Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059

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Journal of Advanced Joining Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jajp

Welding and processing of metallic materials by using friction stir

technique: A review
Mostafa M. El-Sayed a, A.Y. Shash b,c,∗, M. Abd-Rabou b,d, Mahmoud G. ElSherbiny b
a
Manufacturing and Production Engineering Dept., Modern Academy for Engineering and Technology, Cairo, Egypt
b
Mechanical Design and Production Engineering Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, 12316 Giza, Egypt
c
Faculty of Engineering and Materials Science, German University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt
d
Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Friction stir technique played a vital role in recent industries as it has been utilized in welding and processing of
Friction stir welding metallic materials. Friction stir welding (FSW) is applied for joining the poorly weldable materials and enhanc-
Underwater friction stir welding ing the microstructure and the mechanical properties of the welded joints. Friction stir spot welding (FSSW),
Friction stir spot welding
underwater friction stir welding (UFSW) and vertical compensation friction stir welding (VCFSW) are variants
Friction stir processing
of FSW process. On the other hand, friction stir processing (FSP) is another method, whose basic principal origi-
Friction stir alloying, Finite element modeling
nated from friction stirring technique, which can be utilized for manipulating the base materials by performing
dynamic recrystallization on grains resulting in superior properties of the processed material. Friction stir alloy-
ing (FSA) is analogous to FSP with implanted reinforcement particles, producing surface composites. Like other
fusion welding techniques, FSW process has its own defects which especially characterize the friction stir welded
joints. Tunnels, voids, flash, lack of penetration, kissing bond and surface grooving are the common defects of
FSW method. Since friction stirring action generates both thermal and mechanical loads beside the higher plastic
deformation, finite element modeling (FEM) has been used in model and simulation this of the process. A few
research gaps are pin pointed and some research recommendations are included.

1. Introduction
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) was first introduced by (Thomas (1991)
at TWI (The Welding Institute, UK). FSW is a solid state joining tech-
nique within which the parts are joined together without reaching at-
taining the fusion of the base material.
Thomas et al. (2003) explained the FSW basic principal as a non-
consumable shouldered rotating tool with a profiled probe immersed
into the abutting faces of the objects. Concurrently frictional heat is
generated at the tool-work piece interface; and hence softening of the
base material is occurred and, finally a continuous joint is produced by
a translational motion across the welding line, as presented in Fig. 1.
This technique may be applied for joining any type of similar mate-
rials like: pure, alloy and composite materials; and dissimilar materials
can be welded easily in the same fashion. Quite recently, aerospace,
shipbuilding, railway and automotive parts have been produced by us-
ing FSW process. The material characterization and the mechanical
properties of the friction stir welded joints are influenced by several
parameters. These variables are: tool design, rotational speed, welding
speed, axial force, plunge depth and tool tilt angle. The material flow
and the power consumed during welding are affected by the tool design;
whereas the rotational and welding speeds affect and control the fric-
tional generated heat. Nevertheless, further heating may be produced by
tuning the axial force. Furthermore, plunge depth and tool tilt angle con-
trol both the surface manifestation and the joint efficiency (ESSAB Hand-
book, 2002). Threadgill et al. (2009) analyzed the microstructure evo-
lution of friction stir welded aluminum joint and classified it into four
zones as shown in Fig. 2. This classification basically depends on the im-
pact of both heat and plastic deformation created during welding. These
zones are namely as follows:
­ Base Material (BM): in which neither heating nor plastic deforma-
tion affect the material characterization.
­ Heat affected zone (HAZ): this zone is subjected to a thermal cycle,
without any plastic deformation so; the generated heat has no impact
on the microstructure evolution. However Mahoney et al. (1999)
observed that temperature rise above 250°C for a heat-treatable alu-
minum alloy resulted in a significant impact on the precipitate struc-
ture as due to coarsening.
­ Thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ): this zone is sub-
jected to both heat and plastic deformation which cause an effect

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ahmed.shash@cu.edu.eg, ahmed.shash@guc.edu.eg (A.Y. Shash).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jajp.2021.100059
Received 5 January 2021; Received in revised form 21 March 2021; Accepted 2 April 2021
2666-3309/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059

Fig. 1. Schematic drawing of FSW process.

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of FS welded joint.

Fig. 3. Classification of friction stirring techniques.

on the microstructure characterization but without grains recrystal-
lization due to insufficient deformation strain; however dissolution
of some precipitates may be observed as investigated by Mahoney
et al. (1999).
­ Dynamically recrystallized zone (DXZ): it is also known as
“nugget zone”. In which, both high plastic deformation and high
temperature cause dynamic recrystallization of grains. This region
is characterized by onion ring structure which may be observed in
the case of specific welding conditions.
Since FSW operation involves both thermal and mechanical loads,
finite element modeling of both thermal history and mechanical stresses
produced is a complicated problem.
Fig. 3 demonstrates the classification of friction stir techniques. It
includes two sectors: welding and processing. The welding section is
mainly classified into: traditional, under-water, spot and vertical com-
pensation friction stir welding. Whereas the processing section involves
processing with and without adding reinforcing particles.
There are several researches about the welding and processing of
similar and dissimilar materials by utilizing the stirring action, which
mainly focus on the process, microstructural characteristics, mechanical
properties and numerical simulations.
Therefore, this review article summarizes these aspects in view of
friction stir welding, underwater friction stir welding, vertical compen-
sation friction stir welding, friction stir spot welding, friction stir pro-
cessing and finite element modeling of friction stir technique.

2
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
2. Traditional friction stir welding
There are various published researches and reports on the role of
FSW parameters in the material characterization and the mechanical
properties of the welded joints; including both similar and dissimilar
materials.
2.1. Effect of friction stir welding parameters on the material
characterization and the mechanical properties of similar welded joints
2.1.1. FSW of aluminum alloys
El-Rayes et al. (2019) scrutinized the impact of feed rate on the me-
chanical and microstructural properties of AA5754 friction stir welded
joints. They noticed that higher feed rate produced smaller grains sizes
and higher low-angle grain boundaries. As a result, it caused enhance-
ment of both yield and tensile strength of the welded joints with lower
ductility. Zhang et al. (2019) assessed the influence of the shoulderless
FSW tool on the microstructure evolution and the mechanical proper-
ties of ultra-thin AA1060 welded joints. The results revealed that, utiliz-
ing the shoulderless tool caused narrower weld area and lower attained
heat and hence a smaller HAZ is produced. As a result, the nugget zone
hardness was higher than that of the BM and the best achieved weld effi-
ciency was 78.6% of the BM tensile strength. El-Sayed et al. (2018a) in-
vestigated on the impact of FSW variables on the peak temperature and
the mechanical properties of AA5083-O welded joints. They concluded
that the variation of both transverse speed and tool pin profile have a
small effect on the welding peak temperature. Furthermore, they ob-
served that, utilizing a threaded tool pin at 50, 100 and 160 mm/min
welding speeds produced defect free welds with superior tensile strength
values. Yue et al. (2016) produced overlapped joints from AA2024-T4 by
using a stationary shouldered tool. They noticed a smooth joint surface
with very small flash and without shoulder marks. Moreover, detraction
of the travel speed from 200 mm/min to 50 mm/min reduced the effec-
tive sheet thickness and increased the effective lap width. On the other
hand, utilizing larger shoulder diameter produced a higher lap shear fail-
ure load. Sun et al. (2016) compared the attained residual stress from
both conventional and stationary shoulder FSW processes of AA7010
thick plates. They observed a narrower and more uniform weld stirred
and heat affected zones profile through the plate thickness produced us-
ing stationary shoulder FSW (SSFSW) process. In addition, an ‘M’ shaped
residual stress allocation was noticed for both processes. Nevertheless,
a slight decrease of the peak stresses was determined from SSFSW with
minimal width of the tensile zone. It was deduced that, in both meth-
ods, the travel speed increase resulted in narrower residual stress profile
with higher peak tensile residual stresses. Shah et al. (2017) carried out
FSW of AA6061 to assess the impact of tool eccentricity on the material
flow and mechanical properties of the welded joints. Their consequences
revealed superior material flow with tool offset as compared with the
normal one which resulted in expanding the soft region of the stir zone
(SZ). However, the tool offset did not affect the mechanical properties
of the welded joints. Abdulstaar et al. (2017) examined the microstruc-
ture over the thickness of AA6061-T6 friction stir welded joints and the
mechanical properties of the shot peened welded joints. The specimens
examined by using electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD) exposed
that the coarsest grains of 5 μm were detected at the top of welded joint;
whereas the finest ones of 2 μm were at the root. Furthermore, the fa-
tigue strength of the welded joints was lower than that of the BM; while
the shot peened ones had superior fatigue properties whose values in-
creased with increasing the Almen intensity from 0.18 to 0.24 mmA.
Mao et al. (2017) scrutinized the inhomogeneity in the SZ microstruc-
ture and mechanical properties of 20 mm thick 7075-T6 plates. The
micrographs detected by EBSD revealed that the smallest grain size of
about 2.5 μm was evident at 3 mm from the top surface; whereas the
coarsest grains of 11.4 μm were located at 18 mm. Nevertheless, the
high angle grain boundaries (HAGBs) along the thickness had a reverse
effect reflecting the degree of dynamic recrystallization. On the other
3
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
hand in terms of the tensile properties across the slice thickness, prop-
erty reduction from the top to the bottom was observed due to the finer
grains, more HAGBs and more dispersive re-precipitated particles.
2.1.2. FSW of magnesium alloys
Mironov et al. (2017) performed the FSW operation on AZ31 mag-
nesium alloy to examine the relation between the texture and strain
distributions during the transverse tensile test by using EBSD and the
digital image processing technique. Concentrated strain in the SZ po-
sitions was noticed with favorable crystallographic orientations for the
fundamental slipping. The strain measured in the focal portion of the
SZ reflected the activation of the prism slip. As well as, the strain mea-
surements exposed a larger front face strain value compared to that ob-
tained in the back face and the failure was observed to be initiated at
the joint root from the double {1011} − {1012} twinning. Meanwhile
the crack propagation was through the nugget zone (NZ) and impacted
by the “onion-ring” structure. Liu et al. (2016) checked the impact of
texture and twinning effectiveness on the rapture mode in bending test
of AZ31 Mg alloy welded joints. They deduced that the crack took place
at the exterior surface and fracture occurred close to the SZ transition
interface of the AS. In addition, they observed that the fracture of the
bended sample was deeply affected by the different twinning activity in
both zones. Thereby, a triple junction zone produced a sharp nook in the
fracture face of the base test specimen as it was undergone to a tensile
load. However, with compression load, there was little impact. Accord-
ingly, the domestic stress condition affected the textural divergence on
fracture mode in bending tests and was highly dependent on the local
state of stress. Wang et al. (2016) studied the properties of AZ31 Mg
alloy welded joints with the post-weld heat treatment (PWHT). They
concluded that the superior tensile strength value of 199.1 MPa was
achieved at 1200 rpm and 300 mm/min for as welded sample; while,
the PWHT at 300°C for 1 hour, produced a 98.5% joint efficiencies of
BM strength and a 34.2% of fatigue strength. At this heat treatment con-
dition, fine and homogeneous grains were detected in the HAZ owing
to static recrystallization during heat treatment. For all conditions, the
minimum micro-hardness measurements were detected in the HAZ at
which the fracture occurred. Othman et al. (2017) joined a 2 mm AZ31
Mg alloy by using FSW technique to check the influence of shoulder to
pin diameters ratio ranging from 2.25 to 5.5. Their results revealed that
the best achieved tensile strength value of 91% the BM strength was at
a ratio of 3.33; while the best one obtained at a 5.5 ratio. Furthermore,
smaller grain size in the SZ was displayed for tool ratio of 3.33 compared
to other tool ratio. Shang et al. (2017) checked the impact of tilt angles
(parallel, perpendicular and at 45°) relative to the extrusion direction on
the microstructure evolution and the mechanical properties of Mg-3Al-
1Zn alloy welded joint. They noticed identical hardness profiles along
mid-thickness of the welded joints with two crests and two valleys in the
NZ. Furthermore, the breaking positions of the welded specimens were
shifted with the three welding directions, which may be attributed to the
incompatible deformation of different sub-regions and the crack prop-
agation was impacted by contraction twins generated at the NZ center.
Also, it was reported that improved elongation was obtained at 45° tilt
angle.
2.1.3. FSW of copper alloys
Rao et al. (2017) examined the impact of FSW variables on the
mechanical properties of 2200 copper alloy friction stir welded joints.
Their consequences displayed that raising both the rotational and
welding speed values caused an improvement in the tensile strength
value; whereas increasing the axial force adversely affected the ten-
sile strength. Moreover, a well mixing of the plasticized material and
the best results were achieved by using the threaded tool pin pro-
file. Pashazadeh et al. (2016) performed FSW process by using a non-
threaded tool pin profile to investigate the effect of the shoulder plunge
depth on the morphology and the microstructure of the copper alloy
welded joints. The results reported the formation of four zones (surface
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
layer, surface material, in-situ material and TMAZ) in the RS of the SZ
and a surface layer was created by the shoulder-driven material. Fur-
thermore, gradual variation in the grain size from the parent metal to
the DXZ on the RS was observed; while a sudden change in the AS was
reported. This was attributed to the diffused interface in the former case
and the sharpened look of the interface in the latter. Also, they showed
that the weld was deeply affected by the materials on the retreating
side. Azizi et al. (2016) studied the impact of traverse speed change
on the material characterization and the mechanical properties of thick
pure copper welded joints. The results showed that finer grains sizes
were achieved at elevated welding speed values due to minimal heat
input and peak temperature; though defected joints were produced at
these values. Moreover, raising the travel speed caused a rise in the ten-
sile strength to an extreme value and then followed by a reduction. It
also indicated that raising the travel speed deeply affect the hardness;
whereas it adversely influence the ductility thereby; more ductile rap-
ture was noticed at lower traverse speeds. The pure copper friction stir
welded joints were electrochemically examined at different rotational
and welding speeds by Fattah-alhosseini et al. (2016). The SEM micro-
graphs results indicated a reduction in the grain size of the welded joints
with respect to the base material (BM); while the XRD patterns presented
only three crests of pure copper which reflected the loss of undesirable
oxides phases in the structure. Furthermore, electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) measurements showed that the FSW process could
improve the corrosion resistance of the BM and a minimum polariza-
tion resistance was noticed for the BM. The maximum value, however,
was achieved at speeds of 500 rpm and 28 mm/min.
2.1.4. FSW of titanium alloys
Ramulu et al. (2018) performed the FSW on three different tita-
nium alloys; namely ATI-425, TIMET-54M, and Ti-6Al-4V to study the
microstructural characteristics and the mechanical properties of the
welded joints. Their observations revealed Widmanstätten morphology
in the SZ for friction stir welded ATI-425 and TIMET-54M alloys. Fur-
thermore, in the case of TIMET-54M and Ti-6Al-4V FS welded joints, the
HAZ refined bimodal grains and TMAZ had equiaxed 𝛼 grain structure;
while in the case of ATI-425, HAZ it showed refined equiaxed 𝛼 infused
with 𝛽. The results also showed an increase of the nugget zone hardness
for all alloys; while HAZ was marked by degradation in the hardness
values as a result of recrystallized grains. The fracture occurred in the
SZ, BM and the HAZ/TMAZ retreating side for ATI-425, TIMET-54M and
Ti-6Al-4V respectively. Ji et al. (2017) examined the mechanical prop-
erties of back heating assisted Ti-6Al-4V friction stir welded joints. Their
results showed that during conventional FSW, tearing defect free welds
were obtained at 100 rpm rotational speed; while the back heating as-
sisted friction stir welding (BHAFSW) method permitted a wider range
of operation variables where it produced defect–free joints by reducing
the temperature gradient along plate thickness. The conventional FSW
achieved the best joint efficiency of 98.9 %; whereas 93.6 % was the best
efficiency in the case of BHAFSW due to higher heat input. However, the
breaking morphologies of both processes joints indicated typical ductile
fracture. The hardness values achieved at both cases were larger than
that of the BM, but BHAFSW gave better values. It was concluded that
the tool wear was reduced during the BHAFSW process due to better
thermo plasticization materials. Yoon et al. (2015) conducted the FSW
to investigate three various initial microstructures with different densi-
ties on Ti–6Al–4V friction stir welded joint. The microstructure results
exposed identical characteristics for the all three types; where the SZ
top surface had a mixture of lamellar structure 𝛼 + 𝛽 with equiaxed
𝛼 grains, and the zone portion of this lamellar structure was gradually
increased from the top to the bottom due to the temperature gradient;
attaining fully equiaxed 𝛼 structure at the bottom. They also noticed that
the average grain size of the fully equiaxed 𝛼 structure area decreased
with increasing the initial density of high angle boundaries. This accel-
erated grain refinement was attributed to the effect of microstructure
inhomogeneity on the recrystallization. Esmaily et al. (2013) examined
4
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
the impact of FSW and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) processes on
microstructure evolutions of Ti–6Al–4V welded joints. The GTAW pro-
cess was performed at current ranging from 90-120 A; while FSW was
performed at different rotational speeds ranging from 450 to 850 rpm.
The results revealed that the GTAW defect-free welds were achieved
at 100-110 A; whereas defect-free friction stir welded joints were pro-
duced at 650-750 rpm. Nevertheless, among all defect-free welds, the
grains of welded joints at 650 rpm in FSW and the one welded with 100
A in GTAW were finer in size. Moreover, when raising the rotational
speed to 650 rpm resulted in more heat input, and thus increased the
stirring temperature where, Tstir zone > b-transus temperature, causing
faster cooling rates and promoting the formation of 𝛼 martensite phase
in the SZ of friction stir welded joints. In terms of the micro-hardness
results, the highest HV with 399 ± 3 measured in the specimen welded
by FSW method at rotational speed of 650 rpm. This was attributed to
the presence of martensitic phase.
2.1.5. FSW of steels
Dawson et al. (2017) considered the impact of travel speed on the
residual stresses allocation of oxide dispersion-strengthened (ODS) steel
by using neutron diffraction method. They deduced that the highest
measured longitudinal tensile stress value was 1200 MPa, and was pro-
duced at the highest welding speed due to the higher cooling rates. Fur-
thermore, by lowering the welding speed, the peak welding temperature
was higher, however a significant decrease in the TMAZ tensile residual
stresses. The results also revealed that the welding speed variation had
no impact on the traverse residual stresses and their values were lower
than those of the longitudinal stresses values. Liu et al. (2016) examined
the in-situ grain structure and texture evolution during FSW of austenite
stainless steel. They deuced that the microstructure evolution was split
into four phases: compression deformation, rotation deformation, forge
and torsion deformation, and annealing. In the first phase, the mate-
rials approaching the pin resulted in the formation of high density of
low angle grain boundary (LAGB) segments and some of these segments
converted to long high angle grain boundaries (HAGBs), subdividing
the former coarse grains. While in the second phase, the material ro-
tated around the pin due to tool rotation resulting in a reduction of the
LAGBs, and leading to raise the twin boundaries ratio, producing a wider
grain size allocation. The average grain size however, remained constant
in spite of the higher strain. Whilst in the third phase, the tool shoul-
der caused material forging and torsion, generating new LAGB segments
and damage the twin boundaries created in the material flow zone. Fi-
nally in the fourth phase, a reduction in the LAGBs density occurred and
new twin boundaries developed. Nelson and Rose (2016) investigated
the impact of heat input and the backing plate material on the mate-
rial characterization of HSLA steel welded joints. They deduced that
the post-weld cooling rate had a great impact on the SZ microstructure
over the range of welding conditions; where the hard zone in the HAZ
disappeared at cooling rates below 20°C/S. Furthermore, they detected
that raising the cooling rate from 7°C/S to 30°C/S, the lath width di-
minished linearly from 1.11 𝜇m to 0.59 𝜇m and this caused an increase
in the hardness values from 234 to 298 HV. They also noticed a pro-
portional relation between the lath length and the heat input regardless
of the backing plate material. Sowards et al. (2015) produced friction
stir welded joints of API 5L X80 pipe line and tested their microstruc-
ture evolutions and mechanical properties. The results indicated that
finer and elongated martensite austenite (MA) particles were formed in
the SZ, resulted in hard zone with maximum hardness values. However,
Fine distribution of massive MA constituent in the HAZ was created. The
results also revealed that the highest longitudinal residual stresses ob-
tained closer to the HAZ/BM interface. However, these residual stresses
were minimal compared with that of the BM yield strength value due
to the lower welding temperature of the FSW process as compared to
fusion welding. Furthermore, the fatigue crack propagation in the SZ
and across the weld was deeply affected by the residual stress, though it
retarded the fatigue crack growth rate at all applied stress intensity am-
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
plitude levels. The fine MA particles distribution presented within the
welds significantly affected the morphology of ductile failure mode in
the NZ and the fatigue fracture mode in the HAZ. Lean duplex stainless
steel friction stir welded joints were chemically tested in H2 SO4 solution
by Sarlak et al. (2014). They deduced that the increase of travel speed
resulted in diminishing the grain size of both 𝛼 and 𝛾 phases causing
an improved corrosion resistance of the NZ. While in terms of Mott-
Schottky analysis, a minimal donor density value was produced due to
SZ grain size refinement and these observations were compatible with
the immersion test results.
2.2. Effect of FSW parameters on the material characterization and the
mechanical properties of metal matrix composites (MMC)
Salih et al. (2019) carried out the FSW process on AA6092/SiC metal
matrix composite to examine the impact of both rotational and weld-
ing speed values on the microstructural evolution and the mechanical
properties of the welded joints. The microstructure results displayed a
substantial grain refinement and a uniform allocation of reinforcement
particles in the NZ. The grain size of the DXZ was deeply affected by the
weld pitch which reflected the amount of heat input and cooling rate. In
terms of the micro-hardness profile across the welding zone, there was
a variation among all zones. The results displayed that the best joint ef-
ficiency of 75% of matrix tensile strength; whereas the fatigue life was
deeply influenced by the SZ grain size where; a better fatigue life, but
lower than the matrix fatigue life, was produced at finer equiaxed grains
with HAGBs in the SZ. On the other hand, AA6061-SiC-20% particu-
late composites friction stir welded joints were mechanically tested by
Öztoprak at al. (2018). The results revealed that the maximum joint ef-
ficiency of 97.29% of matrix tensile strength was achieved at 1000 rpm
and the SZ average hardness values were adversely affected by raising
the tool rotational speed. Moreover, the results revealed an improve-
ment in the fatigue strength approaching 93.29% joint efficiency at 1250
rpm; however at 1600 rpm the welded joint was more responsive to
cyclic load than other joints. The results also revealed that at 1000 rpm,
crack propagation was easily noticed in the high cyclic fatigue region
(HCF); whereas at low cyclic fatigue (LCF) there was no propagation.
Additionally, at 1250 rpm an interfacial crack mode was displayed at
HCF and mixed failure mode at LCF; whilst macro voids, pores and inclu-
sions within the fractographs were detected at 1600 rpm. Peddavarapu1
et al. (2017) performed the FSW process of Al–4.5Cu alloy with 5% TiB2
reinforcement fabricated with stir casting to assess the impact of rota-
tional speed variation on the material characterization of the welded
joints. The microstructure examination displayed a homogeneous allo-
cation of fine recrystallized grains with many small TiB2 particles and
precipitates in the NZ owing to tool stirring action and mutual impact
of hard particles to each other. On the other hand elongated grains
were observed at TMAZ. Moreover, the NZ hardness values were better
than that of BM hardness value because of strengthening resulted from
grain refinement and small hard particles. Prabhu et al. (2019) produced
friction stir welded joints from AA6061-3% rutile composite and exam-
ined the joints mechanically and microscopically. They deduced that the
joints material characteristics and mechanical properties were deeply af-
fected by both rotational and welding speeds. The microstructure of SZ
was composed of recrystallized, uniformly distributed, finer equiaxed
grains with several very small rutile particles owing to the higher stir-
ring action of the tool and mutual impact of rutile particles to each
other. Moreover, the square tool pin profile produced finer grains in the
SZ than those obtained by cylindrical threaded one due to higher dy-
namic recrystallization and; thereby better mechanical properties were
obtained. Also, the grains at the bottom of the SZ were finer than those
at the top with maximum joint efficiency of 97% at 100 rpm and 90mm/
min. Kalaiselvan et al. (2014) reported on the material characterization
of AA6061/ B4 C reinforced stir cast composite. The microstructure evo-
lution results showed parallel band like distribution of boron carbide
(B4 C) particles and elongated grains in the TMAZ; while these particles
5
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
were uniformly distributed in the SZ with some degree of shattering. The
weld zone hardness recorded higher value than that of the BM; whereas
the tensile strength was similar to the strength of the parent compos-
ite under the testing cases. However, it showed degradation in the joint
ductility and there was an alteration in the fracture mode from ductile
to brittle after FSW process. Kumar et al. (2014) performed FSW process
Al-4.5%Cu-10% TiC metal matrix composite to examine the microstruc-
ture evolution and the mechanical properties of the produced joints.
They noticed that the tool geometry and rotational speed had the high-
est influence on producing defect-free welds and the mechanical proper-
ties; wherein the best tensile strength was achieved at 500 rpm by using
a 7° tool shoulder concavity. Furthermore, the SEM images exposed a
complete distribution with finer grains of TiC in the DXZ which resulted
in higher hardness whose values were gradually decreased reaching the
minimum at HAZ.
2.3. Effect of FSW parameters on the material characterization and the
mechanical properties of dissimilar welded joints
Kalemba-rec et al. (2018) scrutinized the impact of FSW variables on
the mechanical properties of AA7075-T651 and AA5083-H111 dissim-
ilar welded joints. They deduced that the joints mechanical properties
were adversely affected by the increase of rotational speed regardless
the shape of tool pin profile. The efficiency of the joints by the Triflute
tool pin profile reached a 100% of the tensile strength value. More-
over, the pin geometry had a great widening impact on the shape of
SZ especially when using Triflute pin profile. The breaking location of
the defect free welds was noticed at the softer material (i.e. AA5083).
On the other hand, Hasan et al. (2018) performed the FSW process on
AA7075-T651 and AA2024-T351 dissimilar joints to examine the influ-
ence of flute radius on the metallographic and the mechanical properties
of the produced joints. Their results displayed that the material flow was
affected by changing the flute radius where; the NZ homogeneity was
better at the flute radius equal to that of the tool probe. Furthermore,
using a flattened tapered threaded tool pin profile enhanced the tensile
properties of the welded joints. Also, the weld efficiency reached 94.3%
of the softer base material when using a truncated threaded pin tool
with a flute radius equal to that of the pin. Barbini et al. (2017) joined
AA2024-T3 and 7050-T7651 dissimilar materials by using both FSW and
stationary shoulder FSW (SSFSW) processes. The work revealed that the
SSFSW adversely affected both the welding area and the diffusion at the
AA2024-T3 and 7050-T7651 interface. Furthermore, the tensile prop-
erties of the welded joints of both processes were increased by raising
the welding speed values; where at the highest welding speed, 94% and
86% joint efficiencies of AA2024-T3 tensile strength were achieved in
the case of SSFSW and FSW respectively. Sevvel et al. (2017) checked
the microstructural evolution and the corrosion resistance of dissimilar
AZ80A and AZ91C Mg welded joints. It was demonstrated that, defect-
free joints with excellent mechanical properties were achieved when
AZ80A Mg alloy was located at the retreating side (RS) because of the
easier material flow from the AS to the RS. In contrast, achieving defect-
free joints was slightly difficult when this alloy was positioned at the
AS. Sun et al. (2018) examined dissimilar CuCrZr / CuNiCrSi joints mi-
croscopically and mechanically at various rotational speeds. The results
displayed that raising the rotational speed caused excess of both retreat-
ing material area and SZ grain size. The mechanical properties such as
micro-hardness and tensile strength in the DXZ were adversely impacted
by increasing the rotational speed. Moreover, defects-free welds were
obtained at 1400 and 1700 rpm; while groove-like and tunnel defects
were observed along the weld line at 800 rpm and 1100 rpm. How-
ever surface-galling defects were observed at 2100 rpm. Additionally,
higher density precipitates of Cr and 𝛿-Ni2 Si were presented in CuNi-
CrSi base material; while Cr precipitates were detected in the CuCrZr
side as a result of the stirring action and all these precipitates were per-
fectly dissolved into the DXZ. However, the mechanical properties of the
welded joints were adversely influenced by the dissolution of these pre-
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
cipitates; where the strengthening mechanism in the NZ was the grain
boundary. Muthu and Jayabalan (2015) performed the FSW on dissim-
ilar AA1100-H14 and pure copper to check the effect of traverse speed
on the microstructural evolution and the mechanical properties of the
welded joints. The investigation revealed that the free-defect welds were
achieved at 70 mm/min and 80 mm/min. Moreover, a 70% joint effi-
ciency of BM tensile strength was achieved at 80 mm/min owing to
Al2 Cu, AlCu and Al4 Cu9 continuous intermetallic layers observed in the
SZ. This higher joint efficiency was attributed to continuous thin inter-
metallic layer at the Al–Cu interface, distribution of fine Cu particles
in the Al SZ and grain boundary strengthening. Verma et al. (2017) re-
ported on the influence of both rotational and welding speeds on the
material characterization, the mechanical properties and the corrosion
behavior of AA 6061 and AZ31dissimilar welded joints. The results dis-
played that an intense plastic deformation and dynamic recrystalliza-
tion between both alloys was created at higher rotational and transverse
speeds which produced finer equiaxed grains in the SZ along which some
Mg intermetallics and; thereby improved both the strength and hardness
values. At higher rotational and lower transverse speeds, coarse grains
were formed causing an enhancement in toughness and corrosion resis-
tance. On the other hand, at constant lower rotational speed, increasing
travel speed caused deterioration in both strength and hardness values
due to insufficient time and frictional heat. Shen et al. (2015) investi-
gated the impact of both travel speed and penetration depth on dissim-
ilar AA5754-DP600 steel lap welded joints. They detected formation of
an intermetallic compound of Fe4 Al13 at the Al/Fe interface and they
noticed that raising the penetration depth resulted in an increase in the
joint strength at all travel speed values. Furthermore, a premature break-
ing mode was observed along the Al substrate under shearing load at
penetration depth larger than 0.17 mm; while a shear fracture mode was
noticed at penetration depth less than 0.17 mm. Rafiei et al. (2016) car-
ried out the FSW process on AA5083 and A316L dissimilar joints to
check the influence of both rotational and traverse speeds on the welded
joints. They observed that the welding speed had an impact on the for-
mation of defects and intermetallic compound layers, and both hardness
and tensile strength were deeply affected by increasing the travel speed.
Furthermore, the best joint efficiency of 93% of the weakest BM tensile
strength was achieved at 250 rpm and 16 mm/min, and all welded joints
fractured at AA5083 BM; while the weld efficiency reached 460% of the
BM hardness at the interface. In addition, some discontinuous thin in-
termetallic layers of about 0.5 𝜇m thickness were formed at the joint
interface for all welding conditions. Gao et al. (2015) summarized the
impact of FSW tool pin length on the material characterization of pure
titanium to low carbon steel dissimilar lap welded joints. The trans-
mission electron microscopy (TEM) showed two types of interface mi-
crostructure. The first type was a non-intermixed type interface with
50-100 nm single interlayer thickness, composed of FeTi intermetallic
compound and 𝛽-Ti phase at a 0.9 mm tool pin length. The second was
at 1 mm tool probe length, as a mixed interface lamellar structure com-
posed of FeTi or FeTi + Fe2 Ti compound layer of 100 nm thickness and
a 𝛽-Ti layer of 1 𝜇m thickness were observed. Furthermore, the welded
joints at both tools pin length values (0.9 and 1 mm) were fractured at
the Ti base metal which reflected the superior shear strength of the lap
joints. Oztopraka, et al. (2020) investigated on the impact of post weld
heat treatment (PWHT) on the material characterization and the me-
chanical properties of dissimilar AA6061+SiCp and AA6061-O welded
joints. They observed that PWHT deeply affected the microstructure of
the welded joints as finer homogeneously distributed grains were ob-
served in the joint area except for the DXZ; whereas fine and clustered
SiC particles was in the SZ with few difference in the particles distribu-
tion. However, micro-hardness consequences of the SZ were observed
larger than that of AA6061-O for both as welded and PWHT. Moreover,
a 52.22% enhancement in the tensile strength of PWHT specimens was
noticed and a maximum joint efficiency of 103.64% AA6061-O strength
was achieved. On the other hand, the ductility was decreased for both
cases and the fracture location was in the RS away from the weld region
6
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
in the case of as welded condition; whilst it took place in the HAZ re-
treating side for PWHT condition. In terms of the bending results, there
was no significant impact on the maximum bending force; however an
enhancement of 121.96% and 95.79% was achieved in both bending
extension and modulus respectively for the PWHT condition.
­ Conclusion
Friction stir welding can be used for welding any metallic material
regardless its weldability. FSW is found suitable for joining similar or
dissimilar metals or alloys including aluminum, magnesium, copper and
steel. The main parameters affecting this process are: tool design, rota-
tional speed, welding speed, axial force, plunge depth and tool tilt angle.
It is observed that friction stir welded joints have superior microstruc-
tural and mechanical properties.
3. Underwater friction stir welding (UFSW)
The reported results on FSW revealed that finer grains structure de-
tected in the SZ by the dynamic recrystallization caused by higher plas-
tic deformation attained from stirring action. Nonetheless, softening was
spotted in the friction stir welded joint due to coarsening and dissolu-
tion of precipitates, particularly in the heat treatable aluminum alloys,
thereby resulted in degeneration of the mechanical properties of the
welded joints. However, earlier attempts were made to minimize the
welding peak temperature by raising the cooling rate and hence supe-
rior mechanical properties were obtained. Therefore, Underwater FSW
is a variant of FSW process whose use is to weld the heat sensitive alloys
by avoiding excess heat along the welding line by using the water as a
cooling medium as it has high cooling rate effect. Fig. 4 demonstrates
the schematic drawing of UFSW which is implemented either in a water
container or in a case where water continually flows across the specimen
surface.
3.1. Underwater friction stir welding of similar materials
Wahid et al. (2018) analyzed the UFSW parameters effect on the ma-
terial characterization and the mechanical properties of AA6082 welded
joints. They observed that the best achieved weld efficiency utilizing
the UFSW was 79% of the BM tensile strength with a 10.1% improve-
ment in contrast to the traditional FSW owing to coarsening and disso-
lution of precipitates. Furthermore, the precipitates had smaller size in
the NZ due to both intensive heat and severe plastic deformation, and
defect free welds with finer populated dimples with a normal fracture.
Shanavas et al. (2018) compared the impact of variation of both rota-
tional and travel speeds on the underwater and traditional friction stir
welded AA5053-H32 joints. They concluded that the tensile strength
obtained by normal FSW was less than that achieved by UFSW with
about 2%. Furthermore, the breaking positions were notable at the RS
for the welded joints by both techniques. In terms of microstructural ex-
amination, the absence of HAZ was observed in the underwater welded
joints. Chandran et al. (2018) reported the microstructure evolution and
the mechanical properties of AA6061-T6 underwater friction stir welded
joint at different rotational speeds and water head levels. Their results
revealed union ring patterns in the underwater friction stir welded joints
only and the tensile strength of the underwater friction stir welded joints
were better than the traditional ones with about 16.52%. Furthermore,
the micro-hardness of both TMAZ and SZ in the case of UFSW was higher
than those of the traditional ones with an enhancement of 8% and 9.93%
respectively. This was attributed to the finer grains obtained owing to
the fast cooling rate in the UFSW process. Ruzbehani et al. (2018) per-
formed the UFSW and normal FSW processes on the AA7075 to check
the impact of both rotational and welding speed variation on the materi-
als characterization and the mechanical properties of the welded joints.
The results displayed that the increase of travel speed values caused
a rise in the precipitates of the SZ zone, but decreased the grains and
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
Fig. 4. Schematic drawing of UFSW.
precipitates sizes. Moreover, the grains and precipitates sizes were lin-
early proportional to the tool rotational and travel speed ratio. The
HAZ width in the case of UFSW process was lower than that of the
normal FSW process. The highest tensile strength values obtained from
both UFSW and normal FSW were 396 MPa and 360 MPa respectively.
Heirani et al. (2017) examined the impact of welding variables on the
material characterization and the mechanical properties of AA5083 un-
derwater friction stir welded joints. The results exposed that the under-
water welded joints had no HAZ inside their microstructure due to rapid
cooling rate which did not permit the grains growth. Furthermore, the
hardness and tensile strength of the water-cooled welded joints were
higher than those obtained by air-cooled ones due to the finer grain
caused by the fast cooling rate. Sinhmar et al. (2017) studied the me-
chanical properties and the corrosion behavior of AA2014 underwater
friction stir welded joints. They observed that the micro-hardness and
tensile strength of the underwater friction stir welded joints were higher
than those obtained from normal FSW process due to the finer grains
with smaller precipitates caused by water cooling which also caused
the HAZ width reduction as well. On the other hand, the corrosion resis-
tance of the BM was shown to be low because of the continuous chain of
precipitates at grain boundaries which caused formation of micro level
galvanic coupling; whereas the UFSW produced discontinuous and small
size precipitates and hence, caused an enhancement of the corrosion re-
sistance. Ethiraj et al. (2019) compared the microstructure evolutions
and the mechanical properties of both underwater and normal friction
stir copper welded joints at various rotational speeds. They detected that
at 1200 rpm; the highest weld efficiencies obtained at both traditional
and underwater friction stir welded joints were 91.5% and 66.6% of the
BM tensile strength respectively. An increase of rotational speed value
from 1200 rpm to 1300 rpm caused a decrease in the weld efficiency to
69.2% in the conventional FSW and 57.5% in the UFSW. Their exam-
ination revealed finer grains structure in the UFSW due to the cooling
action and lower heat input. Baillie et al. (2015) investigated the FSW
process of S275 structure steel in air and underwater to estimate the ma-
terial characterization and the mechanical properties of the double sided
welded joints. The mechanical tests results displayed that the strength,
hardness and fatigue life of both air and water cooled welded joints were
comparatively the same. However, Charpy impact toughness was lower
in the case of water cooled samples due to the presence of a slightly
less angular grain structure. Moreover, the traditional and underwater
friction stir welded joints recorded smaller ferrite grain size compared
to the BM and their ferrite grain sizes were 4 μm 11.4 μm respectively.
3.2. Underwater friction stir welding of dissimilar materials
Zhao et al. (2016) examined the impact of cooling surrounding
on the microstructure and the mechanical properties of AA6061 and
7
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
AZ31dissimilar friction stir welded joints. The results revealed a free
crack defect weld in the SZ of the water-welded specimen which re-
flected the reduction of the intermetallic compounds. Furthermore, the
underwater welded joint recorded 64% weld efficiency; whereas the tra-
ditional welded joints recorded 55% weld efficiency of the AZ31 BM
strength. The fracture position was observed in the weld center in both
techniques. On the other hand, the average hardness values in the SZ
of the traditional welded joints were elevated with respect to the un-
derwater ones. Zhang et al. (2014) scrutinized the microstructure evo-
lution of AA6061-T6 and pure copper dissimilar traditional and under-
water friction stir welded joints. They observed that the UFS welded
joints are prevented from oxidation and unlike the material flow dur-
ing traditional FSW which moved in a horizontal direction, the material
flow moved in the cephalic direction. In addition, Al–Cu intermetallic
compounds such as CuAl2 and Cu9 Al4 were detected at the interface
of both traditional and underwater welds, but these intermetallics were
less in the underwater welded joints than normal ones. Moreover, the
Al–Cu diffused interlayer thickness at the interface was 18 𝜇m and 2
𝜇m in the case of traditional and underwater friction stir welded joints
respectively. Derazkola et al. (2019) carried out the UFSW process on
dissimilar AA5083 and A441 AISI steel at various temperature values
of the cooling medium to examine the material characterization and the
mechanical properties of the welded joints. They deduced that the thick-
ness of intermetallic compounds decreased by lowering the cooling sur-
rounding temperature and hence, a mixing deterioration was obtained.
Additionally, a refined grain structure was detected in both aluminum
and steel sides. Furthermore, the weld tensile strength efficiency reached
97% of the aluminum alloy tensile strength attained at ambient tempera-
ture cooling; other than that a deterioration effect on the transverse ten-
sile properties was observed. The SZ hardness value had been adversely
affected by increasing the cooling rate. Ramachandran et al. (2015) ex-
amined the impact of rotational speed variation on the microstructure
evolution and the mechanical properties of dissimilar AA5052 and HSLA
steel underwater friction stir welded joints. The SEM and EDS conse-
quences exposed less iron rich intermetallic compounds like; FeAl3 and
FeAl in the traditional friction welded joints; whereas highly iron rich
intermetallics like; Fe2 Al5 and Fe3 Al were detected in the underwater
welded ones. Additionally, in the UFSW process as described in Fig. 4,
a weaker bonding towards the bottom of the joint was observed. Fur-
thermore, the best tensile strength acquired from traditional FSW was
better than that achieved from UFSW with about 3%; however a 75%
joint strength of Al alloy was obtained at higher rotational speeds in
UFSW.
­ Conclusion
UFSW uses water as a cooling medium which reduces temperature
and restricts the coarsening or dissolution of the precipitates leading to
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059

Fig. 5. Schematic representation of

VCFSW.

superior microstructural and mechanical properties of the welded joints. ing speed generated breaking of the compensation strip and thereby,
Low temperature, less temperature gradient and high cooling rate asso- led to higher quality of the welded joint. Moreover, the best joint effi-
ciated with the UFSW resulted in fine grains, high dislocation density ciency was 75.1% and 58.8% of the BM tensile strength and elongation
and limited precipitate dissolution and coarsening leading to improved respectively obtained at 1 mm strip and the fracture surface morphol-
mechanical properties as compared to FSW. ogy of vertical compensation welded joints behaved as ductile fracture.
Abu-Okail and Ata (2019) studied the effect of VCFSW of AA2024 with
AA7075 compensation on the material characterization and ductility of
4. Vertical compensation friction stir welding (VCFSW)
the welded joints. The x-ray examination results detected two precipi-
tates of intermetallic phases Al2 Cu and Mg2 Zn, on the grain boundaries
Tailor-welded blanks (TWBs) are used in many industrial ap-
which resulted in enhancement of the joint strength. Moreover, the pres-
plications such as automotive, rail transportation, shipbuilding and
ence of Mg and Zn alloying elements resulted in facilitating the slipping
aerospace industries. TWBs are considered as semi-finished products
of grain and provided a frictional deformation between grains which
which can be produced by several geometrical alternatives such as dif-
caused an improved ductility of the welded joints. The compensation
ferent materials, strengths, thicknesses, surface conditions and grades.
strip width played a vital part in enhancement the welded aluminum
TWBs were recently produced by using a new technique called “Verti-
blanks properties; and the 2 mm interlayer width produced the superior
cal compensation friction stir welding (VCFSW)” demonstrated in Fig. 5.
tensile strength value. Abu-Okail et al. (2018) compared the mechani-
This technique was mainly developed to fix the problem of big gap pres-
cal properties of joints obtained from both FSW and VCFSW techniques.
ence at the work-pieces interface. Accordingly, some researchers pro-
The study detected that defect free and more homogeneous TWBs were
posed and put forward new methodologies to avoid the welding defects
produced by using VCFSW technique. Furthermore, the best joint effi-
in the welded joints.
ciency of 62.06% of the BM tensile strength was obtained in the case
Ji et al. (2015) reported on the impact of compensation material
of 1.5 mm compensation strip width with ductile fracture mode. They
thickness on the microstructure evolution, hardness and tensile strength
also concluded that the highest bending load of 4.39 KN at 180° bending
of AA 7N01-T4 with AA2024-T4l compensation. Their results showed
angle was obtained without any cracks in the case of VCFSW with 1.5
that a defect-free welded joint was obtained in the case of 1 mm com-
mm compensation strip width; while all other samples failed at smaller
pensation strip width, 50 mm/min welding speed and 2000 rpm rota-
bending forces and angles. Abu-Okail et al. (2020) investigated the im-
tional speed; whereas it was intractable to get sound weld at 1.5 mm
pact of pre-weld heat treatment condition on the microstructure evo-
strip width. Moreover, both tensile strength and elongation of the joint
lution and the mechanical properties of friction stir welded joints with
were adversely affected by increasing the travel speed. Where at 50
and without utilizing compensation material. The results exposed that
mm/min and 1 mm strip width, 295.7 MPa strength and 6.7 % elonga-
the annealed (O) condition softened zone was more homogeneous than
tion were achieved in the case of VCFSW, compared to 66 MPa strength
the artificially aged (T6) in the case of FSW. Moreover, the efficiency
and 39.4% elongation of the BM. The hardness results were displayed
of the annealed FS welded joint was higher than the heat treated (T6).
with a W shape distribution through the welding zones. On the other
Fracture position, in the former, occurred in BM; whereas in the latter
hand, Ji et al. (2015) discussed the impact of tool offset during VCFSW
was in the HAZ. The microstructure evolution and mechanical proper-
of AA6061-T6 with AA2024-T4 compensation to examine the influence
ties of welded joints were deeply affected by pre-weld heat treatment
of process variables on the temperature distribution, material characteri-
condition.
zation and the mechanical properties of the welded joints. They deduced
that the l welding speed values caused breaking of compensation strip ­ Conclusion
into pieces, producing a better mixing with BM and hence superior weld
efficiency. In addition, the best joint properties obtained were 203 MPa Tailor-welded blanks (TWBs) are considered one of the important
and 5.2% elongation at 50 mm/min, 1800 rpm and 1 mm strip width. manufacturing methods. By which, a single blank with multi-sheets with
Additionally, Ji et al. (2015) examined the VCFSW assisted by exter- different thickness, material, surface conditions, grade, or strength is
nal stationary shoulder to join AA6061-T6 by using 2024-T4 compen- produced. Vertical compensation friction stir welding is one of the re-
sation. The consequences displayed defect-free welds when using a self- cent manufacturing methods that can be used to produce TWBs. More-
designed stationary shoulder at strip widths from 1 mm to 2 mm. Fur- over, it is used to eliminate formation of tunnel or groove defects caused
thermore, the raise of rotational speed related to decreasing the weld- by the gap between the abutting faces of the welded joints.

8
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
Fig. 6. Schematic drawing of FSSW.
5. Friction stir spot welding (FSSW)
Friction stir spot welding (FSSW) has been developed by Mazda Cor-
poration and has been successfully applied to weld the bonnet and rear
door of the sport vehicle (MAZDA, 2003). Mazda reported a great re-
duction in energy consumption and equipment investment compare to
resistance spot welding for aluminum.
5.1. Basic principal of FSSW
In FSSW a non-consumable rotating tool is used to produce frictional
heating and plasticized region at the bonding interface as a result of a
strong compressive forging pressure. The steps of FSSW demonstrated
in Fig. 6 were explained by Nguyen et al. (2011). The FSSW process
includes three steps:
a The plunging phase: in which, the cylindrical rotating tool gradually
plunges into the welding materials resulting in generating heat for
the welding materials in a lap configuration.
b The dwell phase: in which, the tool is held at the placement for a
short dwell time to attain stirring and make a solid weld.
c The drawing out: at this last step, the tool is retracted from the work-
piece to finish the welding process.
5.2. Types of FSSW
There are other reported types which have the same basic principal
of FSSW such as refill FSSW, modified refill FSSW, stitch and swing
FSSW. These will be discussed in the next sections.
5.2.1. Plunge FSSW
Fig. 6 illustrates the basic principal of the Plunge type FSSW which
is considered as the most commonly type used in current industries.
5.2.2. The pinless FSSW
This technique was firstly introduced by Tozaki et al. (2010). This
type has the same basic principal of plunge FSSW; while in the former, a
tool without probe and with a scroll grooved shoulder is used to perform
the FSSW process and therefore a keyhole will not be produced.
5.2.3. Refill FSSW
This process was developed by Iwashita (2003) to join two or more
base materials together by utilizing relative motions of the pin and the
shoulder to fill the pin hole. Fig. 7 shows three stages: initiation, plung-
ing and full retracting. In the initiation stage, both the pin and shoulder
are rotating and set on the upper sheet surface to generate sufficient
frictional heat. While in the plunging stage, the shoulder is immersed
into the material concurrently with retracting the pin. Finally, in the
9
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
full retracting stage, the shoulder is withdrawn and pin is plunged to
thrust the displaced material back into the void formed by the shoulder.
A modified Refill FSSW process, called fixed-position refill FSSW,
was developed by Allen and Arbegast (2005). The apparent difference
in this technique is that the pin is plunged into the sheets instead of
shoulder plunging. As presented in Fig. 8, during stage 1, the rotating
probe and shoulder move towards the sheets. In the stage 2, the pin
plunges into the required depth and the shoulder reservoir is filled with
the displaced material. Then the probe is withdrawn into the shoulder
while the shoulder ejects the supplant material back into the hole. Fi-
nally, the shoulder and pin are retracted after some dwell time.
5.2.4. Stitch FSSW
Another variation of the FSSW is "stitch FSSW" from GKSS T.-Y.
Pan (2007), illustrated in Fig. 9. During stitch FSSW, the tool, after
plunging, traverses a short distance before retracting. The purpose of
this method is to produce joints with larger joining area for higher
strength.
5.2.5. Swing FSSW
Swing FSSW was developed out of stitch FSW by Okamoto
et al. (2005) by giving a large enough radius. Fig. 10, shows that af-
ter plunging, the tool goes up a little but this is negligible since it moves
in a swing-like motion with large radius and small angle. This move-
ment exposed squeezed material positioned at the end of the welding.
This process increases the actual area of weld and the strength of joints;
however it does not eliminate the keyhole.
5.3. Friction stir spot welding of similar materials
Garg and Bhattacharya (2017) checked the impact of FSW process
variables on the microstructure evolution and the mechanical properties
of AA 6061 spot welded joints. They deduced that the shear strength
was deeply affected by the rotational speed followed by pin profile and
dwell time. The lap shear force was adversely affected by increasing the
rotational speed; while it was increased at lower dwell time values and
then decreased at higher values. Moreover, the largest shear force value
was achieved by using square tool pin profile followed by triangular
and circular ones. Additionally, they observed that the crack of joints
originated from the joint boundary; while the failure occurred due to
thinning of the upper BM. Nevertheless, for almost welded joints, a pri-
mary mode was detected as shear fracture with existence of micro-voids
extended along the load direction. Lakshminarayanan et al. (2015) ex-
amined the low carbon automotive steel welded joints mechanically at
various FSSW conditions. Their results displayed that the dwell time
deeply affected the tensile shear load (TSFL) followed by rotational
speed and sink depth. Moreover, the best tensile shear load of 15.67 kN
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059

Fig. 7. Schematic of refill FSSW process [24].

Fig. 8. Stages of the modified refill FSSW process.

Fig. 9. Schematic of stitch FSSW.

10
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
Fig. 10. Schematic of swing FSSW.
was achieved at 1157 rpm, 0.05 mm sink depth and 22 S dwell time with
largest elongation and tearing failure mode. Kubit et al. (2018) scruti-
nized the impact of the refill friction stir spot welding (RFSSW) param-
eters on 1.6 mm and 0.8 mm different thicknesses AA7075-T6 welded
sheets. They concluded that the best shear load of 4.09 kN was achieved
at 3000 rpm, 1.55 mm plunge depth and 1.25 S dwell time. In addition,
increasing of both rotational speed and the dwell time caused an in-
crease in the load capacity. In terms of microscopic consequences, they
detected that the grains sizes in the center of DXZ were bigger than those
at the periphery of this zone which reflected the action of dynamic re-
crystallization. Furthermore, it was observed that the main defect which
considerably reduced the joint capacity is the existence of a visible struc-
tural notch which indicated too-rapid penetration of the shoulder into
the BM that created a fractional blanking over the shoulder trajectory
instead of plastic deformation of the material. It was also detected that
Al clad between the top and bottom sheets worsened the joint efficiency
between the DXZ and the TMAZ.
5.4. Friction stir spot welding of dissimilar materials
Zhang et al. (2020) applied the FSSW process to the AA2024-
T3/AA7075-T6 dissimilar materials to study the effect of process vari-
ables and the welding medium on the peak temperature, microstructure
evolution and tensile strength of the welded joints. They observed that
the peak temperature and the SZ width in the under-water friction stir
spot welding (UFSSW) were lower than that observed in the ambient
FSSW. Furthermore, they found that the SZ width was affected by the
rotational speed variation. It was increased from 1.5 mm to 4.2 when
increasing the rotational speed from 630 rpm to 1400 rpm in the under-
water welded joint; whereas it was increased from 4.85 mm to7.1 mm in
the ambient welded joint at the same mentioned rotational speed value.
They also deuced that when increasing the plunge depth from 0.1 mm
to 0.5 mm, a growth occurred in the NZ grains from 2.6 𝜇m to 3.3 𝜇m
in the UFSSW and 3.3 mm 5.0 mm in the ambient FSSW joints. Accord-
ingly, in the UFSSW, the grains grew from 2.6 𝜇m to 5.2 𝜇m compared
to 3.3 𝜇m to 7.8 𝜇m in the ambient FSSW when increasing the rota-
tional speed from 630 rpm o 1400 rpm at 0.1 mm constant sink depth. .
In addition, an enhancement of the tensile shear of under-water friction
stir welded joints was seen due to finer grain and formation of Al2 CuMg
precipitates. Ozdemir et al. (2012) carried out the FSSW technique on
Al-Cu dissimilar materials to assess the impact of plunge depth variation
on the properties of the welded joints. The macroscopic observations did
not detect any defects in the welded joints; however the grain sizes in
the copper side near to the Al/Cu interface were finer than those of
copper BM. This difference in the grain sizes was due to the dynamic
11
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
recrystallization of grains in the NZ of the copper metal resulted from
the stirring action. In addition, the grain sizes were adversely affected
by raising the sink depth. Consequently, higher hardness value was ob-
tained due to higher plunge depth caused by more diffusion of Cu into
Al. The EDS examination detected AlCu, Al2 Cu and Al4 Cu9 hard inter-
metallic compounds at the Al/Cu interface. In terms of the tensile shear,
they noticed that the highest tensile shear value was achieved at a mod-
erated sink depth value (i.e. 4 mm) owing to better penetration of Cu
into Al; whereas the worst value found at lower plunge depth value (i.e.
2.8 mm). Piccini et al. (2015) checked the impact of the tool pin length
and the plunge depth of AA6063 galvanized low carbon steel friction stir
spot welded joints. Their results showed defect free welds at all weld-
ing conditions. Nevertheless, forging of the aluminum sheet BM onto the
galvanized steel sheet was observed which reflected a non-occurrence of
plastic deformation in the steel sheet. Furthermore, utilizing the shorter
tool probe caused an enhancement in the forging and stirring of the alu-
minum onto the steel because of the increased thermo-mechanical effect
of the shoulder onto the interface. The micro-hardness results displayed
that the hardness values diminished from the BM to the HAZ and in-
creased in the NZ but still was less than BM hardness value, and the
micro-hardness was higher in the Zn rich zones.
­ Conclusion
Friction stir spot welding (FSSW) could be classified into four types:
conventional FSSW, refill FSSW, pinless FSSW, and swing FSSW. Nor-
mally, three distinct regions are observed in the FSSW joints: the stir
zone (SZ), the thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and the heat
affected zone (HAZ). In tensile-shear tests, there are usually three dif-
ferent failure modes: interfacial shear separation, nugget pull-out sepa-
ration, and upper or lower sheet fracture separation.
6. Friction stir processing (FSP)
Friction stir processing (FSP) was recently introduced by
Mishra et al. (2000) utilizing the same basic principal of the FSW
to get better material characterization and mechanical properties of the
BM. In FSP, a rotating tool is immersed into a monolithic workpiece
and translates linearly in a specific path to generate plastic deformation
on the BM grains which are dynamically recrystallized and hence an
enhanced microstructure is achieved. The FSP may be categorized into
either processing without adding reinforcing particles or with adding
reinforcing particles which may be referred as friction stir alloying
(FSA).
The first type includes rotational and transversal motions of the
tool through the BM surface to modify its microstructure evolution.
Mcnelley (2010) summarized the tool motion patterns during FSP as
demonstrated in Fig. 11. Due to the tool motion in a spiral pattern,
Fig. 11-a, an exchange of the AS with a RS on sequential passes oc-
curred. Whereas in the case of raster pattern, Fig. 11-b, an advancing
to advancing and retreating to retreating interfaces in a transverse direc-
tion to the domestic direction of tool progress. Fig. 11-c shows a series
of parallel traverses passes which results in exchange of the AS with RS.
Fig. 11-d is similar to Fig. 11-c but the motion is in curvilinear track;
however this pass may be unsuitable for all engineering applications.
On the other hand, surface composites can be created by using the
reinforced particles through FSP which is called friction stir alloying
(FSA). Such process results in enhancement of the BM properties like;
hardness, strength, ductility, fatigue life, wear and corrosion resistance.
The reinforced particles can be located on the surface at several styles
such as; groove, drilled holes or using cover plate as shown in Fig. 12
illustrated by (Sharma et al. 2018). In the groove method presented in
Fig. 12-a, a FSP tool without pin locks up the groove which contains the
reinforcing particles and then another FSP tool with a probe is applied
on the closed fulfilled consumable groove. Zohoor et al. (2012) used this
technique to process AA5083 with Cu reinforcements; while Sha et al.
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
Fig. 11. Traversing patterns for FSP.
(2015) produced Ti alloy surface reinforced by Al2 O3 . The second tech-
nique is basically depending on drilling holes where the reinforced par-
ticles are positioned as depicted in Fig. 12-b. A thin cover sheet is used
in the third method, presented in Fig. 12-c, to prevent the reinforcement
particles from leaving their holes. Many surface composites were pro-
duced by utilizing this technique such as; AA7075/carbon nano-tubes
reinforcement, performed by Lim et al. (2009), and Cu sheet reinforced
with Y2 O3 particles investigated by Avettand-fènoël et al. (2014).
6.1. Friction stir processing without adding reinforced particles
Chen et al. (2018) scrutinized the impact of tool probe eccentric-
ity on the material characterization and the mechanical properties of
AA5052 friction stir processed samples. The consequences revealed that
the pin eccentricity improved the material flow which caused grains
refinement of the SZ. However, higher tool pin eccentricity value gener-
ated excessive heat input and produced large grains and, hence degra-
dation in the mechanical properties was obtained. Whereas at moderate
tool pin eccentricity value (i.e. 0.4 mm), the best tensile and hardness
values were achieved. Additionally, the onion rings were detected in
the pin affected zone and were enlarged with increasing the tool pin
eccentricity value. Shamanian et al. (2017) performed the FSP on an Al-
12% Si cast alloy to examine the impact of processing variables on the
material characterization, surface hardness and dry wear. The results
exposed that all processed specimens at various conditions were defect
free and a reduction in the sizes of both coarse 𝛼-Al primary grains and
coarse silicon fakes was detected. Moreover, the processed samples re-
12
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
vealed higher hardness up to 3 mm down the surface owing to grains
refinement, homogeneity, and densification. Patel et al. (2016) inves-
tigated on the impact of rotational to traverse speed ratio (velocity in-
dex) on the microstructure evolution and the surface hardness of friction
stir processed Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy. The results displayed a finer equiaxed
grain structure in the DXZ of all processed specimens; nevertheless the
grain size decreased with decreasing the velocity index owing to lower
heat input which prevented the grains to grow. Moreover, the lower
the velocity index value was, the higher the average SZ hardness due to
the minimal heat input during smaller velocity index processing. Han
et al. (2017) checked the impact of the FSP and the subsequent ag-
ing on the material characterization and the mechanical properties of
as cast Mg-14 wt % Gd and the T4 heat treated alloy. The results dis-
played that grains refinement and low angle grain boundaries (LAGB)
were detected in both cases (as cast and T4 treated); while sub microns
of Mg5 Gd remaining particles were observed in as cast condition. Fur-
thermore, higher grain sizes and LAGB fractions with stronger texture
intensity in the T4 condition, owing to particle pinning effect existed
in as cast condition. On the other hand, the yield and tensile strength,
and elongation of the as cast processed samples were higher than those
of the T4 treated processed samples and the texture components rarely
changed during aging. Additionally, an extremely sharp texture was de-
tected in solution treated G14 alloys after FSP due to the desegregation
of Gd at grain boundaries. Sekban et al. (2016) reported on the material
characterization and impact properties of low carbon steel friction stir
processed samples. They detected a finer grained structure in the ma-
nipulated area with a ferritic phase grain size of 3.0 𝜇m which caused
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
Fig. 12. Common methods utilized for locating reinforced particles to create surface composites.
an improvement in the tensile strength and a decrease in ductility of the
processed specimens. However, this refinement resulted in enhancement
in impact energy and reduction in ductile-to-brittle transition tempera-
ture (DBTT) from -40°C to about -65°C. This enhancement in the impact
toughness was referred to the fundamental microstructural refinement
grains separated particularly by high angle grain boundaries (HAGBs)
and a ductile fracture mode was noticed as well under impact load ow-
ing to this refinement. Yasavol and Jafari (2015) checked the impact of
rotational speed on the material characterization, mechanical properties
and the corrosion behavior of friction stir processed AISI D2 tool steel.
The consequences revealed that the microstructure of the DXZ of the
processed samples contained homogeneously distributed fine carbides
throughout the matrix of ferrite and martensite. Moreover, an enhance-
ment in the nano-hardness of about four times the BM hardness at 500
rpm. Additionally, superior tensile strength was achieved owing to the
orderly dispersion of the fine carbide particles and martensitic transfor-
mation. The corrosion resistance was better than the BM owing to the
higher fraction of the LAGBs generated by FSP. Leal et al. (2015) ex-
amined the impact of FSP factors on the microstructure evolution and
the electrical properties of C12200 copper alloy. The outcomes exposed
that the electrical conductivity was deeply affected by the manipulat-
ing conditions due to dislocations density effect rather than the grain
boundaries effect. Additionally, the dislocation density of SZ grains was
adversely affected by increasing the rotational to travel speed ratio val-
ues. Moreover, it was observed that the tool shoulder shapes had a great
influence on the processed sample; where the scrolled tool produced
a microstructure refinement (0.5 𝜇m). Nevertheless, the major factors
governing the hardness of the processed materials vary according to the
geometry of the processing tool; where the measured hardness values
13
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
when using the conical tool were ranging from 90 to 125 HV. Whereas
the measured values when using the scrolled tool were ranging from
115 to 130 HV.
6.2. Friction stir processing with reinforced particles
Mathur et al. (2019) reported on the impact of titanium dioxide
nanoparticles reinforcement on AA5052 friction stir processed sam-
ples. The consequence revealed that the defect free processed regions
were detected when decreasing the pothole width. Moreover, a grain
size reduction with TiO2 uniformly distributed particles was observed;
whereas a TiO2 agglomerated region was formed owing to the higher
rotational speed. Additionally, the best hardness and tensile strength
values were 78 HV and 193.1 MPa respectively, achieved at 1000 rpm
and 65 mm/min. Moustafa (2017) produced an AA2024/Al2 O3 surface
composite by using FSA technique. They deduced that the Al2 O3 parti-
cles were homogeneously distributed with a good dispersion in the metal
matrix, which caused an improvement in the hardness of the processed
material. Furthermore, the second and third passes of FSP caused a re-
finement grains structure with about 80% improvement compared to
the BM. The results also displayed that the tensile and surface hardness
values were deeply affected by both rotational speed and the number
of passes. The tensile strength was improved by 25%; whilst the aver-
age hardness was improved by 46% owing to the Al2 O3 nanoparticles
reinforcement. Ju et al. (2017) studie the impact of TiB2 nano parti-
cles, multi-pass processing and T6 heat treatment on an Al-Zn-Mg-Cu
alloy. The outcomes exposed that the raising of FSP passes produced
more distribution of TiB2 particles and alloy precipitates. The dispersed
TiB2 particles in the processed alloy caused an acceleration of diffusion
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
process during T6 treatment condition, although, a finer grained struc-
ture (2–3 𝜇m) and growth of grains were observed after T6 treatment.
In terms of tensile properties, it was noticed that the tensile strength
and ductility of the processed alloy were simultaneously improved by
raising the number of FSP passes, and the best achieved yield strength
and ductility were improved by 48% and 80% respectively with respect
to the BM. Sharma et al. (2015) fabricated an AA5083/SiC particles
reinforced surface composite by using FSA technique at various ma-
nipulating conditions. The reported results revealed that the rotational
speed was the most significant factor affecting the SiC particles distribu-
tion; where at 1000 and 1400 rpm, bands of SiC particles were detected;
whereas no such chains were demonstrated at 2000 rpm. Moreover, the
post processed surface composites using larger tool diameter, had de-
fects and particles distribution inhomogeneity. It was noted that a more
uniformly distributed SiC particles was extended to the whole area by
the tool shoulder action at 2000rpm. Zuhailawati et al. (2016) examined
the mechanical properties of friction stir processed AA1100 aluminum
reinforced with rice husk ash silica at several rotational speeds. The
results displayed that at larger rotational speed (i.e. 1400 rpm) grains
refinement and better distribution of the reinforcement particles were
detected thereby; hardness enhancement was achieved of twice as much
of the BM hardness value. Furthermore, a reduction in wear rate was
observed owing to the existence of hard silica having higher interfacial
strength and higher hardness values of recrystallized aluminum grains
in the DXZ as well. Sha et al. (2015) assessed the strengthening mech-
anisms and the mechanical properties of pure titanium which was fric-
tion stir processed by TiO2 . They inferred that the processed samples
had a finer grains structure of a mean grain size ranging from 0.7 to
1.1 𝜇m owing to the dissipated energy during the interface formation
through the particle dispersion. In addition, the SEM and TEM displayed
a homogeneous dispersion of Al2 O3 nano-particles with small fraction
of widely spaced clusters. The maximum compression yield strength of
the produced composite was about 494 MPa which is 1.5 times higher
than that of the BM. Srivastava et al. (2018) performed the underwater
FSP on the Al-Mg alloy to examine the influence of fabricated SiC sur-
face reinforced composite by using multi-pass processing on mechanical
properties. The consequences exposed that the average micro-hardness
in the DXZ of four pass underwater processed specimens improved by
about 187% of the BM hardness; whereas the tensile strength was en-
hanced by about 117% of the BM tensile strength. Moreover, nano-SiC
particles agglomeration was detected in a single pass FSP; however rais-
ing the number of passes, caused an agglomeration reduction and an
increase in SiC particles dispersion, achieving the best orderly distribu-
tion reinforcement particles at four passes. Furthermore, a remarkable
smaller HAZ was obtained owing to the fast cooling and lower heat input
resulted from water cooling.
­ Conclusion
As a novel material-processing technology, friction stir processing
(FSP) has a great impact on modification of materials and surface com-
posite fabrication due to its special solid-phase processing mechanism.
Scientific studies that were performed on laboratory scale have shown
that microstructure and its associated physical and mechanical proper-
ties of the modified materials may be attractive, and the same technol-
ogy can be competitive with currently used solutions.
7. Finite element modeling of friction stirring technique
FSW is a highly complex process including several highly coupled
non-linear physical phenomena. It involves plastic deformation, mate-
rial flow, mechanical stirring, tool-workpiece interaction and heat gen-
eration. Consequently, it is very complicated to acquire an accurate in-
sight into the weld during running of the process. So, numerical model-
ing is good to analyze, and simulate this process and it helps in predict-
ing the welding temperature, residual stresses and the joint defects.
14
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
Fig. 13 demonstrates the difference among meshes used in the FSW
modeling. These algorithms include Lagrangian, Eulerian and Arbitrary
Lagrangian Eulerian. Meyghani et al. (2017) summarizes the differ-
ences among uses of these algorithms as follows: Lagrangian method
is commonly used for modeling thermal history during welding process;
whereas Eulerian approach is generally applied for material flow mod-
eling. In terms of the ALE, it is a mixing of both approaches and it can
be used for modeling and simulating the plastic deformation resulting
from the FSW process.
El-Sayed et al. (2018b) developed a 3D thermo-mechanical model to
predict the temperature and the residual stresses attained from moving
the heat source for FSW process of AA5083-O and validated their results
experimentally. They firstly developed a heat transfer model following
Fourier law of heat conduction as follows:
( ) ( ) ( )
𝜕T 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝐶𝑝 = 𝐾𝑥 + 𝐾𝑦 + 𝐾𝑧
𝜕t 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕y 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
Where:
𝝆: The density cp : The specific heat
K: The heat conductivity T: The temperature t: The time x, y, z: The
spatial coordinates.
They observed that the peak temperatures obtained from the finite
element model matched the measured ones with an error 1.22% at 400
rpm and 3.31% at 630 rpm. Furthermore, they noticed that the longitu-
dinal and the transverse residual thermal stresses values were mixture
of both tension and compression stresses due to the expansion and the
contraction caused by heating and cooling during and after the welding
process. Salloomi et al. (2020) performed an explicit nonlinear finite
element model to simulate the temperature distribution and the resul-
tant stresses during FSW of AA 7075-T651 alloy by using an Arbitrary
Lagrangian– Eulerian (ALE) formulation, adaptive meshing and compu-
tational feature of mass scaling by adopting the elasto-plastic Johnson–
Cook model to calculate the flow stress as shown below:
[ ( )][ ( )𝑚 ]
𝜀̇ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚
𝜎 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 𝜀𝑛 ) 1 + 𝐶 𝐼𝑛 1 + 1−
𝜀̇ 0 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 − 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚
They observed a symmetrical temperature distribution through the
work-piece width. The results obtained from ALE model showed com-
pressive stress of 471 MPa produced in the region down the tool pin
and neighbor area as a result of the axial force at the starting of the pin
sinking. After the pin tool was plunged more, a higher temperature is
generated which caused a local metal softening and the local stresses
were reduced as a result. When the tool shoulder completely contacted
the work-piece surface, high amount of heat was generated, and this
led to cylindrical high-stress contours slide away progressively from the
contact area. Nie et al. (2020) developed a 3D finite element model
by utilizing the commercial software ABAQUS/Standard to study the
effect of welding speed, rotational speed and axial force on the temper-
ature and residual stress produced from AA2219-T8 FS welded joints.
Their work displayed that the welding temperature increased with rais-
ing both the rotational speed and axial force, while diminished with
raising the welding speed. In addition, the residual stress distribution
was noted symmetric around the welding line, and its peak was at the
tool shoulder edge. It was identified that the residual stress was deeply
affected by both the welding speed and axial force; however it was ap-
proximately not affected by the rotational speed and higher residual ten-
sile stress resulting from increasing the welding speed and axial force.
Luo et al. (2019) made a numerical simulation of the material flow dur-
ing FSW process of AA2014-T6. They detected a great distinction in the
flow conditions of the top and bottom portions of the weld. Moreover,
the material on the top surface proceeded to move downward by of
the shoulder extrusion action; whereas the material on the bottom weld
portion moved spirally upward due to probe extrusion action. They also
concluded that the amount of material flow in the AS was higher than
that in the RS; however at the end of the AS, the material stopped be-
hind the weld and almost particles were distributed on the RS and some
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
of them flowed to the AS. The material flow intensity progressively de-
creased along the plate thickness. Qin et al. (2019) developed a 3D finite
element model to simulate the impact of rotational speed on the mate-
rial flow during FSW of ultra-thin AA2024. The results achieved from
the numerical model displayed that the flow distance along welding line
on both sides and transverse flow distance to the welding line on the RS
were diminished; however it was observed in the case of higher rota-
tional speed and larger flow velocity. In addition, the flow velocity of
plasticized material reduced with the increase of distance from the weld
center line; whereas it increased with increasing rotational speed at con-
stant rotational speed/welding speed ratio. It was also deduced that the
maximum values of the flow velocity of plasticized material were lo-
cated at the intersection of triple spiral grooved shoulder; whereas the
minimum value was at both sides of its outer diameter edge. At lower
rotational speed of 1500 rpm, the average flow rates of both the AS and
RS were 103.11 mm/s and 84.54 mm/s respectively; whilst they were
increased by 5.69 times and 13.18 times, respectively at higher value of
6000 rpm. Jedrasiak et al. (2019) developed a 3D finite element model
to predict the spatial and temporal distinction of the heat generated
during FSSW of dissimilar Al and Mg alloys. They examined their model
at two rotational speed values for three wrought aluminum alloys, and
two casting alloys (one aluminum and one magnesium). The results of
the tool-workpiece contact conditions that were specified kinematically
revealed a radial divergence in peripheral velocity, with sticking and
slipping at inner and outer regions respectively. Moreover, the mea-
sured power values were approximately similar at all five alloys and
at both rotational speeds. Ansari et al. (2019) performed a 3D Coupled
Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL) finite element model to simulate the friction
stir processing of AA5083, based on the mass scaling technique. The
results revealed that process temperature; strain rate and force profiles
during friction stir processing were greatly affected by the rotational
speed. Increasing the tool-rotational speed from 600 to 1200 rpm, tem-
perature, and strain rate increased by 18%, and 48% respectively, while
the axial force decreased by 40%. Furthermore, when the tool pin sur-
face was increased, an increase in peak temperature in the stirring zone
was attained.
15
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
Fig. 13. The difference in the Lagrangian, Eulerian and Arbitrary
Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE) mesh.
­ Conclusion
Although FSW has been successfully used to join materials that are
difficult-to-weld, it is still at an early stage. As FSW comprises complex
phenomena involving many interrelated mechanisms and thermal pro-
cesses, it is clear that a complete characterization of joint behavior is
impossible. Accurate and reliable numerical analysis of the FSW is still
very difficult task as the behavior of the FSW joints is influenced by
different factors in combination.
8. Defects in friction stir welding
Like other welding techniques, FSW process has its defects which
cause failure and damage of the welded joints. The FSW defects are
influenced by the welding temperature and metal flow which can
be controlled by the process parameters such as: tool design, rota-
tional speed, welding speed and tool tilt angle. The pre-weld distur-
bances have a great effect on the welded joint as they resulted in
reduction of the joint quality. These disturbances are classified into
three basic types: material variation, handling, and improper clamp-
ing. Leonard and Lockery (2003) studied the causes of flaws resulted in
the friction stir welded joints. They observed that the gap between the
butt work-pieces was the main reason for the void defects. Furthermore,
Threadgill et al. (2009) assessed the impact of the resulting gap size on
weld defects. They found that the gap whose size was up to 20 % of
the sheet thickness caused the weld defects and local section thickness
reduction.
8.1. Types of FSW defects
The welded joints by traditional fusion techniques may have differ-
ent kinds of defects like: precipitate coalescences, porosity and inter-
granular cracks. Unlike other fusion welding processes, FSW has its own
defects that occur only in the friction stir welded joints. The following
sections summarize the defects that may take place in the welded joints
like: tunnel, flash, kissing bond, Void/Wormhole, Cavity/Groove and
lack of penetration.
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059

Fig. 14. Schematic representation of some FSW de-

fects.

Fig. 15. Macrostructure of Tunnel and void defects observed in the AS

of AA5083-O welded joint.

8.1.1. Tunnel defects

Tunnel defects are basically created at the toe corners of the T-lap,
T-Butt and but joints. It is mostly created in the AS of similar materials
as illustrated by Nandan et al. (2008) as a result of poor material flow
and deficient heat input. Fig. 14 demonstrates the schematic drawing
of tunnel and void defects produced in friction stir welded joint, while
Fig. 15 shows both defects appeared in the AS of AA 5083-O macrostruc-
ture evolution. However, Dehghani et al. (2013) observed tunnel defects
in the RS when doing friction stir welding of aluminum to steel dissim-
ilar materials. Fig. 16. kissing bond defect.

8.1.2. Void/worm hole defects

This type of defects is formed at either the edge of the NZ of the
AS or under the top surface of the weld as displayed in Figs. 14 and
15. This occurs because the forging pressure is not enough, the weld-
ing speed value is high or a flat shouldered tool is used, Leonard and
Lockery (2003) and Watanabe et al. (2006).
8.1.3. Kissing bond/zigzag defect
Kissing bond defect generally occurs at the weld root or at the base
materials interface as demonstrated in Fig. 16. It is formed in the ab-
sence of either metallic bonding or little separation of the base ma-
terials as concluded by Růžek et al. (2015). On the other hand, Kah
et al. (2015) noticed that the Al2 O3 oxide layers were partially broken
at higher welding speed and lower rotational speed values owing to in-
sufficient material stirring and lower heat input, which caused reduction
in the flowability of plasticized material and, hence resulted in inclusion
of the broken oxide particles in the shape of zigzag line or a kissing bond
defect. This defect can be stopped by maintaining suitable offset during
the FSW of dissimilar materials.
8.1.4. Lack of Penetration
Lack of penetration is a large distance at the bottom of joined sheets
was not penetrated by the FSW tool as presented in Fig. 17. Mishra
et al. (2005) attributed the causes of this defect to sheets thickness vari-
ation or improper tool probe length. Another reason that may result in
formation of this defect is the total movement of work-pieces.
8.1.5. Flash defect
Flash defect is a large mass of the material is produced due to the ex-
cess of heat input as illustrated by Kim et al. (2006). This defect occurs
owing to the expulsion of excessive plasticized material on the upper

16
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
Fig. 18. Flash Defect.
Fig. 19. Groove Defect.
surface which leaves a corrugated or ribbon-like effect along the re-
treating side as displayed in Fig. 18. The Fig. demonstrates the surface
morphology of AA5083-O welded joint. Flash defects take place due to
very high rotational speed or high tool tilt angle.
8.1.6. Groove defect
Groove defect-presented in Fig. 19 - is a pothole formed on the sur-
face of the welded joint due to very small or very high tilting angle
which may cause scanty downward forging of the plasticized material
as reported by Kim et al. (2006).
­ Conclusion
Weld defects found in friction-stir welds are quite different from con-
ventional welding flaws. FSW defects include an onionskin microstruc-
ture, tunnel voids, porosity, defective tightness, excessive flash, ‘kissing-
bond’ defects and crack-like root flaws. In order to avoid such defects,
the thermo-physical and mechanical properties of the welded mate-
rial should be identified and the processing temperature and processing
rates manipulated accordingly.
9. Challenges for friction stir welding
As mentioned earlier, FSW has been used for welding dissimilar alloy
or material systems regardless the difference in their physical or chem-
ical properties. However, there are several challenges which should be
considered especially during joining dissimilar materials mentioned by
Kumar et al. (2015).
17
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
Fig. 17. Lack of penetration.
9.1. Formation of intermetallic compounds
As previously noticed, intermetallic metallic compounds (IMCs) are
formed when joining almost dissimilar pair of materials. The formation
of these IMCs cannot be avoided; however the thickness of IMCs can be
reduced by reducing the frictional heat input or by using a rapid cooling
medium to quickly take away the heat.
9.2. Tool wear
The FSW tool is considered one of the main keys of producing a
welded joint; thus the tool wear should be paid attention especially
when joining a high melting temperature material. So, to increase the
tool durability, a tool coating is used.
9.3. Improper mixing during joining soft with hard material
When joining dissimilar soft and hard materials, improper mixing
may occur owing to the difference in physical properties and a difference
in the heat input as well. So, an additional heat source, such as laser and
arc, to soften the hard material, so material mixing can be improved with
less tool wear.
­ Prospects of Future work
The foregoing review and discussion show that internal defects are
adversely affecting the mechanical properties of the friction stir welded
joints. It is therefore of interest to examine the welded joint during weld-
ing as this may allow researchers and professionals to know the internal
defects positions and sizes. This is thought to be achieved by providing
the tool-workpiece system with an ultrasonic detection facility which
can detect the internal defects positions during the welding process. A
good research input may include the design of the system to monitor
and control the defect formation.
Magnetic materials are receiving much attention and have several
applications in all life sides like; electrical and mechanical industries,
purification and, biomedical applications and other various implemen-
tations. Therefore producing magnetized material with light weight is
of great interest and represent a big issue. Consequently, it is proposed
to investigate the reinforcement by magnetized particles on the magne-
tization of lightweight materials, such as, aluminum alloys. It is worth
noting that, the magnetic materials usually have high density and higher
weight. So, aluminum and its alloys can be processed by using fric-
tion stir alloying by adding magnetic particles on the surface. The stir-
ring friction action can mix the magnetic particles with the base ma-
terial grains, and thereby a magnetized surface will be generated on a
lightweight base metal, and ultimately a magnetized lightweight mate-
rial can be produced.
Furthermore, due to the higher stirring action generated during fric-
tion welding, the properties of the welded joint are changed and hence,
it is possible to apply an external magnetic field during the friction stir
welding process which may cause a change of the characteristic of the
M.M. El-Sayed, A.Y. Shash, M. Abd-Rabou et al.
iron based welded joints Furthermore, an external magnetic field can
be also applied to friction stir processed samples during friction stir al-
loying to cause penetration of the reinforcement particles and thereby,
producing a homogeneous surface composite.
Moreover, it is proposed to use a tool with an attached pin material
of lower melting temperature and by means the rotation of the pin inside
the base material, the generated friction heat may cause melting of the
probe and then a mix of both pin and base materials is achieved and
thereby better welded joint is produced. Alternatively one can examine
the use of a coated pin and shoulder with different coating material
as FSW tool, the frictional heat melts the coating where it gets mixed
with BM, producing a welded joint with superior microstructural and
mechanical properties.
Considering vertical compensation friction stir welding (VCFSW)
which was firstly investigated in 2015, it is observed that it was applied
only on limited types of base and compensation materials which reflect
the need for further research. It required to wide spread the VCFSW
technique to cover other base materials like; 1XXX and 5XXX series alu-
minum alloys, and metallic materials like, copper, titanium and mag-
nesium alloys, and steel as they have various industrial applications. In
addition, a variety of compensation materials types can be utilized as
the compensation material type, of course plays an important impact in
enhancement the material characterization and the mechanical proper-
ties of the welded joints. Consequently, compensation made of compos-
ite material and manufactured by using powder metallurgy technique
in the form of strips can be used as a compensation material and as a
result, the welded joints microstructure, mechanical and physical prop-
erties may be improved.
Moreover, a new technique may be investigated by adding reinforce-
ment particles along the welding zone, and by means of stirring action,
a mixing of the base material, compensation material and reinforcement
particles will occur, resulting in producing a welded and processed joint
at the same time. This method can be applied to enhance the corrosion
resistance and the ductile to brittle transition temperature of shipbuild-
ing steel materials as well. Furthermore, it can be used in producing
biomedical joints by adding biomedical particles utilized for use in med-
ical applications. The post-weld heat treatment of the welded and pro-
cessed joints is expected to have superior microstructure and mechan-
ical properties, and therefore more research is needed to promote this
technique.
On the professional side, it may be worth designing and manufactur-
ing a portable FSW machine which can be used and preferred for out-
door onsite welding during construction of steel structures especially as
it needs no gas shields, and will not be affected by the outdoor wind
actions.
Furthermore, it was noticed that the finite element analysis was uti-
lized for modeling all methods whose basic principal is on friction stir-
ring action, except vertical compensation friction stir welding. so, it is
worthwhile to analyze VCFSW by using finite element approach to sim-
ulate the dissimilar material flow during friction stirring and predict
temperature distribution, and the attained residual stresses due to the
welding operation.
Finally, based on the presented reports related to finite element mod-
eling, it is observed that friction stir alloying (FSA) was not simulated
by using smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) technique. This tech-
nique was invented by in 1977 to simulate non-axisymmetric phenom-
ena in astrophysics and it was observed that this technique achieved
both simplicity and accuracy. SPH is a method used for obtaining ap-
proximate numerical solutions of fluid dynamics equations by replacing
the fluid with a set of particles by interpolation any function in terms of
a set of disordered points of particles.. From the point of view of physi-
cists, SPH are material particles which can be treated like any other
particle system. This approach has many advantages which make it bet-
ter than other techniques. Firstly, it can be used for analyzing different
material particles, where each type can be easily described by its own
set of particles. Secondly, it is capable to close the gap between contin-
18
Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 3 (2021) 100059
uum and fragmentation in natural approach. Thirdly, the resolution is
dependent on position and time, and then this method is very attractive
for most astrophysical and many geophysical problems. Finally, it has a
computational characteristic as it uses lower calculation time and stor-
age. So, based on the previously mentioned advantages, it is proposed
to simulate the friction stir alloying (FSA) by using SPH technique; by
considering the reinforcement particles as smoothed particles. Thus, the
rotational and translational motion of the tool will cause trouble in the
smoothed reinforcement particles, and then the motion of these parti-
cles on the base material surface can be easily simulated. The reason
that will make SPH algorithms suitable for simulating the FSA process
is its satisfactory results of the shocks of particles during rotational and
linear motion of the tool which causes crash of the particles with higher
strain rates.
Conclusion
This article reviews published literature on the welding and process-
ing of the metallic materials. Based on the presented data and materials
it is possible to conclude that:
1 Friction stir welding (FSW) is a permanent solid state joining process
which has been successfully applied for joining similar as well as dis-
similar materials.in manufacturing industries especially aerospace,
marine, spacecraft, automotive, etc FSW is widely used in recent in-
dustries owing to its unique features over fusion welding processes,
i.e. reduced porosity defect, reduced heat affected zone (HAZ), no
requirement of shielding gas, ecofriendly and reduced distortion.
2 UFSW is utilized in lowering the heat generation during the welding
operation and hence, it prevents softening resulting from coarsening
and dissolution of precipitates, especially in the heat treatable alu-
minum alloys, and at the properties of the welded joint is enhanced.
Specific attention is given to basic principle including material flow,
temperature generation, process parameters, microstructure and me-
chanical properties. From the review, it is concluded that UFSW is an
improved method compared with FSW for improving joint strength.
3 FSP produces dynamic recrystallization of the grains and results
in superior microstructural and mechanical properties. The surface
composite layer of nano reinforcement particles by friction stir pro-
cessing improves tensile behavior, hardness, corrosion resistance,
percentage and wear resistance behavior of the workpiece material.
The friction stir processing with multiple passes could effectively
cure the onion premature splitting by accumulating a higher de-
gree of strain and the initial grains gets fully recrystallize and to
improve the microstructure. Increasing the tool rotational speed re-
sults greater heat input and increases grain size of the metal alloy
and simultaneously more shattering effect of rotation, results a bet-
ter distribution of nano particles.
4 FSW is characterized by several defects like; tunnel, voids, kissing
bond and surface grooving defects. The most important factor af-
fecting occurrence of theses defects is the stirring action which can
be controlled by rotational speed and /or axial force.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
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