Solvation Energy

 The energy of solvation is the amount of energy released/absorbed with dissolving a

solute in a solvent. If it is a positive number, the dissolving process is endothermic; if it
is negative, it's exothermic.

 If the process is Exothermic: Energy is released and solution feels warm or

hot.

 If the process is Endothermic: Energy is absorbed feels cool or cold

A covalent bond consists of the mutual sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between two
atoms. These electrons are simultaneously attracted by the two atomic nuclei. A covalent bond
forms when the difference between the electronegativities of two atoms is too small for an
electron transfer to occur to form ions.
 Lewis Structure

 A Lewis Structure is a very simplified representation of the valence shell electrons in a molecule.

 It is used to show how the electrons are arranged around individual atoms in a molecule.

 Electrons are shown as "dots" or for bonding electrons as a line between the two atoms

How to draw Lewis Diagrams

The following is an example of how to draw the Lewis structure for molecule (learning by examp

 First determine the total number of valence electrons in the molecule.

 Then complete the Octet of each bonding atom and write the other electrons as dots
For Cl = number of valence electron is = 7

For Cl2 molecule: complete the octet of each Cl

For completing Octet, only one electron is shared between two Cl atom, and remaining
electrons lie as unpaired electrons

:
:
: :

:
:
 Lewis structure of O2

For O (Z = 8) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p4 ( Valence electron = 6)

Two complete the Octet, 2 electron are needed for each O, the other electrons remain as unpaired
electrons

:
:
: :
 Heitler-London approach

The bonding in H2 molecule can be considered to have interaction of two electrons and two proto

Since the hydrogen molecule H2 was formed from a combination of hydrogen atoms A a
a first approximation to its electronic wavefunction might be

ψ(r1, r2) = ψ1s(r1A)ψ1s(r2B)………………..1

 However, the calculated binding
energy De ≈ 0.25 eV, is much too
small to account for the strongly-
bound H2 molecule. Heitler and
London proposed that it was
necessary to take into account
the exchange of electrons.

ψ(r1, r2) = ψ1s(r1A)ψ1s(r2B) + ψ1s(r1B)ψ1s(r2A)

 Resonance and Resonance Energy

 It involves constructing multiple Lewis structures that, when combined,

represent the full electronic structure of the molecule. 

 Resonance structures are used when a single Lewis structure cannot fully

describe the bonding

 The combination of possible resonance structures is defined as a resonance

hybrid, which represents the overall delocalization of electrons within the
molecule.

 In general, molecules with multiple resonance structures will be more stable

than one with fewer and some resonance structures contribute more to the
stability of the molecule than others - formal charges aid in determining this.