungsten
carbide

bars hardfaced on the upper working edge with

2 Wear on standard breaker bars - end of first life - compared
to hardfaced bars
I
various high chromium and tungsten carbide
deposits have given lives up to six months. I
(a) wear protection '
Current best lives are obtained Using a high
tungsten carbide material deposited by manual
electric arc or gas techniques. The com-
I
parative wear on mild steel unhardfaced and
hardfaced bars is shown in Fig. 2. Details of
the hardfacing .application can be seen in Fig. 3.
I
(b) costs
A comparison of the service life and cost of
standard mild steel bars with hardfaced bars
is given in Table 3, from which it will be
seen that the hardfaced breaker bar costs

2057
51 38

-11-
T-- =r
305

l~ ____________~
~...~
3 Breaker bars for '£' plant showing hardfaced area (shaded): 3mm
Edges ground to allow
full -length heavier bu11dup
~,
..J'
nominal thickness; approximately 6mm along edges; high
.~ percentage tubular tungiten carbide (75-80%W in· filler); gas or
electric application. Dimensions in millimetres
\
\ ~
'~'
~ \ Table 3 Sinter breaker bars, summary of service lives
IJ l
~

;1 Production cost Cost of fitting Total

Service life
~ of bar, £ each bar, £
Cost/tonne
cost, £ Sinter, sinter, p
Ratio
tonnes

Standard mild 31. 50 8.89 40.39 81 000 1 O. 05

steel bar
Hardfaced 53.75 8.89 62.64 467 000 5.8 0.01
bar (tungsten
carbide)

50
 e of sinter. This is one-fifth the The service life of this test mat was
nn
O. DIp / t°th standard mild steel bar, and seventy weeks, i. e. 579 000 tonnes of sinter.
c ost of ea saving of O. 04p/tonne of sinter is The average life of standard mats, which
therefore involved four changes during the seventy-week
. d' using the hardfaced bar. Based on
achIeve In
e bandied, the ratio is 5.8 to 1 for test period, was thirteen weeks, 114 000 tonnes
sinter tonn ag
to standard bars. The increased of sinter.
har df ace d .
_ f the bardfaced bar of approxImately £22 The cost of hardfacing the test mat, which
cust 0 . tif' d .. was provisional, plus plant fitting, was approxi-
can therefore be JUs Ie on a savlllg lll:
mately £115. The cost of standard Jl}.ats plus
Cost of fitting of 3 to 1 fitting was approximately £30. The economics
1
Downtime, thus loss of sinter output, of of coating screen mats was therefore promising,
2
showing overall a 4 to 1 advantage in favour of
3 to 1
coated mats.
HOT SINTER SCREENS
(b) subsequent progress
Introduction Trials were projected to a full set of screens
After the sinter is discharged from the end of on a screen deck using the same type of
the strand it passes through the breakers and coating. A coated standard mat used in these
then over a screen deck to remove the fines. tests is shown in Fig.4. The results based
In most sinter plant the hot screens are on service life and tonnage of sinter handled
did not equal that of the initial test, but still
respon sl'ble for a considerable
. amount of lost
production tiIlle owmg to the frequent need for showed a 3.5 to 1 advantage. In view of this
maintenance and replacement. and because changing screen mats can be a
The hot sinter screen plate material high manual intensive maintenance operation,
should be capable of withstanding the abrasive the development and wider use of hardfaced
action of the sintered product, often at tempera- screen mats has been considered to be an
tures in excess of 5000 C. It must also possess economic proposition.
adequate mec1:J.anical strength to cope with the
Future developments
stresses imposed by the vibrating action of the
screen and from the impact of large pieces of Further trials are in hand to assess potential
sinter. coating materials and investigate techniques of
application and associated metallurgical
Wear resistance and protection problems. For example, uniformity of
The standard mats, overall size approximately aperture size and shape and overall evenness
1448 x 1067mm , are made in 6mm plate, of deposit will best be achieved by some
punched with 25 x 6mm slotted holes; chemical automated form of application.
composition 0.3-0.45%C and 1. 7%Mn. The The porosity and cracking in the coated
average service life is twelve weeks or deposit on this particular type of screen can
approximately 100 000 tonnes of sinter screened. prove very detrimental in service and must
Initial work was directed to improved
steels, but the practicability of punching the
holes or apertures restricted the better
possibilities. Those successful in the austenitic
stainless steel and medium carbon range proved
to be uneconomic because of the high unit cost
and negligible increase in wear resistance
compared to relatively cheap standard mild
steel mats.
As a result, investigations were directed
to the possibilities of using hardfacing coatings
on thin mild steel screen plates.

Test results and progress

(a) initial test
The initial trial was carried out on a 6mm
thick mild steel plate screen mat punched with
6mm round holes. The coating selected was
an iron-based alloy containing 26%Cr carbi<;les
and deposited by conventional manual electric I
arc. Distortion was minimised by adequate
jigging and controlling the rate and system of
I
deposition. 4 Standard screen mat, hardfaced
I.i
!

51
I
i
I
I
 ,
"1

~
~

~
therefore be minimised. Premature bilures
of the screens, arising from bad applications,
could quickly destroy any advantages and put
-.i.
.~ I
up screen maintenance costs rather than '
reduce them.
All the tests and comments refer to small
I
aperture screen mats. There is more con-
clusive evidence both on application and service
life with larger aperture screen mats. This is
particularly so in less abrasive conditions such
I
as coal- and coke-handling plant.

SINTER COOLER 'FANS

I
Introduction

The hot sinter is cooled in rotary-type coolers,

the air used being drawn by the impellors
I
through the bed of hot sinter. There are three
suction fans to a cooler, each originally rated
at 2094m 3 /min at 51mm WG and I350 C, and the
I
cooling capacity is rated at 75 tonnes/hr.
This type of suction system is not to be
recommended as the air pulled through the
fans is heavily loaded with sinter fines which
I
cause excessive wear on the impellor blades.
Wear problem I
An uprating of the cooling equipment was
carried out to provide increased cooling
capacity in readiness for the hotter foreign
ore type sinters. This , introduced a new
I
design of high speed impellor with solid cast
steel blades of aerofoil section, with capable
rating of 549Om3/m in at 190. 5mm WG and at
I
a design temperature of 3750 C.
These impellors raised serious mainten-
ance problems within eight weeks of installation,
owing to excessive wear on the new exotic-type
"I
blades, when still on home ore sinters, Fig. 5a.
Initially the worn blades were reclaimed to a
usable condition by a gas application of tubular 5 fa) typical wear of wlid cast steel blade after eight weeks'
il
;

tungsten carbide. A service life of five to
, six months, i. e. at least 21/2 times the
original life, was readily achieved with the
reclaimed blades. With twelve fans in use
this was still not satisfactory from a mainten-
ance point of view, but provided time for
experimentation.
A new fabricated type of blade, Fig.5b,
was eventually designed and approved which
had a much thicker blade construction. This
allowed more adequate hardfacing to be applied,
service life; home ore !linters, fb) redesigned fabricated blade
witfJ hardfaced coating of gas-applied tungsten carbide
\1
,
I
low as eight weeks during the period of home
ore sinters, i. e. slower abrasion conditions,
when original impellor blades had lasted ten to
twelve months.
(b) current fabricated hardfaced blade
The blade is fabricated in 0.35%C, 16mm
thick, steel plate and welded to machine-
I "

1\
and has resulted in service lives of between prepared bosses in similar material. The
twelve and fourteen months.
Wear protection
forward side of the blade is fully hardfaced,
nominally 3mm thick, with a slightly heavier ~
~c
f~·'

deposit on the leading edge. The hardfacing is

(a) original blade carried over to the back of the blade for q
The original blade was of special cast steel, apprOXimately 25mm for the full length of the ~ :j
il,.
produced in Sweden, and claimed to be protected leading edge. ''\i
oil the nose with a spray coating of tungsten The hardfacing material is high tungsten
carbide. The cost for a set of twenty blades carbide in tubular rod form applied by n1
ill-.
per fan was £2000; life was stated to be as oxyacetylene techniques.

52 r'l
e,
;
\;.:...1

~
 The cost of production of these fabricated
carried out in internal engineering
bIn d e S
1 shops was approximately £650/set of
wor,{
twenty. The service life, as previously stated,
varies between twelve and fourteen months or
900 000 tonnes of sinter produced.

........

53
9-Applications of w eld surfacing to pow er plant
T. R. Rowberry

INTRODUCTION I
Boilers and turbines of conventional coal- and
oil-fired power plant are constructed with little
recourse to weld surfacing, apart from valve
seats and stems, the base material properties
usually being adequate for the early life of the
plant. Also the Central Electricity Generating
Board has operated until recent times with a
requirement for high availability from its plant
and, to ensure that maintenance programmes
were kept to plan, favoured complete replace-
ment of worn or damaged components. The
increasing average age of plant, replacement
costs, and delivery lead times now necessitate
a far more critical evaluation of the pOSSibilities
I
for reclamation of worn or damaged items
using a variety of techniques. In certain areas
it has" been possible to improve the life of the
component by coating with materials which will
I
withstand the operating regime but retain the
properties of the base material, but before
considering whether to surface a component it
is important to identify the offending wear
mechanism or mechanisms which may be
abrasive, erosive, adhesive, corrosive, surface
fatigue, cavitation, or fretting.
A major wear area is found in the handling, 1 Wear pattern found on pulverised fuel fan blades
transportation, and grinding of coal. The air /
coal mixtures produced after grinding are not
only potentially explosive "but are extremely blades, 12mm thick and surface-hardened by
erosive to the materials which handle and
convey these mixtures. Pulverised fuel (PF)
from the grinding mills has in the past been
the cyanide process, were standard. The fans
consist of a six-armed spider to which are
attached blades which wear in a characteristic
I
conveyed by cast iron pipework from the PF manner, Fig.1. Considerable variation in the
fans to the boiler for firing. However, life of such blades was experienced and trials
following instances of fires, pipework, fans,
and casings must now be produced which are
resistant to thermal and mechanical shock and
erosive wear.

PF EXHAUSTER FAN BLADES

Exhauster fans are widely employed to extract
pulverised coal from the grinding mills by
induced air flow and passing the mixture of air
and fine coal particles forward to the burners
to fire the boiler. The coal!air mixture,
which is mixed in the volumetric ratio of 1:2,
is extremely erosive and causes rapid wear of
the exhauster fan blades. The wear rate varies
but depends upon the blade material, the design
and duty of the fan, the type of coal, and the
particle size range and distribution of the
pulverised coal. For many years mild steel 2 Damaged fan spider assembly

54
 by Mitchell and Skinner1 were instituted to
establish the most economic materials. Failure
. of a blade results in severe damage of the
spider assembly, Fig. 2. Tests on homogeneous
materials using the whole range of alloy steels
gave only marginal improvements in wear life
over mild steel, mainly because the high
hardness materials proved susceptible to failure
under shock because of their low ductilities .
coated materials, however, offered a greater
compromise by utilising the ductility of a mild
steel base allied to the hardness of a coating.
Many methods are available to produce such
coatings not all of which include welding or its
allied processes, and the range examined
included welded, sweated, fused coatings,
attached layers such as tungsten carbide tiles
and vitreous enamel, and surface-hardening
techniques, e. g. case hardening. To rationalise
the data an economic appraisal was evolved:

1 Outage time to replace exhauster fan

runner = 8hr
2 Labour cost to renew runner £
3 Labour cost of replacing
sUs . blades and wear plates £ £ x
4 Material cost of replacing
six blades and wear plates = £ 3 Fan blade coated with chromium boride sweat-on-paste
5 Useful life of mild steel fan blade 600hr
6 Incremental cost of improving a blade = £c direction of flow of the coal/air mixture. This
7 Unit cost owing to loss of load because prevents the mixture from channelling along
exhauster was olc (Shr at £a per MWhr x the cracks and ca using localised wear and
load loss in l\1W) = £y premature failure of the fans . All the blade
8 Blade replacement life of MS blade
factor N = life of improved blade

The notional cost advantage of operating for

6 OOOhr. representing one year's generation,
was calculated from the difference between the
cost of replacing the improved blade runner
(£10 [x + YD. The largest saving resulted
from coating the fan blades with chromium
boride (82%Cr-18%B by weight) sweat-on-paste,
Fig. 3 . The blades are bolted into pOSition in
the fan spider and after grit or shot blasting
the surface of the blade is coated with hardfac-
ing paste and allowed to dry out completely.
The paste is then welded or fused using a
carbon arc, electrode negative, or TIG-welding
head using a weaving motion of 25-35mm pitch.
The current is usually in the range 150-250A
and the rate of weave chosen to give about
6mm HAZ in the parent material. This has
the effect of maintaining adequate ductility in
the fan blade. The specification now calls for
an evenly fused coating 2. 5 to 5mm thick, with
a surface hardness of 66 0-S23HV .
Practice has indicated that the fused
coating cracks under the action of contraction
stresses, and always at 90 0 to the electrode
travel direction, Fig. 4. Therefore the elec-
4 Chromium boride coated blade with coating cracks revealed
trode movement is chosen to be parallel to the by dye penetrant

55

O-Surfacing for impact resist ance
P. A. Symons
ROCKCRUS~ERHAMMER~
Introduction
Developments in the quarrying industry include
the design and manufacture of bigger and better
crushing equipment which is capable of faster
rates of production with a high degree of
efficiency and reliability.
Quarry management, faced with large
capital investment costs and increasing labour
charges, has shown considerable interest in
fixed hammer crushing equipment with high
reduction ratios capable of production through-
puts of 500-1000 tonnes/hr. Equipment working
at these high load capacities inevitably suffers
from increased wear rates and higher main-
tenance costs.
The problem
The striking edges of fixed hammers suffer
excessive wear rates, dependent on the type of
stone being crushed. An existing maintenance
procedure involves the use of a two-man night
shift applying an austenitic manganese steel by
hand. This is an essential but exhausting
process and it is natural for quarry manage-
ment to look to the welding industry for faster,
more efficient methods of reclamation.
During the past five years there has been
a steady increase in the size of small semi-
automatic welding sets capable of feeding flux-
cored wire at speeds two to three times faster
than manual metal-arc (MMA). Although this
equipment has gone a long way towards the
solution of many problems of welding mainten-
ance in the quarry, it is still dependent upon
operator efficiency and manual control.
The problems associated with the mainten-
ance of operator efficiency under 'normal'
working conditions are well known. These
problems increase when working in an enclosed
chamber, in all weather conditions, with 'Weld-
ing fumes and reflected arc flash. They are
further influenced by handling and an increase
in the volume of fumes as a result of faster
rates of deposition. The welding industry has
therefore provided a tool for increased
productivity at the risk of poor operator
efficiency owing to welding conditions.
The thought process
(a) design features, Fig.1
The basic principle of the crushing process is
58
.....,
) i
•
~
J
i
·1
·i
to provide a heavy duty rotor which rotates at
high speeds with projecting fixed hammers to
impact the rock into an explOSion chamber,
recycling until crushed to the required size.
The simpliCity of the operation defies any
consideration for design changes to protect
the strikirig face.
(b) parent metal
12-14o/aMn steel, Installed by the manufacturer.
(c) wear tolerance
For maximum efficiency it is necessary to
maintain a sharp leading edge with a wear
· "
tolerance of approximately 25mm.
(d) alloy selection
With a 12-14% parent metal, any welding
consumables must be compatible with an
austenitic manganese steel which is capable of
I
withstanding severe impact with abrasion.
(e) welding process
The existing process employs two welders on a
I
night shift using MMA and semi-automatic
welding to maintain six hammers at a maximum
efficiency of 2.3kg/hr (deposited metal). This
involves the welders in manual welding opera-
tions in an enclosed chamber, for long periods,
having to use the necessary protection against
heat, fumes, and the associated discomfort.
,
Solution
Introduce an alloy compatible with an austenitiC
manganese steel which is capable of being
t
deposited at 4. 5-9kg/hr by an automatic
process, thus improving the welder's working
environment, allowing him to weld remote
from' the effect of heat and fumes while
remaining in full control of the wei ding
operation.
 wear tolerance (d) operational procedure
(a) ear tolerance that was dependent upon a The operator enters the crushing chamber,
A ~er' s ability to replace worn hammers now adjusts the equipment to suit the welding
we m es a planned maintenance procedure. position, and then resumes his position outside
co
be
UsiIlg an aut oma t"lC we ld'mg mach · · 1t IS
me . the chamber, Fig.4.
ossibl e to replace worn metal at a predeter- Using two switches on a remote control
p . ed rate, giving a flexible wear tolerance. pendant the operator controls the welding
mIll
operation and carriage direction. Control of
(b) alloy selection the amperage and wire feed speed is located
previouS experience of hammer maintenance on the wire feed unit.
the need to avoid spalling and encourage Welding is continuous until the operator
an d
an even rate of wear point to a high chromium considers the buildup to be sufficient. The
austenitic manganese steel: same procedure is used in all other rotor
positions until all hammers have been built up.
Cr Mn
C
0.3 17.0 14.0 %

Recognising the difficulty of using a gas process

in quarry site conditions, this alloy is produced
as a tubular, self-shielding, open arc wire.

(c) welding technique

To maintain hammer efficiency it is essential
to produce a square edge. In terms of welding
procedure this implies the use of three welding
or rotor pOSitions, Fig. 2, using a BUG-O
track and carriage assembly mounted on a
channel section across the door sills of the
crushing chamber, Fig. 3. The three rotor
positions may be welded using this basic setup
with a hand-operated rack-and-pinion assembly
used for accurate positioning.
Setting the rotor position takes approxi-
mately ten minutes per setup; welding deposits
vary from 4. 5-9kg/hr operating between 350 and
500A at 28-34V. Control of bead sh?pe and
thickness of deposit is provided via the variable
speed motor on the BUG-O carriage drive unit.

3 i

Worn hammer
profiie
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~
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~

j " , .'
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.~

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Rotor position 2 ,,•'
~
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2 4 *
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59
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~,
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l
(e) equipment (b) parent metal
A 650A rectifier with a wire drive unit linked Both mild steel and 14 o/olVln steel have been
to a BUG-O track and carriage · assembly. used with economics slightly in favour of the
. Results

1 The welder's productivity is increased by

latter .

(c) wear tolerance

I
150% To maintain a planned maintenance procedure it
was desirable to establish the optimum use of
2 A considerable improvement in the the hammer in terms of wear tolerance against
welder's working environment production requirements.
The hammers were replaced when the
3 Having established a wear tolerance, the corners had rounded to a point approximately
need for a night shift was reduced to 25mm below size. Depending on the type of
three sessions/week refuse, this represents a throughput of.
350-500 tonnes of solid waste.
4 The BUG-O assembly provided an excellent
uniformity of deposit thickness and
(d) choice of alloy
coverage not possible by manual or semi-
automatic methods
DISINTEGRATOR HAMMERS FOR PROCESSING
Past experience has shown that the choice of
alloy to resist impact or abrasive wear is
readily made from well-known compositions.
I
These range from the low alloy martensitic
REFUSE
Introduction
Environmental consideration of refuse disposal
I
has led to an increasing use of mechanical
pulverisor plants, the basic function of which
is to reduce solid waste to a size suitable for.
I
more efficient land filling. Pulverised
waste_ can save up to 75% of the space normally
required for unpulverised refuse, partly by the
initial settling of the end product and partly by
I
more rapid decomposition. Reduction is
achieved by feeding the solid waste into a
pulveriSing chamber containing a heavy duty
rotor with a number of swing hammers rotating
at high speeds. The waste is reduced to a
predetermined size being forced through a grate
to the collection point.
A serious economic consideration of size
reduction is the high wear rate and replace-
ment costs of the swing hammers. Worn
hammers reduce the efficiency of the plant and
the need to replace can seriously interrupt
production.
The problem

To reduce the cost of hammer maintenance and

replacement, recognising the excessive wear
factors caused by severe impact and abrasion.
Taking into consideration the design
featUres and excessive wear rates it was
natural to consider the applicaiion of a hard-
facing alloy; however, previous attempts to
solve the problem by hardfacing the contact
face of the hammer resulted in only a slight
improvement.
The thought process

(a) hammer design

The hammer - 280 x 100 x 38mm - is ideally
suited · for the application and any design
changes would not improve the wear resistance. 5

60
alloys, stainless steels, and austenitic niobium carbide structure has pr~ed to be
manganese steels for impact resistance, to the successful in similar applications , having a
high carbon chromimn and tungsten carbide hardness of 700IN with a high resistance to
alloys for resistance to abrasion. When com- impact. The composition is:
bined, as in this instance, it is necessary to C , Cr Mo Mn Nb ,Si V
select an alloy capable of . resisting impact 4.0 26.5 0.9 0.8 OZ.9 1. 5 0.4 %
without spalling and being sufficiently hard to
Welding technique
withstand abrasion. .
(il) blank preparation
(e) choice of process . Precut the corners of the blank representing
The process offering the widest selection of the area of wear tolerance, F Ig
' .5.
consumables and adaptability to workshop and
site conditions was MMA.
Solution
(a) parent metal
Using the MMA process it was considered
economically sound to choose a mild steel · blank.

(b) wear tolerance

Previous failure to significantly improve the
wear resistance by depositing a layer of hard-
facing over the wearing surfaces suggested that
it would be advantageous to provide a wear-
resistant alloy throughout the tolerance thick-
ness, thus avoiding the situation of wearing 7
through the protective layer into a. s oft parent
metal.

(c) choice of alloy

The use of an alloy with a complex chromium-

6 8

61
 (b) weld preparation blocks and repeat procedure for the second
Clamp a 37mm square x 127mm copper block corner. Apply a wash layer tq the top, front.
between two copper backing plates 127 x 127 x
12. 7mm, Fig. 6.
and back faces, Fig. 8. Allow. to cool, slowlY·
Results I
Using this solution to the problem it is noW
(Q) wllltUn; fjtl;jgedure, F1rt.7 possible to achieve a throughput of 1000 tonnes
Using an llmin diameter tubular electrode at before changing hammers. The technique
350A, strike an arc in the 'well' provided by effectively provides a wear-resistant volume of
the copper blocks and continue to weld, main- alloy in the area of wear tolerance, resultIng
taining a molten pool, filling the prepared
corner until square. Remove the copper
in a reduced wear rate and more efficient
production. I
I
I
I
I

. '1 -
~.
~.

62

c
 ardfacing civil engineering plant

E. N. Gregory

INTRODUCTION TRACTOR COMPONENTS

Ci';il engineering plant includes earthmoving
and heavy construction equipment which becomes
worn in service under the vigorous operating
conditions. Wear is caused by a number of
factors such as adhesive - metal-to-metal -
wear, abrasion, and impact acting singly or in
combination. These wear mechanisms are
described in detail in Chapter 2.
Hardfacing is used extensively to reclaim
civil engineering plant either in the field or in
repair depots and gives the following economic
advantages:
1 Maintains surface dimensions and profile
of cutting edges which increases efficiency
and reduces power costs. Examples
include teeth on mechanical shovel buckets,
and ripper, ditcher, and trencher teeth
2 Prolongs life of components which reduces
frequency of replacement and downtime
for reclamation . cra'c ks or rolled over flanges are removed by
3 Reduces capital cost, because a hardfaced
carbon steel component is generally
cheaper than one manufactured from a
wear-resistant alloy
4 A Smaller stock of replacement parts is
required
A general view of a tractor is shown in Fig. 1
and the components that are suitable for
periodic reclamation are indicated. The moving
parts that engage with other metal components
are subject to adhesive or frictional we'ar as
well as abrasion from hard mineral particles
such as sand or earth.
Track rollers, idler wheels, carrier rolls
These components, which are changed during
major overhauls, are generally reclaimed at a
depot or base workshop by specialist contractors.
The most economical method of reclamation is
by mechanised submerged-arc welding on
specially built equipment, Fig. 2.
Preparation for welding
All dirt, rust, and grease is removed from the
surfaces to be rebuilt by wire brushing, and by
solvents or steam cleaning if necessary. Any
air-arc gouging, grinding, or by pneumatic
chisels, followed by repair with mild steel basic
covered electrodes.

Many of the components in civil engineer-

ing plant such as gears and shafts, asphalt
paddles, cement screw conveyors, cement
agitators, etc. are similar to those described
in other Chapters dealing with chemical
processing plant and mechanical engineering
components. This Chapter will therefore be
restricted to typical examples of reclamation
applied to tractors and mechanical shovels. !
I
Dozer
I
blades

Dozer
I!
r.
end bits \

I!
Grousers

Idlers
I
I
Ripper teeth ;
and shanks ; Sprockets.
Track rails i
r.
1
General view of tractor and hardfaced components (Courtesy 2 Submerged-arc hardfacing tractor idler wheel (Courtesy
i
~

Stoody Company) Welding Alloys Ltd)

•'.~
(

63 \/
/
./
in
~
~
l
t
 Local preheating to lOOo-200 0 C, depending
on the parent metal, should be applied. Flat
spots caused by track rails or links skidding
over a seized roller should be built up.
The shells of some rollers contain grease
which can cause high pressure buildup during
welding if the grease holes are plugged with
dirt. Care should be taken to ensure that
such holes are unblocked before welding.
Preheat
On a new component, or on one from which all
traces of previous hardfacing deposits have
worn away, preheating to lOoo-2000C will be
necessary, depending on the carbon content of
the component which will generally vary from
0.35 to 0.55%. If a previous hardfacing deposit
is present it may be necessary to increase the
preheat up to 2500C to prevent the new weld
deposit from cracking. It is not always
possible to determine the composition of the
component nor of any previous weld deposit,
and a useful guide to the correct level of
preheat is the visual appearance of the weld
deposit. High carbon or alloy content of
parent metal or previous weld deposits will be
diluted into the new weld deposit and may
cause hydrogen-induced cracks, which are
apparent on the weld surface running transverse
to the weld. If these are present it is an
indication that the preheat should be increased.
Welding
Mechanised hardfacing produces a smooth even
deposit that in some instances will not require
machining. If machinability does not have to
be considered, increased abrasion resistance
can be obtained by the choice of a martensitic
alloy steel weld having a hardness of 450:-500HV.
If machining is to be carried out, a softer alloy
is chosen having a hardness of 250-350HV.
Weld deposits having harqnesses above 300HV
are generally machined with carbide tools to
reduce tool wear.
Semi-automatic welding with flux-cored
wires or manual metal-arc (MMA) welding can
also be used to reclaim the above components,
and with these processes the smoothness of
the deposit is increased by welding semi-
vertically from the 2 O'clock to the 1 O'clock
positions with a weaving motion over the width
of the surface to be hardfaced.
Whatever process is used a maximum of
two layers of hardfacing is deposited to give a
maximum buildup of lOmm. If the components
are worn to a depth of more than lOmm a
preliminary buildup with mild steel weld metal
I?hould be applied.
Track links
These components, which are bolted to the
track pads, become worn on one face and can
64
be reclaimed on custom-built submerged-arc
equipment. This equipment includes a bed in
which the track links are aligned and clamped
and a welding head or heads which move along
a track over the track links. Provision for
automatic arc initiation and extinction can be
included; this operates as the welding he~d
moves over each link.
Depending. on the width of the track link
up to eight runs of weld metal may be deposited
side-by-side and a maximum of two layers is
used. One run is deposited on successive links
in turn to avoid overheating the track links,
which could cause distortion of the link,
increase penetration into the parent metal, and
give difficulty in slag removal.
Templa~es are used when the welding
procedure for a particular size of track link is
being qualified. This ensures that the shape of
the rebuilt links is similar to that of new links
so that machining or grinding can be avoided.
The same weld metal as used for rollers gives
satisfactory service for track links. If mech-
anised welding equipment is not available semi-
I
automatic welding with flux-cored ' wires or
MMA can be used to rebuild track links.
Grousers
The track pads on a tractor are Imown as
grousers and have transverse bars or lUgs
which provide grip when the tractor moves.
I
These lugs become worn down fairly slowly
and the Simplest and traditional method of
reclaiming worn grousers is to flame cut the
I
lugs off and weld on mild or high tensile steel
bars with basic covered electrodes. In the
field the most convenient bar stock to use is
25mm diameter reinforcing bars which are
I
welded in situ in the flat pOSition. A preheat
of lOOoC is applied before welding.
Drive sprockets
The teeth of drive sprockets are reclaimed by
building them up to within 5mm of the final
profile with mild steel weld metal deposited by
I
MMA with basic covered electrodes or by semi-
automatic welding with flux-cored wires. The
teeth are then hardfaced to bring the contours
up to finished size with low alloy martensitic
steel weld metal having a hardness of approxi-
mately 350HV. Preheat appropriate to the
parent metal is applied before welding as
described above for rollers.
Ripper teeth and shanks
Ripper teeth are used to break up the surface
of ~alted roads and for similar applications
in which very high abrasive wear with little
impact is experienced. Therefore it is usual
practice to hardface the tops and sides of the
teeth with a tungsten carbide deposit up to a
 of 50rnm from · the point. Welding is
distance .
. d out by either the MMA or seml-
carne
.c processes. The front face of the
automa t 1
the portion of the tooth not coated
shank and
. h tungsten carbide are hardfaced with high
WIt
chromium aus ten1·t·lC Iron
· d
eposl·t s.
Bulldozer blades and end plates
Before hardfacing the blades are prebent and
clamped in a jig to compensate for the
distortion that occurs when welding on one
side only. Alternatively, two blades can be
clamped back-to-back with a .spacer be:ween
them at the centre. Hardfacmg alloy IS·
applied on the working face of the blade .
extending up to 40mm from the edge. EIther
MMA or semi -automatic welding is used to
deposit high chromium austenitic iron.
End plates become severely worn at the
outside corners and occasionally it is necessary
to weld on neW mild steel corner pieces. The
outer corners are hardfaced as well as the
sides of the working faces over a width of
40mm. The hardfacing alloys are the same as
those used for bulldozer blades.
MECHANICAL SHOVELS
The undercarriage of a mechanical shovel
consists of a tracked vehicle containing
compone:uts similar to those· of a tractor, such
as rollers and idler wheels, and hardfacing
these parts is carried out in a similar manner
on both types of plant.
The shovel buckets and teeth on them are
the other components that are subject to wear
in service and their reclamation · is described
below.
Shovel buckets
Both the internal and external surfaces of
buckets, Fig. 3, are hardfaced either by MMA
or semi-automatic welding. For the medium
abrasion resistance which is required when
sand or soil is being handled, a martensitic
alloy steel deposit is used having a hardness
of around 650HV. For the increased abrasion
resistance which is necessary when the gouging
action of rocks is encounter:ed, a high
chromium austenitic iron is used.
The pattern of the hardfacing deposit
depends on the type of material being handled.
If rocks are being shovelled the weld beads
should run in the same direction as the flow
of material. The rocks then run smoothly
over the hardfacing deposits and cause less
wear than if the weld beads ran perpendicularly
to the flow of material. The spacing of the
weld beads depends on the average size of the
rocks; Fig.3 shows welds spaced for medium-
sized rocks .
When landling loose earth, clay, or
sand the wE;ld l;>eads should be depositea at
3 Shovel bucket (Counesy Stoody Company)
right angles to the flow of material spaced at
intervals of 30mm or more. The loose
material being handied tends to pack between
the transverse weld beads and the rest of the
soil or earth flows over this stationary layer.
The spaces between the hardfacing deposits
are, therefore, protected from wear. It is
general practice to deposit both transverse
and longitudinal beads to produce a waffle or
diamond pattern and the earth tends to pack
hard into the pockets formed, particularly if
it is wet. This hard-packed layer remains in
position when the bucket is emptied and gives
additional wear resistance when the next load
is shovelled.
Shovel teeth
Whenever possible shovel teeth, Fig. 4 , should
be hardfaced when they are new. The weld
bead pattern should be similar to that used on
shovel buckets, i. e. transverse to material
flow for dirt, clay, or sand and parallel to
material fl~w when handling rocks. For a
combination of rocks and soil a waffle pattern
is used.
At the pOint of the tooth and up to 50111m
from it hardfacing is applied in closely spaced
or overlapping beads, Fig. 4. Only the top and
sides of the teeth should be hardfaced because,
if the underside is left completely free from
hardfacing, it wears preferentially and provides I
a self-sharpening effect on the tooth;
Worn teeth can sometimes be reclaimed
in situ by the application of more hardfacing in
I!
i
the area of the point, and broken paints can
be built up with mild steel or 14%Mn steel
!
I
electrodes, depending on the parent metal, prior !
to hardfacing. Severely worn teeth are I
generally replaced by spares and returned to a !
depot for reclamation. The most economical 1
method of reclamation is to weld on new
!
repointer bars which consist of wedge-shaped
i
parts in either carbon steel or 14%Mn steel.
New 14%Mn steel teeth which are used
i,
!
i
i
65
I•
I:
 under conditions of heavy impact can be
hardfaced at the points, and up to 50mm from
them, to provide some protection against
abrasion until the surface of the manganese
steel has work-hardened in service. Worn
manganese steel teeth are built up to original
I
dimensions with manganese steel weld metal,
or alternatively repointer bars are welded on
with stainless steel electrodes or flux-cored
wire. If hardfacing is carried out on either
new or reclaimed 14%Mn steel teeth the most
widely used alloy is high chromium austenitic
iron. 4 Shovel teeth (Courtesy Stoody Company)
I
On carbon steel teeth, which are gradually
replacing those of 14%Mn steel because of their
lower cost, high chromium austenitic iron is
used for hardfacing either by MMA or semi-
automatic welding.
I
I

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I

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66
12-The use of weld surfacing to solve some wear
problems in a chemical plant
P. Furnival
Many people are surprised to learn that the
chemical industry has severe wear problems
as well as those of corrosion. However, the
roces s for the production of compound granular
~ertiliSers involves handling very abrasive
mixtures, and weld surfacing is extensively
used to combat wear of components.
OUTLINE OF THE PROCESS
compound fertilisers contain a balanced com-
position of plant foods or nutrients, i. e.
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The
ratio of these nutrients varies according to the
end use of the fertiliser in that there is one
formulation for wheat, one for potatoes, and so
on.
The ratios are achieved by mixing together
ammonium nitrate, -ammonium phosphate, and
potash (potassium chloride) with an inert filler,
usually ground limestone. Other fertilisers
offer a high nitrogen yield and contain only
ammonium nitrate and limestone.
The production process depends on
recycling a certain amount of dry fertiliser
fines, to form the nuclei of granules built up
by mixing with the wet and dry ingredients.
Figure 1 shows a line diagram of the process.
The slurries are corrosive and the solids are
abrp.sive, and these are mixed in the blunger
to form a moist crumbly mixture which
becomes granules of fertiliser as it passes
through the process. The material is trans-
ferred to the drier by means of a screw
conveyor. The drier is heated by hot air and
the fan exhausts hot moist dusty air from the
exit end. The granules are screened and the
fines returned to the process. The oversize
Slurries Solids
Fines
Screw
Drier
1 F low diagram for compound granular fertiliser plant
material is crushed in a pulverisor and also
returned to the process. Four items of
equipment suffer badly from wear: the blunger,
the drier feed screw, the drier fan, and the
swing hammer pulverisor.
IMPLICATIONS OF WEAR
The plant is designed to produce fertilisers for
24hr a day, seven days a week. However, the
plant must shut down once each month for 8hr
to enable certain items to be cleaned out. It
is therefore possible · to replace worn components
at monthly intervals, provided this does not
take more than, sa}" 6hr. Therefore if
certain components wear out it does not cause a
loss of production, but does incur costs in
materials and labour. However, if an item
fails in less than one month, this means loss of
production while it is replaced. Each year
there is a maintenance shutdown lasting about
ten days, so there is an incentive to produce
components which will last at least twelve
months.
CASE HISTORIES
The blunger
(a) component
The blunger is a twin-shafted paddle mixer
with contra-rotating shafts. Each shaft has
forty-four paddles which intermesh with those
of the other shaft, Fig. 2.
(b) problem
The solids added are potash and limestone,
which is abrasive, and the slurries are
ammonium nitrate and ammonium phosphate
which are mildly corrosive. The fertiliser
compacts into the blunger body in a hard
abrasive mass as shown in the hatched area
in Fig.2b. Wear of the blunger paddle blades
mainly stems from fine particle abrasion. The
paddles were originally protected from wear
using bolted-on blades of Ni-hard, a nickel-
containing, abrasion-resistant, cast iron. The
life of the blades was between one and. two
months. but the main disadvantage was the
very brittle nature of the Ni-hard as several
cracked in service, or even during installation.
(c) solution
A programme of testing hardsurfaces on mild
steel blades was initiated. Seven likely
materials were tried, · some of which varied
only slightly in composition, Table 1. Hard-
67
Solids Slurries

130

6m
o o I
(a)
1
To drier feed screw
,

1-1·-----175 ------1·1
I

3 Hardfaced mild steel blunger blade; dimensions in millimetres

I• 1.3m ---------~~I
,
I

I
I
(b)

2 Blunger: (a) longitudinal section, (b) cross·section 2 3

4 Deposit undermined because of comer effect

Table 1 Hardfacing types tested on blunger
blades hardfacing, but if the gap between runs is
Significantly wider than the weld bead the
Types Life, product does not stick and the mild steel is
tested weeks undermined between the runs. This caused
the first failure. The second arose because
1 Ni-hard control 4 insufficient weld surfacing was applied to the
2 Tube carbide 1 4 leading corner, Fig.4, so that the coating was
3 Tube carbide 2 12 undermined and became detached before it had
4 500/aGo base, Cr, W, C 4 worn away.
5 86%Fe base, Mo, C 8 When the blades are worn at the tips it is
6 55%Fe base, Cr, Mo, Co, C 8 possible to resurface them and use them again.
7 50%Fe base, Cr, Mo, Nb, W, C 24 Care must be taken when doing this to keep
8 50%Fe base, Cr, Mo, W, Nb, V, C 40 the thickness below about 6mm, otherwise the
contracting weld stresses cause the brittle
facing No.8 was chosen as standard and Fig. 3 coating to spall off.
shows how it was applied. Three runs of weld Further tests have been made with more
metal were applied to the top and sides, and hardfacing electrodes, and a material deSignated
a series of single runs in the form of a lattice NO.9 has been chosen as the standard. This
work were applied to the working face. is a sintered tungsten carbide electrode which
The life of the blades had now increased lasts for twelve months, i. e. from one planned
to between four and six months. However, shutdown to the next.
there were some unexpected failures after
Drier feed screw
only two months owing to a poor deposition
technique. The lattice work is used to reduce (a) component
the amount of hardfacing applied. The product The drier feed screw is a screw conveyor for
builds up in the spaces and forms its own transporting moist granular fertiliser into a

68
 .- -~

rotary kiln type drier. It consists of an open

ribbon scroll rotating in a mild steel.trough.
The fertiliser mixture is sticky and compacts
in the trough to form an abrasive mass, Fig. 5a.
The fertilisers handled contain a high proportion
of grolUld limestone which is very abrasive to
the scroll.

(b) problem
The outer edge or tip of the scroll was
originally hardfaced with No. 13 , a high
carbon electrode giving a hardness around
650I-I V. The life obtained, before it was
necessary to renew the hardfacing, was about
four weeks. However, changes in the formu-
lation of certain fertilisers produced an
unacceptable rate of wear and scrolls were
being replaced after five to nine days. New
hardfacing materials were sought and trials
were carried out, Table 2.

(c) solution
The hardfacing selected was chromium carbide
in an iron-base matrix. The life of the scrolls
increased dramatically to between eight and
twelve weeks, but a new problem now appeared.
The hardfaced tips were lasting so long that
(a) the face of the ribbon was wearing away
adjacent to the tipping. It was therefore
necessary to protect this area of the face.
-This could have been achieved by laying down
a continuous deposit on the outer half of the
ribbon face, which would have been expensive
in material, so a lattice work of weld runs
was deposited, Fig. 5b. The product will
adhere to the exposed mild steel between the
(b)
runs, and provide its own wear facing. A
single layer of weld metal was used for the
5 Drier feed screw showing: (a) buildup offeniliser in trough
lattice, and two or three layers for the tip
and on scroll, (b) lattice hardfacing where the rate of wear is greatest. The life

Table 2 Hardfacing materials used in the trials on a dried feedscrew

Number Type Applied by

1 Cast Ni-hard*
2 Tube carbide 1 MMA
3 Tube carbide 2 MN.£A
4 50%Co base, Cr, W, C GTA bare rod
5 86%Fe base, Mo, C GTA bare rod
6 55% Fe base, Cr, Mo, Co, C GTA bare rod
7 50%Fe base, Cr, Mo, Nb, W, e MMA
8 50%Fe base, Cr, Mo, Vj, Nb, V, e MMA
9 Sintered tlUlgsten carbide MMA
10 61%Fe base, Cr, C MMA
11 Developmental alloy GT A covered rod
12 Chromium boride paste GTA fusion
13 Fe base high carbon MN.£A
14 Ni base, W, C, self-fluxing Spray fuse

*Cast Ni-hard was used as the control in the blunger blade trials

69
Table 3 Ranking of wear resistance for
coatings on drier fan blades
use a solid plate vane. This should reduce the
rate of wear and also enable repairs to be
-II
carried out on-line. The new design is to be
Number Coating type Ranking
(1==best)
installed soon, hardfaced with the cheaper
chromium carbides, ' and a long life is expected. '1
CONCLUSIONS
9
8
Sintered tungsten carbide
50%Fe base, Cr, Mo, W,
1
2 These four examples show that it is necessary
! 1
Nb, V, C to understand the mechanism of wear to select
4 50%Co base, Cr, W, C 3 the appropriate type of hardfacing. ' They also
10 Fe base, Cr, C 4 demonstrate that similar compositions can give . -,
11 Developmental alloy 5 very different results. Even when the best
7 50%Fe base, Cr, Mo, Nb, 6 alloy has been selected, this is not the end of
W, C the story. Th~ chemical industry is constantly
12 Chromium boride, 7 changing the processes and products to increase
self-fluxing efficiency and to satisfy a changing demand.
This means that new conditions are created and
expect to achieve twelve months' service from new hardfacing solutions required. Weld
the sintered tungsten carbide coating. This surfacing is extensively used because the
makes the cost of coating greater than the expertise is available in the workshops and the
manufacturing cost of the plain fan impellor. components are amenable to reclamation and
Therefore a new design is proposed which will repair.

I
I
I
I
I
I

7,2

Hardfacing valves and rota ry f eeders
S.Graing er
HARDFACING PLUGS FOR FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Component
The plug fitted to a double-beat flow control
have various profiles and, for the
1 can
vave .
ose of ill ustratmg how hardfacing may be.
purpd to i:rnprove servlce
. life, p 1ugs h '
avmg a
;:~abolic profile will be used as an example.
Typical valVes range from 50-200mm diameter.
FloW control valves are used to handle a
wide variety of aggressive fluids which may
include abrasive solids in suspension. Flow
rates may be high with a Significant pressure
drop acrOss the valve.
Materials
Plugs are frequently made from austenitic
stainless steel to give satisfactory corrosion
resistance, but resistance to erosion and
abrasion of this steel is low. The guide
spindle of the plug moves in bushes fitted to
the valve body and the bearing properties of
austenitic stainless steel are poor.
The selection of a hardfacing alloy for a
valve must take into account the particular
working conditions, but resistance to corrosion,
abrasion, and erosion is clearly required
together with good bearing properties. . These
require:rnents are best satisfied by hardfacing
alloys of the cobalt- or nickel-base type, .and
manufacturers publish data and provide advice
on the selection of the most suitable alloy in
the range for a given application. A typical
hardfacing material would be Deloro Stellite
SF 6.
Extent of protection
Most floW control valves are intended to shut
when necessary, so integrity of the two seating
surfaces ~s essential. Erosion can be severe
when operating with the seats just open, and
any attack on them would prevent subsequent
sealing.
In some applications the seats may be the
only area requiring protection, but iri more
severe conditions erosion of the parabolic
profile way occur; this will progressively
affect the flow control characteristics of the
valve. In such Circumstances hardfacing the
entire parabolic profile is carried out.
Reference has been made above to the
poor bearing characteristics of stainless steel,
but this can be greatly improved by hardfacing.
f
.!
The guide spindles of double-beat valves are
frequently hardfaced to avoid 'pickup' with the
guide bushes, to minimise wear in the presence
of abrasive solids, and to prevent fretting
when valves are subject to vibration in use.
Hardfacing processes and techniques
In most hardfacing applications more than one
process can be used with acceptable results;
factors such as equipment availability and the
skills possessed by operators may outweigh the
theoretical advantages of a given process. The
possibilities described below are based on
actual practice, and comments are given to
explain the advantages and disadvantages in
each example.
Protection of seat area only
(a) oxyacetylene
Cheap, freely available, and uses the cheapest
consumable rod; capable of giving very low
intermixing of the hardfacing alloy with the
base metal which is desirable to obtain the
highest wear-resistant properties in the deposit.
Good" control of weld bead profile. Requires
fairly high preheat in ilie base metal, but, when
used on austenitic stainless, the steel must be
stabilised against weld decay with niobium, not
titanium, as the latter can lead to porous
deposits.
(b) gas-shielded tungsten arc (GT A)
More· expensive equipment ilian oxyacetylene
and liable to give less wear-resistant deposits
owing to dilution wiili base metal. With care
and correct technique this effect can be
minimised. More tolerant of titanium-bearing
stainless steel base metals than oxyacetylene.
(c) powder welding
Similar to oxyacetylene. Powder consumable
costs more than rod and some powder is lost
in overspray"
Protection of seats, parabolic surfaces, and guide spindles
(a) oxyacetylene, GTA, and powder welding
All the comments in the iliree previous para-
graphs apply, and valves have been faced by
these processes. As a result, however, of
problems in maintaining a smooth deposit of
uniform thickness on the parabolic profile,
subsequent machining or grinding is necessary,
and with hard deposits this is expensive.
73
 ~
I
Oscillation of head Plasma torch
AC
1
1J
\ --I J
l --I
Base steel

I
8 Plasma hot wire !
Base steel !
transferred arc is maintained between a 1
6 Six-wire multiweave 1·ece. A
tungsten electrode and the workP d metal into
(d) six-wire multiweave
This process employs six oscillating arcs,
Fig. 6. The proximity of each arc is arranged
so that deposits of one overlap and fuse into
.
The proce ss should not be co
e
secondary gas flow feeds powder arc orifice.
the arc plasma stream beloW the d ·th
nfuse W1
sferred arc
plasma spraying in which a nontran5 to 6mm
I
the other_ Deposition rates of 45kg/arc hour
are claimed as possible.
is used. Fused deposits from O. 2
thick can be produced with cobalt-, n
and iron-based hardfl:lcing alloYS .
ickel-
, I
!

I
(e) bulk weld process
In this process an arc is maintained between PROCESS APPLICATION h' h
have 19
the wire electrode and the granular metal, Weld surfacing processes sho ul d s of
. e){ces
both melting to produce the surfacing deposit. deposition rates, preferably 1n a total
The graded granular metal enables a wide
range of compositiOns to be deposited. In
addition, the granular metal absorbs the arc
14kg/arc hour, to be competitive o:ral
cost, time, a nd quality basiS.
processes previously outlined cove
this
_
Se; I
heat in melting, reducing diI ution to a mini-
mum . The use of this process is mainly in
the hardfacing field where deposition rates
requirement, Fig. 9.
.
kg/arc h our, 1. h
e. per our 0
. terms of
These rates are reported ill t'nuo us
f con 1
oduc
tion oper-
I
of 27kg/arc hour have been reported_ The operatIOn. However, actua P r
. - 1 he percentage
process is shown in Fig_ 7.

Rod
ation would not be continuouS.
of time that a process is actuallY
weld metal is referred to as
T depositing
the operatlng
.
duction vary
I
factor. Operating factors in pro may be
from fabricator to fabricator and
anything from 30 to 75%.
J
Travel
.. Two questions then arise:
Flux a technically
1 Which process can produce

Base steel Metal powder Submerged-arc

electrode extension
(single) I2R heating bY
7 Bulk weld
~"",,""""'-----, Dual arc
GMA
Gas-shielded wire . third cold wire
Plasma hot wire Feedlngddle
Series arc
A variation of the GMA welding process is intO pU
shown in Fig. 8. An arc is established between Strip
the base material and the plasma torch, two
Twin arc
secondary wires are then fed into the molten
using tubular wire
pool. An AC current is passed through the
Plasma hot wire
two secondary wires to produce 12R heating.
Thus, the two wires are virtually molten when Bulk weld
they enter the arc. By controlling the current
and wire feed. deposition rates of 36kg/ arc Strip wire
hour are claimed with dilutions between 10 and Dual strip
15%.

Gas·shielded powder
40
10 20
Plasma arc surfacing I Y processes, kg/arc hr
In plasma arc weld surfacing a constricted 9 Reported deposition rates of weld o~,er a

J 78
 acceptable deposit? c
~
2 What is the cost (bearing in mind the *-x
previous point) of weld surfacing per tq Austenite
a
square metre of base material area? +
U
*-x
Consideration of which welding process to .use 20
a
cry
The cost of depositing weld metal is a function +
of several variables; Z
*-
Initial equipment investment ....c
1 ., 10
2 Labour overhead and operating factor 0;
.~
3 Cost of welding consumables such as strip, ::l
.,U
wire, flux, and gas .,
~
u
4 Availability of equipment on the shopfloor Z
5 Desired chemistry and thickness of surface
6 Ability to achieve deposits with required
Chromium equivalent = %Cr + %Mo + 1.5 x %Si + 0.5 x %Nb
chemical composition
7 Percentage dilution and number of layers 10
required
It is a well-known fact that fully austenitic
weld metals are prone to solidification cracking.
Referring to Fig.9 it can be seen that the six-
This may be suppressed by either;
wire multiweave process gives the highest
deposition rate in kg/hr with the dual strip
(a)controlling the manganese-to-silicon ratio,
process running fairly parallel. However, the
or
highest deposition rate process does not
(b) deliberately producing a percentage of {;
necessarily give the best technical results.
ferrite in the weld metal structure
These processes may cause problems in
It is more usual to introduce a percentage of
shopfloor techniques and hence somewhat reduce
6 ferrite generally of the order of 5-12% which
process efficiency because of the steps that
ensures metallurgical soundness.
must be taken to accommodate them.
A further problem is that of the carbon
METALLURGICAL VARIABLES FOR WELD SURFACING content of the surfacing. Generally the wire
PROCESSES or strip consumable is limited to O. 03 %C
Since the quality of the weld surfacing is of
maximum. However, when depositing this on
prime importance, the metallurgical variables
to a base material of up to o. 25%C, it is
common to the above processes should be
possible to end up with a carbon content of
briefly explained.
between 0.05 and 0.1% in the surface_ For
Control of weld chemistry c
~ 24
The successful deposition of a single or multi-
~
layer deposit on a carbon or low alloy steel + 23
base material demands a complete understand- Z
ing of the following; *-x 22
a
~ 21
1 The base metal metallurgy +
2 The surfacing metal metallurgy U 20
*-x
3 Control of the welding process and a 19
consumables ~
+ 18
z
Surfacing involves a dissimilar metal *- 17
joint over large areas between the base metal ....c
., 16
and the coating. Unless this operation is 0;
>

.".,-"
correctly carried out it is very easy to obtain J;j 15
very lLTldesirable metallurgical structures. Q;
When surfacing with stainless steel it is ~
u 14
necessary to refer to the Schaeffler diagram, z
13
Fig. 10, to achieve the necessary chemical and
metallurgical control of the coating. 12

The problem of material selection and 18 " 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

target composition is shown by boxes formed Chromium equivalent = %C + Mo + (1.5 x %Si) + (0.5 x %Mo)
by the compositional limits of the various
alloys on a modified Schaeffler diagram, Fig. 11. 11 Modified Schaeffler diagram showing composition of typical
stainless steels used in overlays

79
 nI
1971 ANON. 'Open-arc hardfacing: use of high speed cored wire welding'. Welding and
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BELL, G.R. 'Hardfacing alloys, Pt 1: Ni-base alloys'. Surfacing J., ~ (6), April
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BELL, G.R. 'Hardfacing alloys. Pt 2: Co-base alloys'. Surfacing J., ~ (7), July
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II r
BUCKINGHAM, H. C. 'Roll reclamation by submerged-arc welding'. Surfacing J., 2
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11I .
ELLIS, D. J. 'Surfacing for wear resistance on screw flights'. Surfacing J . , 2 (5),
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GALE, K. 'Wearfacing gets more work out of moving parts'. Engineer, 233 (6023), !I
12 August 1971, 23-6.

1972 BUTLER, B. S. 'Protection of blast furnace bell and hopper charging systems by
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II
DAEMEN, R. 'Hardsurfacing a summary of some basic principles'. Surfacing J.,
~ (4), October 1972, 4-9.

DONOVAN, M. 'Report on the NATO Advanced Study Institute meeting on The Science
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GONCHAROV, V. P. et al. 'Prolonging the life of Pilger mill rolls by hardfacing

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HAZZARD, R. 'Surface coatings, 2 - Arc-welded coatings'. Tribology, 5 (5),

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LEMOINE, J. 'Fundamental and practical metallurgical considerations of welding

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YUZVENKO, Yu. A. 'Cored electrode wires for metal deposition'. Automatic Welding,
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1973 BROUWER, G. and KOSTENSE, J. 'Philips flux-cored wires and their properties'.
." l
.i
I J
Philips Welding Reporter, ~ (1), 1973, 5-14.
II
COOKSON, C. 'Wear facing of fans'. Surfacing J., ! (1), January 1973, 7-12.

KALB, J. 'Wear and Philips hardfacing alloys'. Philips Welding Reporter, Q. (3),
flh i

~
1973, 13-20, 23.

~
MUYSEN, L. van. 'Hardfacing with Co:C'r :X alloys by arc welding process, Pt 1'.
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MUYSEN, L. van. 'Hardfacing with Co:Cr:X alloys by arc welding process, Pt 2'.
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OSBOM, A. J. 'Hardfacing in the mining industry'. Australian lVIining, 65 (10), 1973,

56 -7, 60-iH.

86
 REY, M. 'Outline of a relation between classes of wear and types of surfacing layer
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SOLDATKIN, A. P., GAPCHENKO, M. N., and AGULOV, 1. 1. 'The mechanised

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SCHMIDT-BACH, H. 'Combating wear by manual and mechanised hardfacing

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WALTERS, L. J. 'Flame-sprayed protective coatings for iron and steel'. Surfacing

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1974 ANON. 'Surfacing: a sure cure for rundown parts and profits'. Welding Design and
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COOKSON, C. 'Cheap or expensive: the choice'. Surfacing J., ~ (1), 1974, 16-17.

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SMITH, V. 'Practical hardfacing in various industries'. FWP J., 14 (11), 1974,

45-6,48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 58.

THOMASSON, H. 'Hardfacing (surfacing) ferrous metals'. Canadian Welder and

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87
 STEPANOV, B. V. et al. 'Development of surfacing materials for components such as
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UTIN, I. A. and SHA NDRE NKO, G. I. 'Mechanised building up in the manufacture and
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1976 ANON. 'Hardfacing, Pt 2: The facts that make it necessary'. Welding News (162),
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ANON. 'Manual arc hardfacing earthmoving equipment'. Afrox News, January 1976,
11.

ANON. 'New series gets down to basics on hardfacing techniques, Pt 1'. Welding
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BUDINSKI, K. G. 'Surfacing 1 What a designer needs to knbw'. Welding Design

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FREIN, M. J. and TUCKER, R. C. 'Coatings improve performance of steel mill

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1977 HAGUE, F. 'Some aspects of weld reclamation at BHPs Newcastle iron and · steel
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I
1378 GREGO~S, E. N. 'Hardfacing'. Tribology Int'l, !l (2), April 1978, 129-34. I
F~
HAGUE, F. et al. 'The effectiveness of hardfacing - the analysis of field trials'. ~

Australian Welding J., 22 (2), March/April 1978, 16-19.

I
SMART, R. F.
97 - 104.
'Selection of surfaCing treatment'. Tribology Int'l, !l (2), April 1978,
I
I
m
w

88