Sampling 94 Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the learners shall be able to: 1. explain what sampling means and why it is used in research, 2. identify and describe the different sampling techniques, 3. identify the appropriate sampling techniques for specific types of study and explain how they are used, 4. explain and demonstrate how each sampling technique is done. Selecting the Study Population The information collected in order to answer the objectives of a study is obtained from cases or individuals or objects. For example, in the study of “Attitudes of Farmers and Landowners towards Land Reform,” the attitudes that will be examined are those of farmers and landowners, and they will most likely be the source of information. These cases or individuals are commonly called research subjects or respondents. Once the type of cases to be studied has been determined, the researcher must decide next how the cases will be selected. For this Purpose, itis important to distinguish between the total population and the sample from the population from which data will be collected. The population is composed of elements, each of which is a potential case in study. Depending on the objective/s of the study, the available Tesources and the available time for the study, a researcher may decide whether to study all the available elements or cases in a population or just a sample from the entire population. The usual practice is to select and study a small sample of the total population. This process is called sampling.Sampling 95 The Nature of Sampling (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996) Sampling is the process of choosing a representative portion of a population or some elements ina population that will represent the entire population. It is assumed that the characteristics of the chosen elements, called sample, reflect the characteristics of the entire population. In contrast total enumeration or census requires the study of all elements in the population. In the study of sampling, it is important to distinguish the following concepts: population, target population, sampling population, sampling frame and sample. Population. This refers to the total number of elements (e.g. items, objects, areas, or individuals) to be studied. For example, in the study of “Sexual Attitudes and Practices of Students in Public High Schools in Province A,” all students in public high school, in the province constitute the study population. Population Element. This pertains to an item, an object, an area, or an individual on which data will be taken. It is considered the unit of study. In the example above, a student in a public high school isa population element. Target Population. This is the population for which representative information is desired. Sampling Population. This is the population from which a sample is actually drawn. Sampling Frame. The frame is a list of all the elements or sampling units (e.g. items, persons) in a population. The sample is drawn from the sampling frame. Sample. This refers to an individual, an element or a group of individuals or elements on which information is obtained, The sample is drawn from a population to which research results are generalized.Samp.ing 96 Why Study a Sample? There are several advantages of studying a sample rather than the total population. Studying a sample is generally cheaper, faster, and yields more accurate results than conducting total enumeration (Parel, et.al., 1985, Cooper and Schindler, 2001) 1. It is cheaper. Since a sample is smaller than the entire population, collection and processing of data, therefore, costs much less. For instance, studying or interviewing a sample of 200 persons, is much less expensive than interviewing an entire population of 2000. 2. It is faster. It is definitely quicker to study fewer individuals or elements than an entire population. 3. It is more accurate. ‘Fewer errors are expected in data collection and processing in a study of a sample than in a study of the entire population. The study of a sample allows for a more thorough investigation, better supervision, and better handling of data than is possible with complete coverage. 4. It can yield more comprehensive information. A small sample can be more thoroughly investigated and can yield more comprehensive information than a big population. Basic Types of Sampling There are two basic types of sampling: non-probability sampling and probability sampling (Cooper and Schindler, 2001). =>Non-probability Sampling. Non-probability sampling is arbitrary (non-random) and is generally subjective. Data gatherers choose sample cases, “as they wish” or “wherever they find them.” Probability Sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection, a procedure that assures that all elements in the population are given an equal chances of being selected as a sample unit.Sampling 97 Non-Probability Sampling Non-probability sampling is judgmental sampling. It does not provide every member of the population an equal chance of being selected as part of the sample. Moreover, the probability or chance of an element to be chosen as a sample is unknown. One disadvantage of using _ this sampling technique is the possibility of bias. A bias is the greater probability of certain type/class of sample units/elements to be included in the selected sample. The conclusion derived from a non probability sample is limited to the sample itself. There are two common ways to choose persons or elements to include ina non-probability sample, accidental and purposive methods. r= Accidental Sampling. In accidental sampling, the investigator selects the sample units as they become available. For example, an investigator who wants to interview 25 students about their study habits may stand at the door of a classroom and interview the first 25 students who enter the room. If better students tend to enter the classroom earlier than the slower students, the bias in favor of the brighter students is introduced. v= Purposive Sampling. In this type of sampling, the investigator uses a specific purpose in selecting a sample. For instance, a researcher wants to know how grandparents feel about their grandchildren. He may select men and women who are 65 years old and above who have grandchildren to serve as respondents. If there are younger grandfathers in the population, they cannot be included in the study.Sampling 9g Probability Sampling Techniques There are several ways of drawing probability samples. The five most common techniques used are simple random sampling, systematic sampling with a random start, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, multistage sampling. A, Simple Random Sampling Description: Simple random sampling is a process of selecting sample cases or subset of sample cases from a population, giving all the sampling units equal chances of being included as a sample. Simple random sampling may be done by “drawing of lots,” or with the use of a table of random digits. Drawing of lots. Pieces of paper (same size, same color) on which the names or symbol of each of. the elements of the population is written, is placed in a container and mixed. Then the desired number of elements is drawn, either with replacement or without replacement. Using table of random digits. A table of random digits is a table containing randomly arranged numbers, in columns and in rows. From a random start, numbers within the total number of population are drawn in a particular direction until the desired number of samples are selected. The study sample will constitute the elements represented by the numbers or symbols drawn. Random sampling may be unrestricted (with replacement) or restricted (without replacement.) © Restricted type: After drawing a sample, the chosen element is returned to the container before the next sample element is selected. © Unrestricted type: A chosen clement is not replaced. After drawing the first sample, the second next sample is drawn next. The first sample unit drawn is not anymore returned nor replaced.Sampling 99 In most cases, however, random sampling is done without replacement, because in sampling with replacement, the same element may be drawn several times, Illustration: For instance, you want-to study the “extent of participation in school activities of 24 fourth year high: school students in. School A, and you want to draw a random sample of -10:-students. A’ decision has been made to choose the sample without replacement. It is-also. assumed that the class.is homogeneous in regard toa number. of characteristics. Sampling may be done by, “draw lots” or by using a table of random numb \¢ 24 fourth’ year high school students ; of lots (without replacement) vé them a corresponding number fhe “names of students are. the tudenis and give them. their M13 s 19 NeseelgreseT 99520 O15 U 21 Peele 2 Qeerscd Tec Were 23 R 18 x 24 Step Two: Write a number on a small piece of paper and roll it.. After writing all 25 numbers, place the rolled pieces of paper in a container, shake the container and pick one piéce of paper ata time. For instance if the numbers picked are 3, 7, 13, 25, 17, 21, 5, 6, 12, 20, then the sample students are C, G,M, Y.Q,U,E,F, Ry and T 4Sampling 109 B. Systematic Sampling with a Random Start Description: Systematic sampling with a random start is a method of selecting a sample from a population by taking the Ath units from an ordered population, from the first unit which is selected at random. The K is called the sampling interval. The sampling interval is derived by dividing the total population by the desired sample size. To use this technique, an ordered list of the population elements is required. Illustration: Patients Admitted In a Private Hospital in Metro Manila,” suppose you wish to draw a sample of 15 insulin-dependent patients from 30 eligible | patients. These thirty were identified from the hospital records. Population: 30 insulin-dependent diabetic patients Sampling Frame: A list of names of eligible patients Sampling Unit: an insulin-dependent diabetic Steps in drawing the sample patients Step 1: List the 30 eligible patients, in alphabetical order, and number them from 1 to 30. Step 2. Determine the sampling interval (K) by dividing the size of the population by the number of units desired: K = 30/15 Step 3. Select a random start by. picking at random any number from ol to 30. For example you picked 10, then start at number 10. Step 4: From number 10, the random’start (RS), take every second name in the list. When you reach number 30, go back to number one and continue drawing your sample units, until you have drawn 15. numbers. A 1 I 9 Q 17 Y 23 B 2 J Jo-RS R 18 Zz 26 c 3 kK ul s 19 AA 27 2D 4 L 2 T2084 BBR S28 E 5 M 13 U2 cc 29 E 6 oN 14 08 Y 2 PDs. 20 G 7 ° 15 W283, H 8 P 16. x 24 For a study on the “Risk Behaviors of -Insulin-Dependent Diabetic |Sampling 101 C. Stratified Random Sampling Description: Stratified random sampling is the process of selecting a random sample from subgroups or strata into which a population has been subdivided. A population is made up of groups of elements with varied characteristics, which can possibly affect observations or responses. The population is be stratified into more or less homogeneous subgroups or strata, before sampling is done. From each subgroup, a sub-sample is drawn using either simple random sampling or systematic sampling with a random start. Illustration: | Inastudy on “Attitudésiof Farmers Towards Land Reform,” the study population consists of 75 farmers: 30 rice farmers, 20 sugar cane farmers 10 vegetable growers, | and 15 cutflower growers. If the aititudes towards land reform of the four groups are expected to differ, a sample from each group must be drawn, Population’ All the 75 farmers Sampling Frame: List of farmers by type Sampling unit: Farmer: Steps in drawing the sample Step 1: Classify. the 75 farmers: rice-farmers, sugar cane farmers, vegetable growers, cutflower producers Step 2: Determine the overall sample size using an appropriate formula discussed earlier. For example, 30 is the desired sample size. Step 3: Allocate the needed. sample size (n) among the four strata either equally, if the subpopulations are more or less equal; ‘or proportionately, ifthe numbers in the various strata vary. To do this divide the stratum size by the population size (N) and multiply the quotient by the needed sample size. ‘Types of Farmer Population | Sampling Fraction | Sample Size. Rice-farmers 30 30/75x 30. 12 Sugar farmers. 20 20/75x 30. 8 Vegetable growers 10 10/75x 30 4 Cutflower producers 15 15/75x 30 6 Total 75 30 Step 4: With the sub-sample size determined, select the sample from each stratum, using either simple random sampling or systematic sampling with a random startSampling 192 D. Cluster Sampling Description: Cluster sampling is a method of selecting a sample of groups or clusters of elements. Clusters are usually exclusive sub-populations, which together comprise a population. Each cluster consists of heterogeneous elements and each is typical of the population. For instance in a school where students in each grade level are assigned to heterogeneous rather than homogeneous sections, each section is considered a cluster. Boy scout troops in public schools and YMCA clubs are examples of clusters. The number of clusters in the population represents the size of the population of clusters, while the number of elements in a cluster is called cluster size. The sample clusters can be drawn using simple random sampling or systematic sampling with a random start. Illustration: Consider the study » “Avtitudes Towards “Cheating “of. College Freshmen In a Private School.” The students may be divided into 10% heterogeneous groups, or classes/clusters, each with 10 members, or a total of. 100% students: * If: the *desired sample size is 50 students, 5 sample clusters need tobe drawal at random. ~ ABCDE ABCDE || ABCDE [| ABCDE ABCDE FHIJK FHIIK FHIJK || FHIJK FHIJK 1 Qasr ge esis yrs 5 ABCDE ABCDE ABCDE |'| ABCDE ABCDE FHIJK FHIJK |-) FHIJK FHIJK FHIJK 6 7 Joga oR ee 9 10 Population: All the 10 classes/clusters Frame: List of 10 clusters/aroups Sampling Unit: One group/cluster with 10 members Steps in selecting the sample clusters: Step 1: Number the 10 groups consecutively from 01 to 10. Step 2: Using simple random sampling, draw five numbers. Suppose numbers 2, 6,59, and | are chosen Step 3: Identify the groups represented by the numbers drawn. Step 4: Study all the students in_the five sample classes.Sampling 103 E. Multistage Sampling Description: In multistage sampling, the selection of the sample is accomplished in two or more stages. The population is first divided into a number of first- stage units from which a sample is drawn. Then, the population in the sampled first stage units are divided into second stage units. More stages may be added, if desired, by dividing the population into a hierarchy of sampling units corresponding to the different sampling stages. This process is usually used when the population can be divided into hierarchies. The sampling process in each hierarchy is considered one stage. Illustration: f In the study on “Men’s participation in Child Care,” one may wish to select a sample of. 135’married men with 0 to 6 year-old children from a certain province: “Suppose, you! wish to include three of the seven towns of the province and three barangays in each sample town, and select 15 men with young children from éach barangay. Population: All the’ men With 0.to 6 year-old children in the province Sampling Frame: ‘List of men with 0 to 6 year-old children Sampling Unit: A man with 0 to 6 year-old children Steps in drawing the sample Stage One: Draw sample towns in the province. List the names of all the | towns’in -the province and using simple random sampling draw the | three sample towns, Stage Two: Draw a sample of barangays in the sample towns. Step Two: Secure a list of all the barangays in cach of the three sample towns and using simple random sampling draw three sample barangays. in each of the three sample towns. Stage Three: Draw a sample of married men in the sample barangays. List the names of the men with 0 to 6 year-old children in each of the three sample barangays in the three sample towns. Using simple random sampling or systematic sampling with a random start, select the sample men_in each of the sample barangays.Sampling 104 Determination-of Sample Size When studying a sample of a population, it is important that the sample size should be large enough: 1) to allow a reliable analysis, 2) to provide for desired levels of accuracy in estimates, and 3) to enable the researcher to test for the significance of differences between proportions. If resources are inadequate to obtain a sufficient sample size, the researcher must obtain more resources or revise the plans for data analysis (Fisher, et al, 1991). There are two important considerations in determining the sample size of a study: 1) availability of resources and 2) the requirements of a proposed plan of analysis ‘The sample size can be determined by using an appropriate sampling formula. To calculate the sample size required for accuracy in estimating proportions for example, it is important first to answer the following questions: 1) What are the reasonable estimates of key proportions (p) to be measured in the study? For instance, if you are studying acceptability of land reform among lowland farmers, you may need to guess what percent of the population accept land reform. If you cannot guess, you can safely assume it to be 0.50 (50 percent) to maximize the expected variance. 2) What degree of accuracy do you: want to have or how far can you allow your sample estimates of key proportions to deviate from the true proportions in the population as a whole? Do you want to be confident of your results within 1 percent or 5 percent (usually referred to as the .01 and .05 levels, respectively)? 3) What confidence level (Z) do you want to use? How confident do you want to be that your sample estimate is as accurate as you wish? Usually, the 95 percent confidence level is specified. This is represented by the Z value of 1.96. 4) — What is the size of the population (N) that the sample is supposed to represent?Sampling 105 On the basis of your answers to the four questions, you can compute for the sample size needed to measure a given proportion, with a given degree of accuracy, at a given level of statistical significance, by using a simple formula given below. This formula is recommended if the population is more than 10,000. Zpq ne Where: n = the desired sample size Z = the standard normal deviate, usually set at 1.96, which 0-p d = degree of accuracy desired, usually set at either .05, 0.2, or 01 2 ii For example, if you want to determine the sample size of a study in which the population is over 10,000, and if the proportion of a target population with a certain characteristic is .50, and if the level of confidence you want to use is 95 percent or the Z statistic 1.96; and you desire an accuracy level of .05, then the sample size is computed as: (1.96)? (1-.50) (.50)Sampling 195 In the following formula which is also commonly used in calculatin the sample size. Unlike the first formula, the total Population (N) js considered (Parel, et. al., 1985). NZ? (pQ-p) Ne?+ Z? (p (1-p) N = Population n = the desired sample size Z = the standard normal deviate, set at 1.96, corresponding to 95 % level of confidence p= the proportion in the target population estimated to have a particular characteristic, 50 percent (.50) d = degree of accuracy desired, usually set at either .05, 025, or .01 Shown below are sample sizes (n) required for populations (N) of 50 to 3000 with a desired reliability (Z) of 0.95, a proportion (p) of 0.50, and a maximum sampling error (d) of 0.025 (1), 0.05 (2), and 0.10 (3), respecti N N | a N lees [2 3 1 2: 2f3 so] 48] 44] 33] 1050 [634] 281 88 | 2050 899 100} 94] .79] so} 1100 | 652] 285] 88 | 2100 908 150] 137] 108} 59] 1150 | 669] 288] 89] 2150 918 200] 178] 132]. 65} 1200 | 686} 291] 89 | 2200 927 250} 216/ 151} 69] 1250 | 702] 294] 89 | 2250 935 300} 253] 168} 73] 1300 | 717] 297] 89 | 2300 944 350| 287] 183] 75] 1350 | 732] 299] 90 | 2350 952 400} 320 196 | 77] 1400 747 | 301 90 | 2400 960 i 450) 351 207 | 79} 1450 761 | 304 90 | 2450 968 5 500) 381 217| 81} 1500 774 | 306 90 | 2500 976 : 550 | 409 226} 82) 1550 787 | 308 90 | 2550 983 | 3 600 | 436 234| 83} 1600 800 | 310 91 | 2600 - a 3 650 | 462 241] 84] 1650 812} 312 91 | 2650 ne 7 700 | 487 248| 84] 1700 824) 313 91 | 2700 ie ; 750| si1| 254] 85} 1750 | 836] 315} 91 | 2750 te i 800) 533] 260) 86] 1800 | 847) 317] 91 | 2800 i B 850 | 555 265} 86] 1850 858 | 318 91 | 2850 er c 900 | 576] 269] 87] 1900 | 869} 320) 91 | 2900 103 ; 950 | 596 274) 87] 1950 879 | 321 92 | 2950 1038 st 1000 | 615 278 | 88 | 2000 889 | 322 92 | 3000 1044 |_ 3Sampling 107 EVALUATION A. Key Terms to Remember Sampling Random Sampling Population Random Start Sampling Frame Sampling Error Sampling Interval Confidence Level Sampling Unit Sample Size B. Discussion Questions 1, What is sampling? Differentiate between a sample and a population? Why should a researcher study a sample rather than the total population? Differentiate between probability sampling from non-probability sampling. Differentiate the different probability sampling techniques and the non probability techniques. ‘What are the advantages and disadvantages of using random sampling? C. Exercises 1. Determine the size of the sample to be taken from a population of 500 using the second formula presented in the text with a desired reliability of 0.95, a proportion estimate of 0.50, and a maximum sampling error of 0.05. Show your computation. 2. Using the data set in the table in page 110, draw a sample of 25 students using the following sampling techniques: a) Simple random sampling with the use of a table of random numbers b) Systematic sampling with a random start c) Multistage, stratified random sampling in two stages: First stage by school and second stage, by sex.Sampling 108 3. If you wish to conduct an experiment on “The effect of a leadership training on the leadership skills of students in three colleges using the data in page 110, how would you draw and allocate your samples to the experimental and the control groups. Only 30 can be accommodated in the training. Your control group and experimental group must be equal in number. 4, What sampling technique will you use’ a) Describe and illustrate the steps that you will follow in drawing your samples. b) Determine the most appropriate sampling technique for your proposed study. Describe your study area and population. c) Calculate your sample size and explain how you plan to draw your sample.Sampling 109 WORKSHOP NO. 6 SAMPLING Instructions: Restate your research problem and objectives. Then, identify your study population and the most appropriate sampling technique you intend to use. Determine your sample size and explain how you will draw your sample. Write your answers in the space provided. Use another sheet of paper if necessary. 1, My research problem is: 2. The objectives of my study are: 3. My target population consists of: (Total) 4. The sampling technique that I will use is, because: 5. Using the following formula to compute for the sample size, my sample size is__ 6. To draw my sample, J will follow the following steps: (Describe in detail.)Sampling 110 Hypothetical Data for 100 students in three Colleges: AAC, BBC, and CCC | Sex [School No. [Sex] Schoo! Sex [School] IQ | F 36_| F | BBC M_| ccc [7421 F 37_|_F | BBC F_| ccc [178 F 38_| F | BBC M_[ CCC | 117 F 30 | F_| BBC F [ccc [114 M 40 | M | BBC M_[ ccc [113 M a1_|M | BBC PF [ccc | 112 M_| AAC | 121 fs] 42 | M | BBC M_[ ccc | 111 F_| AAC | 120 f5]_43 [M | BBC F [ccc | 110 M | AAC | 119 [id 44 [M | BBC F_[ ccc | 108 F_[ AAC | 118 [s| 45 [M | BBC F_| ccc | 107 F_[ AAC | 117 ja} 46 _[M | BBC F_| ccc | 104 M_[ AAC | 117 [| 47 | M | BBC F_[ CCC | 105 M_[AAC M | BBC F_| CCC | 103 M_[AAC M | BBC F_| ccc | 102 M_[ AAC M | BBC F_| ccc | 102 M_[ AAC M | BBC M_| ccc | 100 F | AAC M_| BBC m | ccc | 99 F_| AAC M | BBC M_| CCC | 99 F_| AAC M | BBC M_| ccc | 99 F_| AAC | 132 fi 55 | M | BBC M_| ccc | 98 F_[ AAC | 105 [3] 56 | M| BBC M | ccc | 97 F_[ AAC | 98 [if 57 [wm | BBC F [ccc | 96 M_| AAC | 97 |i 58 | M | BBC M | ccc | 95 M_| AAC | 89 [=| 59 | M| BBC F_| ccc | 93 M_[Aac | 85 [| 60 | M | BBC F | ccc | 85 M"| Aac | 87 [7] 61 | F | BBC F [ccc | 83 M_| AAC [119 [| 62_| F | BBC F [ccc | 83 M_| aac [114 || 63 | F | BBC mM [ccc | 81 F_[ AAC | 102 2] 64 | M | BBC mM | occ | 86 F [AAC | 99 | 65 | F | BBC m | ccc | 90 F_| Bac | 133 || 66 | F | BBC F_| Bac | 129 |"| 67 | F | BBC F_| BBC | 129] 68 | F | cco F | eBc | 128 [| 69 [F | ccc 35|-F | Bec _| 127 [| 70 | F | cccSampling 111 Sample of a Table of Random Numbers 43 | 73 | 86 | 36 | 96] 47] 36] ot | 46 | 98 | 63 | 71 | 62 24 | 67 | 62 | 42 | 81] 14] 57 | 20 | 42 | 53 | 32} 27 | 32 16 | 76 | 62 | 27 | 66 | $6} 60 | 26 | 71 | 07 | 32 | 90] 79 | 78 | 53 12 | $6 | 85 | 99 | 26 | 96 | 96 | 68) 27] 31 | 05 | 03 | 72] 93 | 15 55 | $9 | 56 | 35 | 64 | 38] 54] 82] 46 | 22 | 31 | 62] 43 | 09 | 90 22 | 77] 94] 39 | 49 | sa] 43 | 54] 82 | 17] 37] 93 | 23 | 78 17 | 53] 31 | $7] 24] 55 | 06 | 88 | 77 | 04} 74 | 47 | 67 01 | 63 | 78 | 59.| 16 | 95 | 55] 67] 19 | 98| 10] 50} 71) 75 21] 12} 34] 29 | 78 | 64| so] 07 | 82 | 15] 51] 00 | 13 | 42 60 | 86 | 32 | 44 | 09] 47 | 27] 96 | 54 | 49] 17] 46 | 09 | 62 18 | 18 | 07 | 92 | 46 | 44 | 17] 16} 58] 09 | 79] 83 | 96 | 19 | 62 62 | 38 | 97] 75 | 84} 16 | 07] 44| 99 | 83] 11 | 46} 32 | 24 42 | 40 | 64] 74 | 82| 97] 77] 77] 81 | 06 | 45 | 32] 14] 08 36 | 28 | 19] 95 | 50 | 92] 11 | 11] 97 | 00} 56] 76 | 31 | 39 85 | 94 | 35 | 35 | 83 | 39) 08 | 08 | 30 | 42| 34] 07} 96 | 88 70 | 29] 17} 12] 13 | 40 | 33 | 20} 38 | 36 | 13 | 89} 51 | 03 | 74 56 | 62 | 18 | 37] 35 | 96} 83 | 50] 87/85 | 97 | 12) 25 | 93 | 93 99 | 49 | $7 | 22] 77 | 88 | 42 | 95 | 45} 72 | 16) 64} 36] 16) 00 16 | 08 | 15 | 04} 72 | 33} 27] 14| 34] 09.) 45] 59 | 34 | 68 | 49 31 | 15 | 93 | 32] 43 | 50 | 27) 89 | 87] 19 | 20] 15 | 37] 00 | 49 68 | 34| 30] 13 | 70 | 55 | 74 | 30| 77 | 40 | 44] 21 | 78 | 84 | 26 74 | 57 | 25 | 65 | 76 | 59 | 29 | 97 | 68 | 60 | 71 | 99 | 38 | 67 | 54 27 | 42 | 37 | 86 | 53 | 48 | 55 | 90 | 65 | 72 | 96 | 57] 69 | 36] 10 61 | 66 | 37| 32} 20| 30 | 77| 84 24 | 68 | 49 | 69 | 10 | 82 | 53 | 75