Essays

MIDTERMS EXAM - REVIEWER ○

○ Academic papers
SUBJECT: EAPP Professional Text:
● For business

Topic One: Fundamentals of ● Not considered an academic text.

● No specific structure
Reading Academic Text
○ There are some who have their
Academic Text: own structure for this text.
● The goal is to inform. ○ There are some who follow the
● Scholarly works academic text structure.
● Attention and understanding
● An academic text means a text that is
specifically written for use by college
instructors and students.
● t is a text your instructors have assigned
(you) because of its usefulness in your
strand or college course.
Topic Two: Reading Strategies
● Academic text must be neutral and not
What is a Reading Strategy?
biased.
● Reading strategies help us to analyze or
● Uses formal language and jargons.
understand the contents of what we are
○ “politically correct terms”
reading.
○ Avoid discriminatory terms
○ Usage of jargon is okay if it’s Critical Reading Strategies:
connected to the topic. a. Pre-Reading:

○ Simplify the terms (jargon) ➢ Survey or searching:

● Factual: ○ Get a background idea of

○ There should be citations. the contents.

○ Sources that you will use must be ○ Determine what type of

CREDIBLE. academic text (article,

● Structured: review, thesis, etc.) you are

reading.
■ articles
■ reviews
■ thesis
➢ Determine and establish your
purpose for reading.
➢ Identify the author’s purpose for
reading.
➢ Check the publication date for
relevance.
b. While-Reading:
➢ Analyzing:
● Examples: ○ Determine the main idea
○ Research paper of the text.
○ Thesis paper
 ➢ Note-taking:
○ Write keywords or phrases c. Graphic Organizers:
on the margins in bullet ➢ Fishbone diagram
form. ➢ Cause and effect
○ Write something on the ➢ Venn diagram
page margin where ➢ Concept map
important information is ➢ Mind map
found. ➢ Timeline
○ Write brief notes on the
margin. Topic Three: Evaluating Sources
➢ Highlight/underline:
Importance of Evaluating Sources:
○ Underline or highlight all
● To promote scholarly works.
the important words,
● To avoid possible harmful effects.
phrases, and sentences.
● To encourage people to do the same.
➢ Search unfamiliar words/terms.
Types of Information:
➢ Formulate questions.
● Facts:
c. After-Reading:
○ Truth
➢ Reflect on what you learned.
○ Searched
➢ React on some parts of the text
○ Verified
through writing.
○ Credible
➢ Discuss some parts with your
○ Studied
teacher or classmates.
● False information:
➢ Link the main idea of the text to
○ Fabricated.
what you already know.
○ Not credible:
Critical Reading Strategies:
■ Misinformation:
a. SQ3R – SURVEY, QUESTION, READ,
➔ Unreliable
RECITE/RECALL, REVIEW:
■ Disinformation:
➔ Spread with ILL
INTENTIONS.
Criteria in Evaluating Sources:
1. Relevance:
➢ Appropriateness of content.
2. Authority:
➢ Author:
○ Contact details
○ Educational background
○ Professional background
3. Currency:
b. KWL – KNOW, WANT, LEARNED: ➢ Five years
4. Accuracy:
➢ Accurate and reliable
➢ Credible
➢ With citations
 5. Location: ➢ There’s always the surname of the
➢ Publisher author and the year of
Credible Sources: publication.

● Books ➢ APA 6th Ed.

● E-books ○ Prescribed edition to use

● Journal articles since 2018.

● Studies b. MLA – literature

● Research paper c. AMA – science

● Encyclopedia d. IEEE – engineering and mathematics

● Thesis papers e. CHICAGO – non-academic

● .edu Forms of Citations:

● .gov 1. In-Text Citation:
● .com ➢ Citations inside the content/s.
● .org ➢ “According to”, “based on”, “as
➔ Take note: for more accuracy, we stated by”, etc.
still need to verify all the ➢ Paraphrased and summarized.
information coming from these ➢ Either after the sentence of within
sources. the sentence.
Not Credible Sources: 2. Reference Citation:

● Vlog/blog ➢ Like the bibliography

● Social media ➢ The official list

○ Tiktok
○ Youtube Topic Five: In-Text Citations
○ Twitter In-Text Citations:
● Brainly
Sample Text:
● Quora
● EAPP is a technical subject being
● Funsites
taught by in senior high school
● Hearsay students.
Topic Four: Citing Sources Paraphrases Version:
● EAPP is a technical subject.
What is Citation?
● To appropriately recognize our source of
information. One Author:
Purpose of Citation: ● Within the sentence:

● To promote scholarly writing. ○ As per Torres (2022), EAPP is a

● To give credit to the original author. technical subject.

● To avoid plagiarism. ● After the sentence:

● To help the audiences/readers identify ○ EAPP is a technical subject (Torres,

2022).
the sources you used.
Two Authors:
Styles:
● Within the sentence:
a. APA:
○ According to Torres and Modina
➢ Commonly used by psychologists
(2022), EAPP is a technical subject.
and undergrad students.
➢ Every edition is simplified.
 ● After the sentence: b. More than 40 words:
○ EAPP is a technical subject (Torres ● Standalone paragraph in the
and Modina, 2022). output.
Three to Five Authors: ● You need an INTRODUCTORY
a. Initial Citation: SENTENCE.
● Within the sentence: ● If it’s not the start of the sentence
○ As per Torres, Modina, and or the end of the sentence — you
Ayonque (2022), EAPP is a must put an “ellipse” (...).
technical subject.
● After the sentence:
○ EAPP is a technical subject
(Torres, Modina, Ayonque,
2022).
b. Subsequent Citation:
● Within the sentence:
○ As per Torres et al. (2022),
EAPP is a technical subject.
● After the sentence:
○ EAPP is a technical subject
(Torres et al., 2022).
Direct Quotations:
When to Use Direct Quotations:
● If the statement is too short.
● If the statement is too long.
● If the statement is too valid.

Remember:
● Do not change anything in the direct
quotations.
● You can change some grammatical
errors when badly needed.

Format:
a. Less than 40 words:
● Copy the words and put
quotation marks (“”).
● Ex:
○ Within the sentence:
■ As per Torres et al.
(2022), “EAPP is a
technical subject.”
Remember:
○ After the sentence: ● Pages must be indicated if the source
■ “EAPP is a technical is from a book, ebook, and pdf.
subject” (Torres et
al., 2022).
Topic Five: Reference List Citations c. Title of the source
d. Publisher and place of publication
General Guidelines:
e. URL or DOI
1. Place the reference list on a new
f. Volume and issue number, and page/s
paper/page.
➢ Ex:
2. Label the page as “References”, aligned
○ 23(2), 100-104
to the center top of the page.
Writing Names:
References
One author Smith, J. (2018)

Two authors Smith, J., & Simons, R.

(2018)

Three to seven Jung, H., Huang, R.,

authors Simons, R., Park, J.,
Kim., S., & Lee, H.
3. Apply the hanging indentions. (2020)
➢ Example:
Eight or more authors Park, J., Kim., S., Lee, H.,
EAPP is a technical subject being taught
● No more than Yang, J., Nishimura, N.,
by in senior high school students.
seven names Sim, J., Hong, J…. Min,
4. Double spacing.
in the Y. (2020)
5. Do not cut the first letter of the title. reference
6. Capitalize the following: citation.
➢ First letter of the title’s first word. ● After the
○ English for academic and seventh
author, place
professional purposes
an ellipse —
➢ Proper nouns
then give the
○ The death of Queen
name of the
Elizabeth II final author.
➢ First letter of a word following a
For online sources Nels University Online
colon (:).
Writing Lab. (2022)
○ Woman teaching women:
Ministering to women
7. Italicize only the journal-title.
➢ Myth and monstrosity: Teaching
indigenous films. Journal of
Religion & Film
8. For online articles, remove the hyperlink.
9. Use either URL or DOI.
10. For print sources, always end the citation
with a period.
Elements Needed for Reference List:
a. Surname and initial of the author.
➢ Name of the institution for (some)
online sources.
b. Year of publication
Format: Online Journal Article:
Books/E-Books: a. WITH DOI:

Surname, Initial. (year). Title of the book. Surname, Initial. (year). Article title. Journal Title,

Location Publisher. volume no. (issue no.), pages. doi: *****

Diestel, R. (2018). Graph theory. NY: Springer INC. Reed, M. J., Kennett, D. J., Lewis, T., Lund-Lucas, E.,
Stallberg, C., & Newbold, I. L. (2019). The

Thesis, Dissertations, Studies: relative effects of university success

courses and individualized interventions
Surname, Initial. (year). Study title (Form of
for students with learning disabilities.
work). Name of Institution, Location.
Higher Education Research &
Development, 28(4), 385–400. doi:
Sipacio, P. (2018). Partnering for innovative:
10.1091/10573569.2019/1387631
Towards a university-industry
collaboration ecosystem model
b. WITH URL:
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). De
Surname, Initial. (year). Article title. Journal Title,
La Salle University, Manila.
volume no. (issue no.). Retrieved from
*URL*
Online Sources:
Surname, Initial. (year). Title. Retrieved from
Reed, M. J., Kennett, D. J., Lewis, T., Lund-Lucas, E.,
*URL*
Stallberg, C., & Newbold, I. L. (2019). The
relative effects of university success
Derry, K. (2018). Myth and monstrosity. Retrieved
courses and individualized interventions
from
for students with learning disabilities.
https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf
Higher Education Research &
Development, 28(4), 385–400. Retrieved
Journal Article:
from
Surname, Initial. (year). Article title. Journal Title,
https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf
volume no. (issue no.), pages.

Reed, M. J., Kennett, D. J., Lewis, T., Lund-Lucas, E.,

Stallberg, C., & Newbold, I. L. (2019). The
relative effects of university success
courses and individualized interventions
for students with learning disabilities.
Higher Education Research &
Development, 28(4), 385–400.
 Father of Philippine Anthropology:
MIDTERMS EXAM - REVIEWER ●
○ Henry Oatley Beyer
SUBJECT: UCSP ● Narcisso Claveria:
○ Implemented the use of the
surname.
Topic One: Introduction
● Through anthropology, one can
Culture:
thoroughly analyze the different
● All those historically created designs for
phenomena that happen in society.
living, explicit and implicit, rational and
● It produces knowledge about what
non-rational, exist at any given time as
makes people different from one another
potential guides for the behavior of men.
and what they all share in common.
● Sets of tradition, rules, and symbols that
Society:
shape and are enacted as feelings,
● Human-created organization or system
thoughts, and behaviors of groups of
of interrelationships that connects
people.
individuals in a common culture.
○ Referring primarily to learned
● All the products are human interactions,
behaviors as distinct from that
the experience of living with others
which is given by nature or
around us.
biology, a culture that has been
● Represents identity
used to designate everything that
● Characterized a whole territory.
is humanly produced (habits,
● Symbol of political independency.
beliefs, acts, and artifacts) and
● Avenue for economic interdependence.
passed from one generation to
Sociology:
another.
● Study of society – development, origin,
● Humans learn in organized or structured
networks, and functions to elaborate on
ways of behaving, which we abstract
the influence and impact of society to
from and apply to our daily life.
the human person.
● “A complex whole which includes
● A systematic study of social behavior
knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws,
and human groups – primarily focuses
customs, and any other capabilities and
on the influence of social relationships
habits acquired…” (Edward B. Taylor,
upon peoples’ attitudes and behavior
1871).
and on how societies are established
Anthropology:
and changed.
● “Science of humanity”
Political Science:
● Studies the nature of human variation
● Study of man in the process of governing
(culture to culture).
himself.
● Origin, Evolution, and Distinction of our
● Study of politics, political institutions, and
society and culture from other species.
political processes.
● Evaluating individual place in a social or
cultural whole then recognizing the Critical Reading Strategies:
formal patterns — culture. a. Allocation of power

● Father of Modern Anthropology: b. Roles and system of governance

○ Franz Boas c. Political behavior and public policies

● Research first – Generalization d. Past, present, and future forms of

government/state
Topic Two: Theoretical Perspective Topic Three: Aspect of Culture
Defining Theoretical Perspective: 1. Culture is Social:

● In sociology, a theory is a way to explain ➢ The product and a set of

different aspects of social interactions patterned social interactions.

and to create a testable proposition, 2. Culture varies society-to-society:

called a hypothesis, about society (Allan ➢ Cultures are not uniform.

2006). 3. Culture is Shared:

➢ In our knowledge, values, and
Defining Paradigms:
attitude.
● A type of theory can explain many
4. Culture is Learned:
aspects of social life.
➢ Transmitted through the process
● Paradigms are philosophical and
of socialization and enculturation.
theoretical frameworks used within a
5. Culture is Transmitted:
discipline to formulate theories,
➢ It requires language and
generalizations, and experiments
communication.
performed in support of them.
➢ Language is a set of symbols that
● Three paradigms have come to
express ideas and enable people
dominate sociological thinking because
to think and communicate with
they provide useful explanations:
one another; it may be either
○ structural functionalism
verbal (spoken) or nonverbal
○ conflict theory
(written or gestured).
○ symbolic interactionism
6. Culture is Continuous and Cumulative:
Structural Functionalism:
➢ Dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.
● Functionalism, also called
7. Culture is gratifying and idealistic:
structural-functional theory, sees society
➢ It is for meeting our social and
as a structure with interrelated parts
biological needs.
designed to meet the biological and
8. Culture is integrated and interrelated:
social needs of the individuals in that
society.
Conflict Perspective:
● Karl Marx (1818–1883), a German
philosopher and sociologist, saw society
as being made up of individuals in
different social classes who must
compete for social, material, and political
resources such as food and housing,
employment, education, and leisure time.
Symbolic Perspective:
● A micro-level theory that focuses on the
relationships among individuals within a
society.
● Communication—the exchange of meaning
through language and symbols—is believed
to be the way in which people make sense of
their social worlds.
Topic Four: Elements of Culture
Elements:
a. Knowledge and beliefs:
➢ perceptions about reality.
Social Norms:
➢ expectations
b. Symbols:
➢ representation of meaning.
c. Language: Layers of Culture:
➢ a system of symbols for
1. Cultural Universals
communication.
2. Mainstream/pop culture
d. Values:
3. Subculture
➢ a suggestion of what is good or
4. Counterculture
bad.
Layers of Culture:
e. Social institutions:
● Speech and Language
➢ a system of relationships
● Material Traits
promotes a culture.
○ Food
○ Shelter

NOTE: ○ Transportation
● Our values are emotionalist, ○ Dress
regionalist, and fatalist orientation, ○ Utensils and Tools
attachment to group and personalities. ○ Weapons
○ Industries
● Art
● Mythology and scientific knowledge
● Religious practices
● Family and social system
● Property
● Government
Different Types of Norms: ● War

1. Folk Ways: Cultural Orientation:

➢ A social norm that is repetitive 1. Folk Ethnocentrism:
behavior which becomes habitual ➢ one’s “own” culture is better.
and part of everyday living. 2. Cultural Relativism:
2. Mores: ➢ openness
➢ A social norm that embodies 3. Xenocentrism:
ethical standards of the society. ➢ “other” is better
➢ LAW:
○ Formalized mores
 3. Gene Flow:
➢ Migrating species interbreed with
a population, adding their genes
in the gene pool of the new
population.
4. Natural Selection:
➢ The environment subject the
species to the survival of the
fittest and those fit enables them
to pass their trait to the next
generation, making the
succeeding generation adaptive
to the same environment
Topic Five: Biocultural Evolution of
Relationship of Microevolution and
Human
Macroevolution:
Introduction:
● Microevolution can lead to
● On the Origin of Species (1859), Charles
Macroevolution.
Darwin posited that all organisms have
● Microevolution:
undergone an evolution.
○ the change in genes of an
○ To validate this theory, in Descent
organism caused by mutation.
of Man (1871) he gives a precise
● Macroevolution:
explanation on how humans must
○ speciation is changes in genetic
have evolved millions of years
pool of a population.
ago.
Evolution of Humans as a Two-Part
● Evolution is understood as descent with
modification in relation to survival of the
Process:
fittest a. Hominization:
➢ Evolutionary physical
Mechanisms that Enable Evolution:
development of human
1. Mutation:
characteristics that made
➢ The spontaneous or induced
hominids distinct from their
change in the DNA sequence in a
primate ancestors.
cell.
b. Sapientation or Humanization:
➢ Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is
➢ The process of improving
the hereditary material encoded
human's everyday living through
with genetic instructions that
innovation, discovery, routines,
explain the variations of species.
and institutions that harnesses
2. Genetic Drift:
the fullest potentials of human
➢ Change in the gene pool that
beings.
tends to affect small population
and occurs by chance.
➢ This process can make the
genetic trait lost or widespread.
Word Bank: Hominin Groups:
1. Human: ● The hominins can be divided into five
➢ All living people and their recent groups that will be covered in
Pleistocene ancestors. subsequent chapters, based on shared
2. Hominin: characteristics and/or phylogenetic
➢ The above, and all the Pliocene affinity:
and Pleistocene fossil ancestors 1. Earliest bipeds:
(genera and species) of humans. ➢ orrorin and possibly
3. Hominid: Sahelanthropus.
➢ The above, and the African great 2. Forest-adapted bipeds with
apes: relatively thin molar enamel:
➢ chimpanzee ➢ ardipiths
➢ bonobo 3. Bipeds that exploited a more
➢ gorilla — and their fossil open and drier niche with thick
ancestors. molar enamel:
➢ Hominids are the bipedal apes, ➢ gracile australopiths, such
which include us, Homo sapiens, as Australopithecus
other members of our genus, and anamensis and afarensis.
species of Ardipithecus, 4. Descendants of gracile
Australopithecus, and australopiths with heavy
Paranthropus. masticatory apparatus, adapted
to exploit tough or hard foods

Hominin Evolution Trends: when necessary:

➢ paranthropines, also
● Bipedalism and related morphological
known as robust
adaptations.
australopiths.
● Encephalization (increasing brain size)
5. Hominins that retained the
and corresponding prolonged juvenile
gracile masticatory apparatus of
dependency.
their australopith ancestors and
● Loss of craniofacial robusticity and
exhibited a trend for
muscle attachments.
encephalization and
● Reduced prognathism (forward-oriented
increasingly complex culture:
jaws) to a flat-faced, or orthognathic jaw.
➢ homo species.
● Reduction in size of dentition.
● Molarization of premolars. Cultural Evolution of Humans —
● Increased manual dexterity (power Humanization:
thumbs and less curvature of finger, 1. Paleolithic Age:
more grip) ➢ "old stone period".
● Elongated legs and increased stature. ➢ Took place from 2.5 million years
● Increased reliance on culture, ago to 10,000 years ago.
technology, and language. ➢ Unpolished stone tools and art
● Increased reliance on meat in the diet. were the significant development
during this time.
2. Mesolithic Age:
➢ 10,000 B.C. E. to 8,000 B.C.E.
 ➢ Appearance of microliths or
small-bladed tools
3. Neolithic Age:
➢ Roughly 8,000 B.C.E. to 3,000 B.C.E.
"new stone age".
➢ Farming and animal
domestication are the prominent
feature of this age.
4. Bronze Age:
➢ about 3,000 B.C.E to 1,300 B.C.E
➢ Metal smelting is viable now.
➢ Sumerians learned to make
bronze from copper and tin alloy.
➢ Wheel and ox-drawn plow were
invented.
➢ First recorded form of writing is
the cuneiform.
➢ Organized government, law and
warfare,religion were the
prominent development during
this time ( see Egyptian
Dynasties)
5. Iron Age:
➢ 1,300 B.C.E to 900 B.C.E
➢ Iron was discovered in Europe.
➢ Greeks started using clock and
holding Olympic games and
initiating schools for the breeding
of Philosophy and Science.
6. Democracy:
➢ 508 BCE
➢ Athenians pioneered a
government system by the
people.
➢ Specific Evolution or General
Evolution by Marshall Sahlins and
Elman Service:
➢ 1960 - 1971
➢ Culture evolves in regular but
different ways.
7. Specific Evolution:
➢ adjustment to environmental
circumstances.
8. General Evolution:
➢ increasing complexity of life and
culture, evident by the qualitative
changes in society.
Topic Six: Becoming Members of
Society: Process and Dynamics
Socialization:
● It is the processes and techniques
observed by the members of the society
towards an acceptable, proper, and
desirable ways of living ( Hunt, 1982).
Enculturations:
● The process wherein people learn the
requirements of their surrounding culture,
and acquire values and behaviors that
are appropriate and necessary in that
culture.
● It implies that we are not only a member
of society but we also have to perform
certain functions
Functions of Socialization:
Personality and Role Development:
● Development of sense of identity and
sense of belongingness to others.
Skills Development and Training:
● Development of social skills,
communication, interpersonal and
occupational skills.
Values Formation:
● Internalization of values, which are our
ideas considering “good”, “bad” and
“desirable”.
Social Integration and Adjustment:
● “Fitting-in” and being accustomed to the
sociocultural setting.
Social Control and Stability:
● Serves as control mechanism through
social norms to enforce acceptable
social relationship and behavior which
result to social stability.
Agents of Socialization: Developing Identity:
● school
● peer group
● church
● family
● workplace
● mass media
Charles Horton Cooley’s Looking-Glass
Self:
● Assumptions: Developing Roles:
○ We imagine how we look to ● Roles, behaviors, obligations and
others. privileges attached to a status.
○ We interpret others’ reaction to us. ○ Expected behavior because of
○ We develop our self-concept. your status
George Herbert Mead’s Social Mind: ■ Ascribed:

● Assumptions: ➔ prescribed

○ “SELF” is socially constructed. ■ Negotiated:

○ For Mead, existence in a ➔ created and

community comes before recreated

individual consciousness. ○ Incompatibility of roles + one

status = ROLE STRAIN
Stages of the Dev't of the Self:
■ Supervisor both strict and
1. Mimicking /Imitation stage
friendly
2. Play stage
■ SOLUTION: Role
3. Game stage
manipulation and
4. Encounter with generalized others –
Impression management
norms, values and attitudes.
○ Incompatibility of roles + two or
Implications of Being a Member of
more status= ROLE CONFLICT
Society: ■ Your mother is a call
Understanding Norms: center agent both
● Norms: parenting and working.
○ Rules that guide the behavior of ■ SOLUTION: Role
the members. manipulation and
○ Prohibitive/proscriptive: Impression management
■ DON’T
○ Prescriptive:
■ DO
Gaining Status:
● Linton(1936) stated the status are
positions in the social system.
○ Achieved:
■ accomplished
○ Ascribed:
■ inherited or given
Conformity, Deviance, and the ○ Rebellion
■ The armed struggle of
Common Good:
CPP-NDF-NPA
Conformity:
● Dependent of the rate of internalization
of goals, rules and expectation.
Deviance:
● Acts that violates the expected rules and
norms.
Social Control:
● Mechanisms that enforce and regulates
norms.

Meron’s Strain Theory:

● Inability to adapt with institutionalized
Structural Functionalist Perspectives:
means to achieve a cultural goal is the
Emile Durkheim’s Function of Deviance: cause of deviance.
● Deviance is functional.
Labelling Theory and Control Theory:
● Deviance clarifies our collective cultural
values.
● Responding to Deviance defines our
collective morality.
● Responding to deviance unifies society.
● Deviance promotes social change.
○ Innovation
■ Ex: Scammers, corrupt
officials, swindlers, thieves,
and robbers
○ Ritualism
■ Ex: Lorenzo's job becomes
a routine. Due to the
everyday averageness of
1. Control Theory by Travis Hirschi -
his life, he is not able to
Feeling of belongingness to society
define why he is working.
affects deviance.
For him, everything is a
2. Conflict Perspective - Inequality of
routine.
power affects the labelling process of
○ Retreatism
deviants and non-deviants
■ Ex: Prostitution and Drug
Users
 5. Anterior or Ventral:
MIDTERMS EXAM - REVIEWER
➢ located towards the front or the
SUBJECT: ANAPHY belly side.
➢ Ex:
○ The breastbone is
Topic One: Terms of Directions
anterior/ventral to the
What is Anatomical Position?
spine.
● The arms must be at the sides and the
○ The knee cap is located on
palms of the hands and feet are
the anterior side of the leg.
positioned towards.
6. Posterior or Dorsal:
➢ located towards the back.
➢ Ex:
○ The shoulder blades are
located on the posterior
side of the body.
○ The spine is posterior to
the breastbone.
7. Cephalad or Cranial:
➢ located towards the head.
➢ Ex:
○ Thoracic cavity lies
cephalad to the
abdominopelvic cavity.
8. Medial:
➢ located nearest the midline of
1. Prone Position:
the body.
➢ placed faced-down.
➢ Ex:
2. Supine Position:
○ The nose is medial to the
➢ placed face-up.
eyes.
3. Superior:
9. Lateral:
➢ located at the uppermost or
➢ located towards the side of the
above.
body.
➢ Ex:
➢ Ex:
○ The head is superior to the
○ The shoulder is lateral to
neck.
the neck.
○ The nose is superior to the
10. Proximal:
mouth.
➢ located near the trunk.
4. Inferior or Caudal:
➢ Ex:
➢ located below or towards the tail.
○ The knee is proximal to the
➢ Ex:
ankle.
○ The chin is inferior to the
11. Distal:
mouth.
➢ located away the trunk.
○ The neck is inferior to the
➢ Ex:
head.
○ Wrist is distal to the elbow.
 12. Deep: Topic Three: Body Cavities
➢ located farther to the surface.
What is a Body Cavities?
➢ Ex:
● Any space or compartment – or
○ Bones are deep to the
potential space in the animal body.
muscles.
● Cavities accommodate organs and
13. Superficial:
other structures.
➢ Located closer to the surface of
● Protects the delicate organs.
the body
● It allows organs to change shape.
➢ Ex:
● The two largest human body cavities are
○ Skin is superficial to the
the;
bone.
○ Ventral cavity
○ Dorsal Cavity
Topic Two: Body Planes
What is Anatomical Position?
● Are hypothetical geometric planes used
to divide the body into sections.

Sagittal Plane:
● Divides the body into right and left parts.
a. Midsagittal Plane:
➢ It divides the body into
equal right and left parts.
b. Para-sagittal Plane:
➢ It divides the body into
unequal right and left
parts.
Horizontal or Transverse Plane:
● Divides the body into superior and
inferior portions of the body.
Frontal or Coronal Plane:
1. Dorsal Cavity:
➢ It contains organs of the nervous
system that coordinate the
body’s functions.
○ Cranial cavity:
■ Contains the brain.
○ Spinal or vertebral cavity:
■ Contains the spinal
cord.
2. Ventral Cavity:
➢ It contains organs that are
involved in maintaining

● It divides the anterior/ventral and homeostasis or a constant

posterior/dorsal portions of the body.

 internal environment within
small ranges of deviation.
3. Thoracic Cavity (First Sub-Division):
➢ It contains the heart, thymus
gland, lymph and blood vessels,
trachea, esophagus, lungs,
nerves.
○ Heart = pericardial cavity
○ Lungs = pleural cavity
4. Abdominopelvic Cavity (Second
Sub-Division):
➢ It contains the kidneys, stomach,
liver and gallbladder, small and
large intestines, spleen,
pancreas, and the ovaries and
uterus in women.
Topic Four: Structural Units
What is a Structural Unit?
● Our body is such a complex system but it
is organized in different structural levels
a. cell
b. tissue
c. organ
d. organ system
e. organism
Integumentary System:
● It protects the body’s internal living
tissues and organs.
● Protects the body against invasion by
infectious organisms.
● It protects the body from dehydration.
Skeletal System:
● The major functions of the skeletal
system are;
○ Body support
○ Facilitation of movement
○ Protection of internal organs
○ Storage of minerals and fat
○ Blood cell formation
Muscular System:
● The main function of the muscular
system is to allow movement.
● When muscles contract, they contribute
to gross and fine movement.
Circulatory System:
● The main function of the circulatory
system is to deliver oxygen to the body
tissues, whilst simultaneously removing
carbon dioxide produced by
metabolism.
Nervous System:
● It’s involved in receiving information
about the environment around us
(sensation) and generating responses to
that information (motor responses).
Endocrine System:
● Endocrine glands release hormones into
the bloodstream.
○ These hormones help control
mood, growth and development,
the way our organs work,
metabolism, and reproduction.
Lymphatic System:
● A network of tissues and organs that help
rid the body of toxins, waste, and other
unwanted materials.
Respiratory System:
● This system helps the body to absorb
oxygen from the air so the organs can
work.
● It also cleans waste gases, such as
carbon dioxide from the blood.
Digestive System:
● Digestive system has three main
functions;
1. Digestion of food
2. Absorption of nutrients
3. Elimination of solid food waste
Urinary System:
● The function of the urinary system is to
filter blood and create urine as a waste
by-product.
Reproductive System:
 ● Within the context of producing offspring,
the reproductive system has three
functions;
1. To produce egg and sperm cells.
2. To transport and sustain those
cells.
3. To nurture the developing
offspring.

Topic Five: Homeostasis

What is a Homeostasis?
● The body’s way of maintaining an
internal constant environment.
Topic Six: The Definition of Tissues
Negative Feedback Loop:
● The tissue came from the Latin word
● These loops act to oppose the stimulus
“texere” which means weave.
or cue that triggers them.
● It is a group of cells that work together to
carry out specific functions.
● The tissues of the human body include
four major types:
1. Epithelial: covering
2. Connective: support
3. Muscle: movement
4. Nervous: control

Positive Feedback Loop:

● Positive feedback loops are usually found
in processes that need to be pushed to
completion, not when the status quo
needs to be maintained.
Topic Seven: The Epithelial Tissue
What is an Epithelial Tissue?
● A sheet of cells that covers a body
surface or lines a body cavity.
● It is composed of the apical and basal
surfaces.
Four Major Functions of Epithelial
Types of Epithelial Tissue:
Tissue:
a. Simple Squamous:
1. It protects underlying tissues:
➢ Location:
● Our skin is epithelial tissue and
○ Kidney glomeruli
protects us from the harmful rays
○ Air sacs of lungs
of the sun and certain chemicals.
○ Lining of heart
2. It absorbs:
○ Blood vessels
● In the lining of the small intestine,
○ Lining of ventral body
nutrients from our digested food
cavity (serosae)
enter blood capillaries and get
b. Simple Cuboidal:
carried to the cells of our body.
➢ Location:
3. It secretes:
○ Kidney tubules
● All glands are made of epithelial
○ Ducts and secretory
tissue.
portions of small glands
4. Epithelial tissue excretes:
○ Ovary surface
● Sweat glands excrete waste
c. Simple Columnar:
products such as urea.
➢ Location:
Two Names of Epithelial Tissue: ○ Nonciliated type lines –
● The first name indicates the number of most of the digestive tract
cell layers present. (stomach to anal canal).
○ Simple: ○ Gallbladder
■ one layer ○ Excretory ducts
○ Stratified: ■ Ciliated variety of
■ more than one layer lines — small
● The second describes the shape of its bronchi
cells. ■ Uterine tube
○ Squamous = polygonal ■ Some regions of
○ Cuboidal = cube-liked uterus
○ Columnar = single layer (taller d. Stratified Squamous:
than they are wider) ➢ Location:
○ Transverse = several layers ○ Nonkeratinized type forms
(flattened when stretched) – the moist linings of the
esophagus, mouth, &
vagina.
○ Keratinized variety forms
the epidermis of the skin, a
dry membrane.
 e. Stratified Cuboidal: Loose Connective Tissue:
➢ Location: ● It is the most common type of connective
○ Largest ducts of sweat tissue in vertebrates.
glands, mammary glands, a. Areolar Connective Tissue:
and salivary glands. ➢ Gel-like matrix with all
f. Stratified Columnar: three types of fibers.
➢ Location: ➢ found around blood
○ Rare in the body; vessels, muscles, and
■ Small amounts in nerves.
male urethra ➢ Wraps and cushion
■ Large ducts of organs.
some glands. b. Reticular Connective Tissue:
g. Transitional: ➢ Composed of reticular
➢ Location: fibers.
○ Lines the ureters, bladder, ➢ Forms a soft internal
and parts of the urethra. skeleton that supports
Functions of Epithelial Tissue: other cells like WBC.
a. Mucous Membrane: ➢ Bone marrow, spleen, and
➢ Secretes mucus. liver.
➢ Line many tracts and structures of c. Adipose Connective Tissue:
the body including the mouth, ➢ Adipocytes or fat cells.
nose, and trachea. ➢ Reserve food fuel and
b. Glandular Epithelium: insulates against heat loss.
➢ Forms the glands. ➢ Hypodermis, around
c. Endothelium: kidneys and eyeballs.
➢ Lines the circulatory vessels of the Dense Connective Tissue:
heart. ● Collagen fibers are densely packed and
d. Mesothelium: arranged in parallel.
➢ Lines peritoneal, pleural and ● This type of tissue is found in ligaments
pericardial. and tendons.
a. Dense Irregular Connective
Tissue:
Topic Eight: The Connective Tissue
➢ The irregular arrangement
What is a Connective Tissue?
of fibers.
● Tissue that connects, supports or binds
➢ Able to withstand tension
other tissues in the body.
exerted in many directions.
General Functions of Connective ➢ Capsules surround the
Tissue: joints, dermis, and outer
● Enclose and separate organs. covering of body tubes like
● Connect tissues. arteries.
● Support and movement. b. Dense Regular Connective
● Storage. Tissue:
● Cushion and insulation. ➢ The irregular arrangement
● Transport. of fibers.
 ➢ Able to withstand tension ➢ Maintains the shape of a structure
exerted in many directions. while allowing great flexibility.
➢ Capsules surround the ➢ Supports the external ear and
joints, dermis, and outer epiglottis.
covering of body tubes like 3. Fibrocartilage:
arteries. ➢ Thick collagen fibers
c. Elastic Connective Tissue: predominate.
➢ Elastic fibers ➢ Has the ability to absorb
➢ Allows recoil of tissue after compressive shock.
stretching. ➢ Intervertebral discs, pubic
➢ Wall of aorta, bronchial symphysis.
tubes. Blood Connective Tissue:
● Regarded as specialized tissue because
Types of Fibers: it originates in the bones.
1. Collagen Fibers: ● Composed of blood cells:
➢ Most abundant. ○ Erythrocytes – RBC
➢ Has great tensile strength. ○ Leukocytes – WBC
2. Elastic Fibers: ○ Thrombocytes – Platelets
➢ Contains elastin, which makes it
elastic like a rubber band.
Topic Nine: The Muscle Tissue
3. Reticular Fibers:
What is a Muscle Tissue?
➢ Fine fibrous connective tissue
● These are contractile animal tissues that
occurring in networks to make up
produce power and locomotion.
the supporting tissue of many
● Cell types are called muscle fibers.
organs
● The contractile proteins present in the
Specialized Connective Tissues:
muscle cells contract and relax to
Bone Connective Tissue:
facilitate body movement.
● Made up of collagen fibers, mineralized
Three Types of Muscle Tissue?
with calcium and phosphates to make it
1. Skeletal Muscle:
solid.
➢ Composed of elongated cells,
Cartilage:
each has several nuclei and
● A rubbery matrix can be flexible or rigid.
appears striped because of
● Gives structure, shape, and strength.
protein filaments that align in a
● It also reduces friction
repeated pattern.
Types of Cartilage:
➢ They are attached to the bones.
1. Hyaline Cartilage:
➢ Provides voluntary movements
➢ Appears clear under the
that a person can control.
microscope.
2. Cardiac Muscle:
➢ Location:
➢ Located in the walls of the heart.
○ nose,
➢ Made up of short, branched cells,
○ bronchi
each contains one nucleus.
○ bronchial tubes
3. Smooth Muscle:
○ trachea.
2. Elastic Cartilage:
 ➢ Composed of spindle-shaped
cells, each has one nucleus.
➢ It produces slow involuntary
movements of the stomach.
➢ Controls the size of the pupil of
the eye.
Topic Ten: The Nervous Tissue
What is a Nervous Tissue?
● Consist of neurons or nerve cells and
supporting cells or neuroglia or glial cells.
● Includes;
○ axons, dendrites, and cell bodies.
● Found in the brain, spinal cord, and
peripheral nerves.
● Controls and coordinates body
movements.
Neurons:
● Cells within the nervous system transmit
information to other nerve cells, muscle,
or gland cells.
● Neurons have three general structures.
General Structures of Neurons:
1. Dendrites:
➢ Are the rootlike extensions that
receive the stimuli/nerve impulses
from the sense organs or from the
surrounding neuron.
2. Cell Body:
➢ Nerve impulses will be conducted
into the cell body where you can
find the nucleus.
3. Axon:
➢ It is where electrical impulses
from the neuron travel away to be
received by other neurons.
Neurotransmitter:
● When nerve impulses reached the axon
terminal, nerve impulses that are
electrical in nature will be converted into
chemical messages by releasing a
chemical substance.
Synapse:
● A very small gap between the axon
terminal and the dendrite of the other
neuron.
Neuroglia or Glial cells:
● These cells form myelin, and protect,
support, and maintain equilibrium in your
nervous system.
Topic Ten: The Layers of the Skin
What is Skin?
● Skin is the outer covering of the body.
● It is the largest organ of the
integumentary system.
● Integument means covering.
Vocubulary:
● Derma = “skin”
● Dermatology:
○ The study of skin.
● Dermatologist:
○ The person who studies skin.
● Dermatitis:
○ Inflammation of the skin.
Epidermis:
● The outermost layer of skin.
● Protects underlying tissue from infection,
dehydration, chemicals, and mechanical
stress.
● It provides a waterproof barrier and
creates our skin tone.
Three Major Cells that Make Up the
Epidermis:
1. Keratinocytes:
➢ Produces the protein keratin,
which is the main component of
the epidermis.
2. Melanocytes:
➢ Melanocytes make your skin
pigment, known as melanin.
3. Langerhans Cells:
➢ Langerhans cells prevent things
from getting into your skin.
Stratum Corneum:
● This is the outermost layer of the
epidermis, and is made up of 10 to 30 thin
layers of continually shedding dead
keratinocytes.
Stratum Lucidum:
● This layer is primarily dead cells, filled
with the lipid that has not yet been
released.
● This is the layer that is the biggest
provider of the skin’s barrier function and
is waterproof.
Stratum Granulosum:
● The cells of the stratum granulosum
(SGR) accumulate dense basophilic
keratohyalin granules.
Stratum Lucidum:
● These granules contain lipids, which
along with the desmosomal connections,
help to form a waterproof barrier that
functions to prevent fluid loss from the
body.
Stratum Spinosum:
● 8-10 cell layers, also known as the
prickle cell layer contains irregular,
polyhedral cells with cytoplasmic
processes, sometimes called “spines”,
that extend outward and contact
neighboring cells by desmosomes.
Stratum Basale:
● This layer contains cells called
melanocytes.
● Melanocytes produce the skin coloring
or pigment known as melanin, which
gives skin its tan or brown color and
helps protect the deeper layers of the
skin from the harmful effects of the sun.
Note:
● Epidermis is made up of 4 to 5 layers
of stratified squamous epithelium.
○ The cells are held together by
cell junctions called
desmosomes.
Desmosome:
● Is the layer of skin that lies beneath the
epidermis.
● It is the thickest layer of the skin.
● The dermis is divided into the papillary
and reticular layers.
Dermis:
● Is the layer of skin that lies beneath the
epidermis.
● It is the thickest layer of the skin.
● The dermis is divided into the papillary
and reticular layers.
 Receptors:
● We can feel different modalities of touch
because of the presence of specialized
sensory receptors, called
mechanoreceptors, located in the skin.
Pacinian Corpuscle:
● These receptors are located deep in the
dermis of the skin and are responsible
Papillary Layer: for the perception of vibration.
● It is made of areolar loose connective
Ruffini Corpuscle:
tissue and is highly vascularized.
● These receptors detect skin to stretch
Reticular Layer:
and are also located within the dermis
● It is made of dense irregular connective
layer of the skin.
tissue.
Meissner Corpuscle:
● It accounts for 80% of the dermis.
● These receptors are stimulated by skin
● It contains hair follicles, nerve endings,
motion and are located in the epidermis
blood vessels, sweat and sebaceous
layer.
glands, and smooth muscle.
Merkel’s Disk:
TheDermis Contains:
● These are located at the border between
1. Blood Vessels:
the dermis and epidermis and are
➢ Nourishes the skin with oxygen
specialized to detect edges and points.
and nutrients.
➢ Allows immune system cells to
come to the skin to fight infection.
➢ These vessels also help carry
away waste products.
2. Nerves:
➢ Helps us relay signals coming
from the skin.
➢ These signals include touch,
temperature, pressure, pain, and Topic Eleven: The Accessory
itching.
Structures of the Skin
3. Sweat Glands:
Hair:
➢ Small tubular structures of the
● It is a derivative of the epidermis and
skin that produce sweat.
consists of two distinct parts: the follicle
4. Hair follicles:
and the hair shaft.
➢ Is a part of the skin, which grows
1. Follicle:
hair by packing old cells together.
➢ It is the living part located
Hypodermis:
under the skin.
● Also known as subcutaneous tissue.
2. Hair Shaft:
● It is used mainly for fat storage.
➢ A fully keratinized nonliving
● It connects the skin to the underlying
part above the skin
structures, such as muscle or bone.
surface.
 ➢ Consists of three layers:
○ cuticle
○ cortex
○ (in certain cases)
medulla.
3. Arrector Pili Muscle:
➢ Found in the dermis and
connects with the hair
follicle and causes
“goosebumps” when we
are scared or when we
chill.
Nails:
● A nail is a horn-like keratinous plate at
the tip of the fingers and toes in most
primates.
● Nails correspond to claws found in other
animals.
1. Nail Body:
➢ The visible part
2. Nail Root:
➢ Covered by skin Sebaceous Glands:
3. Cuticle: ● This is one of the skin glands which are
➢ It fuses the skin of the connected to hair follicles and produce
finger and nail body. an oily substance called sebum.
4. Nail Matrix: ● The skin lining the ear canal is lined with
➢ A continuation of the nail modified sebaceous glands called
root, and gives rise to most ceruminous glands.
of the nail. ● The secretion of these glands is called
5. Nail Bed: earwax or cerumen.
➢ The nail rests on and is 1. Eccrine Sweat Gland:
found distal to the matrix. ➢ Occur over most of your
6. Lunula: body and open directly
➢ The part of the nail matrix onto the surface of your
that is whitish, skin.
crescent-shaped area at ➢ With the highest density in
the base of the nail. palm and soles, then on
the head.
2. Apocrine Sweat Gland:
➢ Usually found in the
armpits, male scrotum,
labia majora of females,
and around the anus.
Topic Twelve: Common Skin Psoriasis:
● A skin disease that causes a rash with
Diseases
itchy, scaly patches, most commonly on
Acne:
the knees, elbows, trunk and scalp.
● This is a skin condition that occurs when
● A common, long-term (chronic) disease
your hair follicles become plugged with
with no cure.
oil and dead skin cells.
● It can be painful, interfere with sleep and
● It causes whiteheads, blackheads or
make it hard to concentrate.
pimples. Acne is most common among
● Causes:
teenagers, though it affects people of all
○ It is thought to be an immune
ages.
system problem that causes skin
● Causes:
cells to grow faster than usual
○ Hormonal changes
and it is an infection where
○ Certain medications
fighting cells attack healthy skin
○ Diet (Greasy/Oily Substances)
cells by mistake.
○ Stress
Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema):
○ Family History
● This is a condition that causes dry, itchy
Chickenpox:
and inflamed skin.
● This is an infection caused by the
● It's common in young children but can
varicella-zoster virus. It causes an itchy
occur at any age.
rash with small, fluid-filled blisters.
● Chronic
● Chickenpox is highly contagious to
● Irritating but not contagious.
people who haven't had the disease or
Albinism:
been vaccinated against it.
● Affects the production of melanin, the
● Causes:
pigment that colors skin, hair, and eyes.
● Chickenpox infection is caused by the
It's a lifelong condition, but it does not get
varicella-zoster virus.
worse over time.
● It can spread through direct contact with
the rash.
● It can also spread when a person with Topic Thirteen: Functions of the
the chickenpox coughs or sneezes and Integumentary System
you inhale the air droplets. 1. Protection
Monkeypox: 2. Sensation
● An illness caused by the monkeypox 3. Thermoregulation
virus. 4. Vitamin D Production
● It is a viral zoonotic infection, meaning 5. Secretion and Excretion
that it can spread from animals to
humans.
● It can also spread from humans to other
humans and from the environment to
humans.
Topic Fourteen: Functions of the Humerus:
● Upper arm bone,
Skeletal System
● Supports arm functions, such as lifting.
1. Support:
Radius:
➢ Rigid, strong bone is well suited for
● Lateral, shorter bone of the forearm.
bearing weight and is the major
Ulna:
supporting tissue of the body.
● Inner, larger bone of the forearm.
2. Protection:
➢ Bone is hard and protects the Metacarpals:
organs it surrounds. ● The five bones of the metacarpus,

3. Movement: located between the wrist and the

➢ Skeletal muscles attach to bones fingers.

by tendons, which are strong Metatarsals:

bands of connective tissue.
4. Storage:
➢ Some minerals in the blood –
principally, calcium and
phosphorus – are stored in bone.
5. Blood Cell Production:
➢ Many bones contain cavities filled
with red bone marrow, which
produces blood cells and
platelets.
Topic Fifteen: Classification of Bones
● Any of the bones located between the
ankle and the toes.
Tibia:
● The inner, larger bone of the lower leg.
Fibula:
● The outer, smaller bone located between
the knee and the ankle.
Femur:
● The thighbone; the longest and strongest
bone in the body.
Phalanges:
● Any of the bones of the fingers.

based on Shape
Structure of Long Bones:
Long Bones: 1. Diaphysis
● Longer than they are wide. ➢ Also called “Shaft”
● Most of the bones of the upper and lower ➢ Composed of compact bone.
limbs are long bones. 2. Epiphysis:
➢ Ends of the bone.
➢ Composed mostly of spongy
bone.

Clavicle:
● Also called the collarbone.
● It allows your arms to hang freely.
Short Bones: Sternum:
● Approximately as wide as they are long. ● Is a partially T-shaped vertical bone that

Carpals: forms the anterior portion of the chest

● Any of the 8 bones of the carpus/ wrist. wall centrally.

Ribs:
● Act as a protective cage for the heart,
lungs, and liver; there are 12 pairs of ribs.
Pelvis:
● Located near the base of the spine where
the hind limbs/legs are attached.
Irregular Bones:
● Have shapes that do not fit readily into
the other three categories.
Tarsals:
Vertebrae:
● The seven bones of the ankle joint.
● Any of the 33 bones of the spinal column.
Sacrum:
● Forms the posterior pelvic wall and
strengthens and stabilizes the pelvis.
Mandible:
● The jawbone; holds the lower teeth in
place; it is the strongest bone in the face.
Maxilla:
● The bone that forms your upper jaw.
Zygomatic:
● A structure that joins the bones of the
face while protecting the arteries, nerves,
veins, and organs which lie below the
Flat Bones:
surface.
● Have a relatively thin, flattened shape.
Hyoid:
Cranium:
● Located in the front of the neck, just
● The skull; encloses/protects the brain.
below the lower jaw.
Ccocyx:
● A triangular arrangement of bone that
makes up the very bottom portion of the
spine below the sacrum.
Stapes:
● Located in the middle ear; the smallest
bone in the body.

Scapula:
● A partially T-shaped vertical bone that
forms the anterior portion of the chest
wall centrally.
Sesamoid: Topic Eighteen: Bone Formation
● A small independent bone developed in Definition of Terms:
a tendon where it passes over an angular
a. Osteogenic:
structure.
➢ The stem cell which gives rise to
Patella: osteoblast.
● The kneecap; allows for knee extension b. Osteoblast:
➢ Known as “bone forming” cells.
Topic Sixteen: Histology of Bone c. Osteocytes:

a. Compact Bone: ➢ Mature bone cells that monitor

and maintain bone matrix.
➢ Dense and looks smooth.
d. Osteoclasts:
➢ Homogenous
➢ Known as “bone breaking” cells.
b. Spongy Bone:
e. Chondrocytes:
➢ Small needle-like pieces of bone.
➢ The cells of cartilage, producing
➢ Has many open spaces.
and maintaining the
cartilaginous matrix.
f. Ossification:
➢ Is the formation of bone by
osteoblasts.
a. Intramembranous
Ossification:
➔ Replacement of
thin connective
tissue membrane
with bone.
Topic Seventeen: Divisions of the ➔ Flat bones such as
skull, mandible, and
Skeletal System
clavicle.
Appendicular Skeleton: b. Endochondral
● The primary bones of this skeleton are Ossification
the shoulder girdle, arms, hands, pelvic ➔ Replacement of
girdle, legs and feet. fetal cartilage
Axial Skeleton: skeleton with bone.
● The primary bones of the axial skeleton ➔ Long, irregular, and
are the skull, vertebral column, ribs and short bones.
sternum.
Topic Nineteen: The Joints Osteoarthritis:
Definition of Joint: ● The most common form of arthritis.
● Some people call it a degenerative joint
● A joint is a place where two bones come
disease or “wear and tear” arthritis.
together.
● It occurs most frequently in the hands,
Classification of Joints:
hips, and knees.
a. Fibrous Joints:
● Symptoms:
➢ It consists of two bones that are
○ Joint changes that can limit joint
united by fibrous tissue that
movement.
exhibit little or no movement.
○ Swelling in and around the joint,
b. Cartilaginous Joints:
especially after a lot of activity or
➢ It consists of two bones that are
use of that area.
united by cartilage that only
Scoliosis:
exhibit slight movement.
● An abnormal curvature of the spine
c. Synovial Joints:
resulting in an S or C shape.
➢ Freely movable joints that
● Symptoms:
contain fluid in a cavity
○ Symptoms of scoliosis depend on
surrounding the ends of
the severity of the condition,
articulating bones.
including;
d. Articular Cartilage:
■ Having one shoulder blade
➢ Thin layer of hyaline cartilage that
higher or more protrusive
covers the entire articulating
than the other
surface of each bone.
■ Uneven hips
e. Synovial Membrane:
■ A rotating spine
➢ Lining the inner surface of the
■ Breathing problems
articular capsule is a thin
■ Back pain.
synovial membrane.
➢ The cells of this membrane Gout:
secrete synovial fluid. ● A common form of inflammatory arthritis
f. Synovial Fluid: marked by intense pain and caused by
➢ synovia = “a thick fluid”. too much uric acid in the body.
➢ Is a thick, slimy fluid that provides ● Uric acid crystals build up in the joints
lubrication to further reduce and surrounding tissues in the body.
friction between the bones of the ● Symptoms:
joint. ○ Intense pain
○ Swelling
Topic Twenty: Bone Disorders
○ redness
Osteoporosis:
○ Heat is known to get worse
● A condition that affects the bones.
(“flares”)
● Its name comes from the Latin for
○ Disappear (“remission”) entirely.
“porous bones.”
Osteogenesis Imperfecta:
● Symptoms:
● An inherited (genetic) bone disorder that
○ Receding gums
is present at birth. It is also known as
○ Weakened grip strength
brittle bone disease.
○ Weak and brittle nails
 ● A child born with OI may have soft bones
that break (fracture) easily, bones that
are not formed normally, and other
problems.
● Signs and symptoms may range from
mild to severe.
Closed/Open Fracture:
● A closed or simple fracture is when the
broken bone does not break the skin.
● Conversely, an open or compound
fracture happens when the ends of a
fractured bone tear through the skin.
● Open fractures that expose the bone and
other tissues put the injured at greater
risk of infection.
Complete/Incomplete Fracture:
● Incomplete fractures are when the bone
cracks without breaking completely,
keeping it in one piece.
● Complete fractures, meanwhile, happen
when the bone is snapped or crushed
into two or more pieces.
Osteomyelitis:
● An inflammation or swelling of bone
tissue that is usually the result of an
infection.
● Bone infection may occur for many
different reasons and can affect
children or adults.
● Most cases of osteomyelitis are caused
by staphylococcus bacteria, types of
germs commonly found on the skin or in
the nose of even healthy individuals.