Energy resources Renewable energy resources: *Renewable energy resources are mostly biomass based and are available in unlimited amount in nature. * since these can be renewed (i.e., regenerated in natural process) over relatively short period of time. *Renewable energy sources are inexhaustible, i.e., they can be replaced after we use them and can produce energy again and again. b&ad TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY Wind energy: the energy obtained from the wind. Solar energy: the energy obtained from the sun. The main technologies here are solar photovoltaic (using the light from the sun) and solar thermal (using the sun’s heat). Hydraulic or hydroelectric energy: energy obtained from rivers and other freshwater currents. Biomass and biogas: energy extracted from organic material. Geothermal energy: heat energy from inside the Earth. Tidal energy: energy obtained from the tides. Wave energy: energy obtained from ocean waves. Bioethanol: organic fuel suitable for vehicles and obtained from fermentation of vegetation. Biodiesel: organic fuel for vehicles, among other applications, obtained from vegetable oilsNon-renewable (exhaustible) energy resources -Non-renewable energy resources are available in limited amount and develop over a longer period of time. As a result of unlimited use, they are likely to be exhausted one day. -These include - + various fossil fuels, + firewood (or fuelwood) obtained from forest, » petroplants, -plant biomass (as agricultural wastes like bagasse), «animal dung — including petroleum products, coal and natural gas -nuclear energy. The global resources of fossil fuel and uranium and thorium are limited and will be eventually be depleted.ee ae + use of fossil fuels for energy has negative environmental, such as- + air pollution, -global warming, vacid rains -oil spills. -Thus, it has become essential to minimise the use of fossil fuels and to replace them with renewable resources: Conventional sources of energy -The conventional sources of energy are generally non-renewable: sources of energy, which are being used since-a long time: -These sources of energy are being used extensively in such a way that their known reserves have been depleted to a great extent. - At the same time it is becoming increasingly difficult to discover and 2 their new deposits.—_ SE a Conventional sources of energy are given below: Coal le Coal is one of the most important sources of energy and is being used for various purposes: such as fuel-for boilers and:steam engines and for generation of electricity by thermal:plants: Coal has also become a precious source of production of chemicals of industrial importance coal:is and:will continue to be the mainstay of power generation in India. It constitutes about 70% of total commercial energy consumed in the country: Crude oil or petroleum: fe It is believed that petroleum has:been formed over a period of millions of years through conservation of remains of plants, animals and micro- organism, living in sea,.in hydrocarbon by heat, pressure-and catalytic SSz =" 2. Petroleum is a clear fuel_as compared to coal as:it burns completely and leaves no residue: 3. It is also easier to transport and use. Petroleunvis largely used in transportation, operating water lifting engines, generators, etc. Natural gas: 1. Natural gas, a fossil fuel-gift from nature, is composed of methane (96%) with small amounts of propane and ethane: 2. Natural: gas deposits often accompany oil deposits:or may occur independently. It is the: cleanest source of energy among fossil fuels. Nuclear energy 1. Nuclear energy can be generated by nuclear fission in which nucleus of certain isotopes with large mass number is splitted in to lighter nuclei on bombardment of neutrons.== 2. In order to release a huge amount of energy through a chain reaction or by nuclear fusion in which two isotopes of light elements are forced to form a heavier nucleus releasing enormous energy in the process. 3. The heat energy produced as a result of either of the process is used to produce steam which runs electric turbine and generates electricity. The process of nuclear fusion is difficult to initiate but releases more energy then nuclear fission. Non-conventional sources of energy * The increasing use of fossil fuels is leading to its shortage. eit is estimated that if the present rate of consumption continues, the reserves of these fuel will get exhausted. their use also causes environmental pollution. *Therefore, there is need for using non-conventional sourcessce tl + All these sources are renewable or inexhaustible and do not cause environmental pollution. More over, they do not require heavy expenditure. -They are capable of solving the twin problems of energy supply in decentralised manner and helping in sustaining cleaner environment. °All these sources are renewable or inexhaustible and do not cause environmental pollution. *More over, they do not require heavy expenditure. “They are capable of solving the twin problems of energy supply in decentralised manner and helping in sustaining cleaner environment.Bioenergy + This is a type of renewable energy derived from biomass to create heat and electricity (or to produce liquid fuels used for transportation, like ethanol and biodiesel). * Biomass refers to any organic matter coming from recently living plants or animals. *Even though bioenergy generates about the same amount of carbon dioxide as fossil fuels, the replacement plants grown as biomass remove an equal amount of CO2 from the atmosphere, keeping the environmental impact relatively neutral. There are a variety of systems used to generate this type of electricity, ranging from directly burning biomass to capturing and using methane gas produced by the natural decomposition of organic material.EE Depending onthe operation, there:are: many ways to:incorporate bioenergy into sustainable energy plans. 1. Organisations can convert to fleet vehicles that use-biofuels such as ethanol or biodiesel. Manufacturing facilities can be equipped to burn biomass directly, producing steam captured by a turbine to generate electricity. Farm operations can-convert waste from livestock into electricity using small, modular systems. Towns can'tap the methane gas created by the anaerobic digestion of organic waste in landfills and use:it as fuel-for generating electricity. 2.Solar energy * This is the most direct use of renewable energy source by capturing the Sun. energy directly. + A variety of solar energy technologies are used to convert the Sun energy and light into heat, illumination, hot water, electricity and cooling systems:for businesses and industry. +Photovoltaic (PV) systems use solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity. *Solar hot water systems can be used to heat buildin igs by circulating water through flat-plate solar collectors: * The Sun heat can be concentrated by mirror covered dishes that are focused to boil water in a conventional steam generator to produce electricity: * Commercial and:industrial buildings can-also lev ‘erage the Sun power for larger- scale needs such as ventilation, heating and cooli ing.Solar energy + This is the most direct use of renewable energy source by capturing the Sun energy directly. * A variety of solar energy technologies-are-used to convert the Sun energy and light into heat, illumination, hot water, electricity and:cooling systems for businesses and industry. *Photovoltaic (PV) systems use solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity. «Solar hot water systems'can be used to heat buildings by circulating water through flat-plate solar collectors. « The Sun heat can be concentrated by mirror covered dishes that are focused to: boil water in'a conventional:steam generator to produce electricity * Commercial and industrial buildings can also leverage the:Sun: power for larger- scale needs such as ventilation, heating and cooling.Wind Energy * Wind can be:considered a form of solar energy because winds are caused by the uneven heating and cooling of the atmosphere by the Sun (as well as the rotation of the Earth and other topographical factors). *Wind flow can be captured by turbines and converted into electricity. * Onasmaller scale, windmills are:still used today to pump water on farms.Commercial: grade wind-powered generating systems are available to meet the renewable energy needs of many organisations: 1. Single wind turbines generate electricity as a supplement to'an organisations existing electrical supply. 2. Utility-scale wind farms generate electricity that canbe purchased on the wholesale power market, either contractually or through a competitive bid process.== Hydrogen * Hydrogen is the simplest (comprised of one proton and one electron) and most abundant element in the universe, yet it does not occur naturally as a gas on Earth. * it is found in organic compounds (hydrocarbons:such as gasoline, natural gas, methanol and propane)-and water (H20). *Hydrogen can also be produced under certain conditions by some algae and bacteria using sunlight as an energy source. * Hydrogen is high in energy, yet produces little or no pollution when burned. + Hydrogen fuel cells convert the potential chemical energy of hydrogen into electricity, with pure water and heat as the only roducts.= Other practical applications for this type of renewable energy include: 1. Large fuel cells providing emergency electricity for buildings and remote locations. 2. Marine vessels powered by hydrogen fuel cells. Ocean energy “There are two types of ener; energy from the Sun heat ani waves. By that can be produced by the ocean: thermal id mechanical energy from the motion of tides and * Ocean mechanical energy han nesses the ebbs and flo tion of the Earth and the g Tavitational influence of Ws of tides caused by the the Moon,__ Energy from wind driven waves can-also be converted and used to cut business electricity costs. Practical-uses for energy derived from the ocean: include the following: 1. Cold ocean water fromdeep below the surface:can: be used to:cool- buildings (with desalinated water as a. common by-product). 2. Seaside communities can employ the methods to tap:natural ocean energy described above to supplement municipal. power and energy needs. Geothermal energy * Geothermal energy, is derived from the heat of the Earth itself. * This heat can be sourced close to the surface or from heated rock and reservoirs of hot water miles beneath our feet.EE Energy from wind driven waves can also be converted and used to cut business electricity costs. Practical uses for energy derived from the ocean include the following: 1. Cold ocean water from deep below the surface can be used to cool buildings (with desalinated water as a common by-product). 2. Seaside communities can employ the methods to tap natural ocean energy described above to supplement municipal power and energy needs. Geothermal energy * Geothermal energy, is derived from the heat of the Earth itself. * This heat can be sourced close to the surface or from heated rock and reservoirs of hot water miles beneath our feet.— oe Principles of Solar Cells, LEDs and Diodes » Transistors are thought of as one of the most important developments of the twentieth century and they have given rise to the computer age as well as to compact, reliable electronics found in everything from televisions to cell phones. » Diodes had been developed before the transistor and were used for rectification whereby alternating current can be converted to direct current by employing the unidirectional property of diodes: current normally only flows efficiently in one direction through a diode, and current flow is blocked in the opposite direction. This property of diodes is exploited in power supplies as well as in y other circuits.on =understanding of diodes is required to explain the principles of transistors, diodes are frequently presented as a stepping stone to the transistor. = In the twenty-first century, however, two new major industries are undergoing very rapid developments based directly on the p-n junction diode. =Photovoltaic (PV) solar cells and light emitting diodes (LEDs) are both p-n junctions that are designed and optimized to either absorb or emit light. =|n both cases, an energy conversion process between photons and electrons occurs within a p-n junction.Semiconductors *Semiconductors have the capacity to absorb light and to deliver a portion of the energy of the absorbed photons to carriers of electrical current — electrons and holes. *A semiconductor diode separates and collects the carriers and conducts the generated electrical current preferentially in a specific direction. ea solar cell is simply a semiconductor diode that has been carefully designed and constructed to efficiently absorb and convert light energy from the sun into electrical energy.A simple conventional solarcell structure joer | — Antiretlective ayer ls Metal contact — Figure 3.1 A schematic of a simple conventional solar cell. Creation of electron-hole pairs. e~ and h*. respectively. 1s depicted= =" Asimple conventional solarcell structure Figure 3.1 A schemane of a simple conventional solar ceil. Cr and h*. respectively, 1s depreted 1m of electron-hole parts. 7- =a Asimple conventional solarcell structure ! J Sunn | Metal grid | Anurettectrve layer — naype layer] | tt | | Metal contact — Figure 3.1. A schemanic of a simple conventional solar cell. Creation of electron-hole pairs. e7 and h*. respectively, 18 depicted~~ * Sunlight is incident from the top on the front of the solar cell. A metallic grid forms one of the electrical contacts of the diode and allows light to fall on the semiconductor between the grid lines and thus be absorbed and converted into electrical energy. *An antireflective layer between the grid lines increases the amount of light transmitted to the semiconductor. The semiconductor diode is fashioned when an n-type semiconductor and a p-type semiconductor are brought together to form a metallurgical junction. This is typically achieved through diffusion or implantation of impurities (dopants) or via a deposition process. The diode’s specific er on the back of other electrical contact is formed by a metallic lay: the solar cell. ies=_ *All electromagnetic radiation, including sunlight, is composed of Particles called photons, which carry specific amounts of energy determined by the spectral properties of their source. Photons also exhibit a wavelike character. * Only photons with sufficient energy to create an electron-hole pair, that is, those with energy greater than the semiconductor band gap (EG), will contribute to the energy conversion process. Thus, the spectral nature of sunlight is an important consideration in the design of efficient solar cells.=_ Band theory of solids A fundamental understanding of electron behaviour in crystalline solids is available using the band theory of solids. This theory explains a number of fundamental attributes of electrons in solids including: (i) concentrations of charge carriers in semiconductors; (ii) electrical conductivity in metals and semiconductors; (iii) optical properties such as absorption and photoluminescence; (iv) properties associated with junctions and surfaces of semiconductors and metals. This is essential for a proper understanding of p-n junction devices, which constitute both the photovoltaic (PV) solar cell and the light- emitting diode (LED). (OeThe Band Theory of Solids 1) The simplest picture is to consider a single atom with its set of discrete energy levels for its electrons. 2) The electrons occupy quantum states with quantum numbers n, |, m and s denoting the energy level, orbital and spin state of the electrons. 3) Now if a number N of identical atoms are brought together in very close proximity as in a crystal, there is some degree of spatial overlap of the outer electron orbitals. 4) This means that there is a chance that any pair of these outer electrons from adjacent atoms could trade places. The Pauli exclusion principle, however, requires that each electron occupy a unique energy state. Ni ee== 5) therefore a set of outermost electrons from the N atoms all appear to share a spatially extended energy state that extends through the entire crystal. 6) The Pauli exclusion principle can only be satisfied if these electrons occupy a set of distinct, spatially extended energy states. This leads to a set of slightly different energy levels for the electrons that all originated from the same atomic orbital. 7) the atomic orbital splits into an energy band containing a set of electron states having a set of closely spaced energy levels. Additional energy bands will exist if there is some degree of spatial overlap of the atomic electrons in lower-lying atomic orbitals. 8) This results in a set of energy bands in the crystal. Electrons in the lowest-lying atomic orbitals will remain virtually unaltered since ere is virtually no spatial overlap of these electrons in the crystal.= >it suggests that electrical conductivity may arise in a crystal'due to the formation of spatially extended electron states. > These mobile charge carriers are crucially important in terms of the electrical properties of devices: > An electron inside an infinitely large-vacuum chamber is a free electron, but a mobile electron in a solid behaves very differently. >The mobile electrons in a crystalline semiconductor are influenced by the electric potential in the material. This potential has a spatial periodicity on an atomic scale due to the crystal _ structure. For example, positively charged atomic sites provide potential allaue to a mobile electron and negatively charged atomic sites jotential peaks or barriers.== *The quantitative description of these spatially extended electrons requires the use of wave functions that include their spatial distribution as well as their energy and momentum. These wave functions may be obtained by solving Schrodinger’s equation. *The dynamic behavior of the electron can be established from the electron wave function,w, which is obtained by solving the time- independent Schrodinger’s equation Vat SHE —U®)Iy =0 i Where mis electron mass, his the reduced Planck constant, E is the energy of the electron, and U(r) is the periodic potential energy ing semiconductor.<== the solution defines.the band structure:(the allowed electron energies and the relationship between the electron’s energy and momentum) of the semiconductor and, amazingly, tells us that the quantum mechanically computed motion of the electron in the crystal °A simplified energy band structure is illustrated in Figure. “The allowed electron energies are plotted:against the crystal momentum, p=hk, wherek is the wave vector, corresponding to the wave function solutions of the Schrodinger equation. *energy bands below the valence band occupied by electrons and those above Presumed to be empty. are presumed to be fully the conduction band areConduction ~ Electrons ey 7 Holes Figure 3.3 A simplified energy band diagram at T > 0 K for a direct band gap (Eg) semiconduc- tor. Electrons near the maxima in valence band have been thermally excited to the empty states near the conduction-band minima, leaving behind holes. The excited electrons and remaining holes are the ngggiive and positive mobile charges that give semiconductors their unique transport propertiesa * near the top of the valence band, the effective mass is actually negative. * Electrons fill the states from bottom to top and the states near the top of the valence band are empty (0) due to some electrons being thermally excited into the conduction band. These empty states can conveniently be regarded as positively charged carriers of current called holes with a positive effective mass. The top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band are approximately parabolic in shape and therefore the electron effective mass near the bottom of the conduction band is a constant, as is the hole effective mass near the top of the valence band.= = *When the minimum of the conduction band occurs at the same value of the crystal momentum as the maximum of the valence band, the semiconductor is a direct band gap semiconductor. *When they do not align, the semiconductor is said to be-an indirect band gap semiconductor. *Even amorphous materials exhibit a similar band structure. Over short distances, the atoms are arranged in a periodic manner and an electron wave function can be defined. ° The wave functions from these small regions overlap in such a way that a mobility gap can be defined with electrons above the mobility gap defining the conduction band and holes below the gap defining the valence band. i== *Unlike crystalline materials, however, there area large-number of localized energy states within the mobility gap (band tails and dangling bonds) that complicate the analysis of devices fabricated from these materials. M(x) ath WANA position of an atom Figure’ 1.6: Periodic potential in-a one-dimensional crystal.The Kronig—Penney Model * The Kronig—Penney model is able-to:explain the essential features of band theory. °Assumptions: * First, consider an electron that can travel: within a one-dimensional periodic potential V(x). * The periodic potential can be considered as a series of regions having zero potential energy separated by potential energy barriers of height Vo, Forming a simple periodic potential with period a+b. We associate a+b also with the lattice constant of the crystal. tric potential in a real crystal does not exhibit the idealized his periodic potential.V(x) —b 0 aath x Figure 1.1 Simple one-dimensional potential V(x) used in the Kronig-Penney model In order to obtain the electron wave-functions relevant to an electron in the crystalline solid, V(x) is substituted into the time- independent form of Schrodinger’s equation: _ yo) dx? : +V(x) = EW) t a b en < c d | x = >| _3t _2t a 0 x Qa 3x : a @ @ a a @ Figure 1.4 Plot of versus k comparing the result of the Kronig~Penney model to the free electron parabolic result*This means that the dependence of E on k in Figure1.4 approaches a parabola as expected if the amplitude of the periodic potential is reduced to zero. Fk? E==, (1.10) A dispersion relation—it relates energy to the wave number of a particle.useful conclusions: *In particular, there exist permitted energy bands separated by forbidden energy gaps. *the number of wave vectors is equal to the number of elementary crystal lattice cells. * The size of the energy gaps increases as the periodic potential increases in amplitude in a crystalline solid. * Periodic potentials are-larger in amplitude for crystalline semiconductors that have small atoms * since there are then fewer atomically bound electrons to screen the point charges of the nuclei of the atoms. * pegigdic potentials increase in amplitude for compound s uctors as the ionic character of the crystal bondingValence band and conduction band * the bonds between atoms ina crystal, as well as electric transport phenomena, are due to electrons from the outermost shell. * the electrons responsible for forming bonds between atoms are found in the last occupied band, where electrons have the highest energy levels for the ground-state atoms. * The last ground-state band which contains electrons is called the valence band, because it contains the electrons that form the -often covalent- bonds between atoms. *° The permitted energy band directly above the valence band is called the conduction band.= | ‘In a semiconductor conduction band is empty of electrons at low temperature (T=0K). *At higher temperatures, some electrons have enough thermal energy that the electronsjump" from the-valence band into the conduction band, where they are free-to move: “The energy difference between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the valence band is called “forbidden gap" or "bandgap".Figure 1.11: Valence band (bottom) and conduction band in a metal (A and B) and in a semiconductor or an insulator (C).{9] A: The last (valence) energy band is only partially filled with electrons, even at T=0K. B: The last (valence) energy band is completely filled with electrons at T=OK,but the next (empty) energy band overlaps with it(i.e.: an e nergy band shares a range of common energy values==" C: The last (valence)energy band is completely filled with electrons and no empty band overlaps with it. In cases A and B, electrons with the-highest energies can easily acquire an infinitesimal amount of energy and jump to: a slightly higher permitted energy level, and move through the crystal. A material with such a property is a metal. In case-C, a significant amount of energy (equal to. or higher) has to be transferred to an electron in order for it to "jump" from the valence band into a permitted energy level of the conduction band. A material with such properties is either an insulator ora semiconductor.The energy gap of the most common semiconductors are: 1.12 eV (silicon), 0.67 eV (germanium), and 1.42 eV (gallium arsenide). Insulators have: significantly wider energy band gaps: 9.0 eV Si02 5.0eV Si3N4 In these materials room temperature thermal energy is not large enough to place electrons in the conduction bandBand Formation in Silicon “+ Lets understand it by the imaginary formation of a silicon crystal from isolated silicon atoms. “> Each isolated silicon atom has 1s? 2s? 2p® 3s? 3p? electronic configuration. So each atom has available two 1s states two 2s states ,six 2p states, two 3s states, two 3p states. * If we consider N atoms , there will be 2N,2N ,6N ,2N and 6N states respectively. As the interatomic spacing decreases 3s-3p levels merges to forma energy band this band contains 8N available states. This band further splits into two bands separated by energy gap E,.Band Formation in Silicon * The upper band conduction band contains 4N states as does the lower valence band. * So the silicon crystal has two bands of available energy separated by an energy gap E,, which contains no allowed energy levels for electrons to occupy. “+ This gap is called Forbidden energy gap.= Band Formation in Silicon Relative Energy ‘0 Lattice Constant Ainter Atomie Distance) Relative Spacing of Atoms =i Classification of Materials Energy of electrons Largo energy gap botwaen valence and conduction bands. Ferm: level concucton San a. Insulator b. Semiconductor c. ConductorComparison S.No. | Property ‘Conductors ‘Semi- Insulators: } conductors Electrical Very high um Between those of | Negligible 10 7 conductivity | 10° mholm conductors and | mhorm insutators| i.e. 10-7 mhom to 10"? mhorm. Negiigible Less than 10° O-m ‘Between those of conductors and insulators Le. 10" Very high more than 10° O-m oe, less V.B. Completely tied vatence band ° O-m to 10” O-m Gana Compeey structure: cB. unoccupied Cc. 8B.te Comparison a Energy gap _| Zero or very small More that in con- | Very large e.g. in and its value ductors but less diamond AE, = 7 than that in insu- | ev lators e.g. in Ge. SE, =0.72 eV is SI, AEg =1.1 eV. in Ga As Ey =1.3eV 5. ‘Current Due to free electrons and Due to free Oue to free carriers and very high electrons and electrons but current flow holes more than’ | negligible. that in insulators: 6. Number of Very high very low negligible current carriers (electrons or holes) at ordinary.~~ Classification of Semiconductors * On the basis of doping, * On the basis of band gap, * On the basis of position in the periodic table== Semiconductors on the basis of doping semiconductors N-type Extrinsic Or \ Impure:Doping * Doping :- The conductivity of semiconductor can be increased by adding some impurity atoms. Conductivity of the resulting semiconductor will depend upon the type and amount of impurity added. Added impurity can be of two types for intrinsic semiconductor:- IMPURITY = Donor Impurity Acceptor Impurity a=_ Doping * Donorimpurities:-|f a pentavalent atom is added as impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor then this kind of impurity is known as donor impurity. Example:-arsenic, antimony, bismuth etc. * Four of the five valence electrons of impurity atom form covalent bonds with the valence electrons of pure semiconductor i.e. Germanium or Silicon. The fifth valence electrons of impurity atom is not covalently bonded but it is not completely detached from: the arsenic atom itself: A finite amount of energy is required to: detach it is known as ionization energy of impurity: atom: In Germanium: ionization: energy of all impurity. atoms: is found approximately 0.01eV:Doping So even at room temperature fifth valence electron in impurities like-arsenic, antimony, bismuth is detached completely and moves freely in germanium crystal. More is the added impurity greater will be the free electrons. As the impurity atom donates free electron to the crystal conductivity, it is called DONOR ATOM.Doping Acceptor Impurities:-if a trivalent atom is added as impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor then this kind of impurity is known as acceptor impurity. Example:- Boron and Aluminium etc. Three valence electrons of impurity atom form covalent bonds with the three valence electrons of pure semiconductori.e. Germanium or Silicon. There is a deficiency of one electron and this deficiency is called a hole. Fourth electron of germanium also tries to form covalent bond and it does so by taking the advantage of any thermal motion that fortunately brings an electron from neighboring Ge atom:Semiconductors on the basis of doping ¢ INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:- A pure semiconductor(free from impurity is called) intrinsic semiconductor. So pure Si and Ge in their natural form are intrinsic semiconductors. Band gaps of Si and Ge are respectively 0.7 eV and 1.1 eV. Alternatively an intrinsic semiconductor may be defined as one in which the conduction electrons is equal to no. of holes hence there is not an current conduction occurs in them even after increasing the temperature.rrr Semiconductors on the basis of doping SILICON is a chemical element with symbol Si and-atomic no. 14. Itis a tetravalent metalloid more reactive than germanium: It was first prepared and characterized in pure form in 1823 and was given the name silicium which was taken from Latin word silex which means hard stone or flint. In making earth’s crust silicon'is the second most abundant material after oxygen.Semiconductors on the basis of doping * Silicon is a semiconductor , it has a negative temperature coefficient , since the no. of free charge carrier increase with temperature. * Single crystal:silicon in its pure formis used to construct many of the electronic devices. In 1954cthe first silicon transistor was introduced and quickly silicon became the semiconducting material of choice.Intrinsic Silicon z = S a =z 5 3 8 3 * »Valence Electron Sitican 2-0 Crystal Lattice: of Silicon Figure1— Semiconductors on the basis of doping GERMANIUM is a metalloid with symbol Ge and atomic no. 32. It is a lustrous, hard, grayish white metalloid in the carbon group chemically similar to its group neighbor Silicon. In 1869 Mendeleev predicted its existence but credit of its discovery goes to Clemens Winkler who named the element after his country Germany’s name as Germanium. The energy band gap in germanium is of the order of 0.7 eV. Historically the first decade of semiconductor electronics was based -entirely on Ge. Today however its production for use in semiconductorelectronicsis a small fraction(2%)..TS Semiconductors on the basis of doping * Today Silicon has replaced it as it is too reactive to be found naturally on earth in free (native) state. Ge ranks near fiftieth in relative abundance of the elements in earth’s crust. Presently Ge major end uses are in fiber optics, infrared optics and in solar cell application .ll Intrinsic Germanium== Semiconductors on the basis of doping * EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR: Those semiconductors to which some suitable i.e pentavalent or tetravalent impurity or doping agents are added to increase its conductivity is called extrinsic semiconductor. Pentavalent doping agents (Bi, Sb ,As ,P)are donor atoms and Trivalent doping agents (Ga ,In ,Al ,B) are acceptor atoms. Extrinsic semiconductor is of two types:- N-Type semiconductor. , P-Type semiconductorrrr Extrinsic Semiconductors * N TYPE-SEMICONDUCTOR:-when a pentavaient impurity atom (Sb,P) is added to Ge or Si crystal . * It replaces a Ge or Si atom in the crystal lattice four of five valence electrons of the impurity atom from covalent bonds with one each valence electron of four Ge or Si atoms surrounded it and the fifth valence electron become free to move with in the crystal. * This free electron act as a charge carrier thus by adding pentavalent impurity to Ge or Si the no. of free electron increases. + Diffused impurities with 5 valence electrons are called DONOR ATOMS.N Type-Semiconductor Pure Silicon N-Type Silicon @ Stecon mucies @ Phosphorous nuceus oe ee ee ee ee e e e e e Ps @ e @ e ® e . @ : @ $ @ e ee ee ° i oe e ° e ° e e e @ e @ e e e ; ee oe ee ee ee e e e e e ° @ e ® e ® e i @ 3 ® ° ee oe oe ee ee The phosphorous atom creates peeiee OF 288 ioc cican °CN Extrinsic Semiconductors P- TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:- * When a trivalent impurity atom (Boron P-Type Silicon aluminium) is added toa Ge or Si crystal it also Over mcma replace one of Ge or Si atom in the crystal lattice. All its 3 valence electrons form covalent bond with one each valence electron of three there remain an empty space called hole on one side ae - - s ; oe ee of an impurity atom. Ge or Siatormsurrounding- 6 | , +o ee) " it. 80% orem org Thus The diffused impurity with three valence, electrons are-called: acceptor atom. “Seen~_— Semiconductors on the basis of band gap * Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors:-The band gap represents the minimum energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band. In a direct band gap:semiconductor, the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band occur at the same value of momentum: Ina direct band gap semiconductor, a direct recombination takes place with the release of the energy equal to the energy difference between the recombining particles. The most thoroughly investigated and studied direct: bandgap semiconductor semiconductor material-is Gallium: Arsenide (GaAs).= Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductor * Aindirect band-gap: semiconductor is one in which the maximum energy level of the valence band are misaligned with the minimum energy level of the conduction band with respect to momentum. * Due to a relative difference in the momentum, first, the momentum is conserved by release of energy and only after both the momenta align themselves, a recombination occurs accompanied with the release of energy. The probability of a radiative recombination, is much less in comparison to that in case of direct band gap semiconductor semiconductors.- a Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductor * The two well-known intrinsic semiconductors, Silicon and Germanium are both Indirect Band Gap semiconductors. Sant Conduction band 3 ar a) & Phonon \. emission Momentum NINE Nr Photorsemission: Photon emission °. 0 Valence Valence band band. Direct bandgap: Indirect bandgap: (a) (b)<== On the basis of position in periodic table * The atoms in a semiconductor are materials from either group IV of the periodic table or from a combination from group Il and group IV (called II-VI) semiconductors. * There may be semiconducting materials from: group 18, IIB or either a recombi- nation of Ill-V group and also can be formed by combination of IV-VI group. * Elements which are highlighted in the periodic table are the key elements for elementary semiconductors and compound semiconductors;HA “B 10.811 IVA 6 Ee 12.013 207.19 208.980 “Po “At (210) (210)~~ Effective Mass » the concept of effective mass m* to allow us to quantify electron behaviour, » Effective mass changes in a peculiar fashion near Brillouin zone boundaries, » and generally is not the same as the free electron mass m. > Itis easy to understand that the effective acceleration of an electronin-a crystal due-to. an applied electric field wil depend strongly on the nature of the reflections of electron waves off crystal planes,*a constant effective mass is often sufficient to describe electron behaviour for small values of k. *This will be useful when we calculate the number of electrons in an energy band. Fermi energy \n imaginary horizontal line at energy Ef, called: the:-Fermi energy, epresents an energy above which the probability of electron tates being filled is under 50%, and below which the probability F in states being filled is over 50%.m* = con eee ce a constant effective mass is often sufficient to describe electron behaviour for small values of k. This will be useful when we calculate the number of electrons in an energy band. Fermi energy at energy Ef, called the Fermi energy, he probability of electron below which the probability An imaginary horizontal line epresents an energy above which tl tates being filled is under 50%, and x states being filled is over 50%. aConduction-band and Valence-band Densities of State *the electron motion ina semiconductor has been approximated by a negatively charged particle with mass m*n in the conduction band and by a positively charged particle with mass m*p in the valence band, it is possible to calculate the density of states in each band. “It involves solving the time-independent Schrodinger equation for the wave function of a particle in a box, but in this case the box is empty. *All the complexities of the periodic potentials of the component atoms have been incorporated into the effective mass.The density of states in the conduction band is given by my /2ms(E — Ec) m-2ev-! gcl(E) = ae the density of states in the valence band is given by mm, /2ms(Ev —£) ae ot gv(E) = = meVEquilibrium Carrier Concentrations 1. When the semiconductor is in thermal equilibrium (i.e. ata constant temperature with no external:injection or generation of carriers), 2. the Fermi function determines the ratio of filled states to available states:at each energy andiis giver by: I f\)= Tp e@-ip ar (3.9) Where E, is the Fermi energy, k is Boltzmann’s constant, and T is the Kelvin temperature.0.0 pose tirertin Jirsrtiriit 4-03 020: siti E-Eg [eV] Figure 3.4. The Fermi function at various temperatures