Welding & Materials

Imperfections
Prepared
KG.Pandithan
International Welding Engineer
 Welding Imperfections

All welds have imperfections

• Imperfections are classed as defects when they are of a
type, or size, not allowed by the Acceptance Standard

A defect is an unacceptable imperfection

• A weld imperfection may be allowed by one Acceptance
Standard but be classed as a defect by another Standard
and require removal/rectification
Welding Imperfections
Standards for Welding Imperfections

BS EN ISO 6520-1 Welding and allied processes –

Classification of geometric
imperfections in metallic materials -
Part 1: Fusion welding
Imperfections are classified into 6 groups, namely:
1 Cracks
2 Cavities
3 Solid inclusions
4 Lack of fusion and penetration
5 Imperfect shape and dimensions
6 Miscellaneous imperfections
Welding Imperfections
Standards for Welding Imperfections

EN ISO 5817 (2003) Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel,

nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam
welding excluded) - Quality levels for
imperfections
This main imperfections given in EN ISO 6520-1 are listed in
EN ISO 5817 with acceptance criteria at 3 levels, namely
Level B (highest)
Level C (intermediate)
Level D (general)
This Standard is ‘directly applicable to visual testing of welds’
...(weld surfaces & macro examination)
Welding imperfections
classification

Cracks
Cracks
Cracks that may occur in welded materials are caused generally
by many factors and may be classified by shape and position.

Classified by Shape Classified by Position

•Longitudinal •HAZ
•Transverse •Centerline
•Chevron •Crater
•Lamellar Tear •Fusion zone
•Parent metal

Note: Cracks are classed as Planar Defects.

Cracks

Main Crack Types

• Solidification Cracks
• Hydrogen Induced Cracks
• Lamellar Tearing
• Reheat cracks
Cracks

Solidification Cracking
• Occurs during weld solidification process
• Steels with high sulphur impurities content (low ductility at elevated
temperature)
• Requires high tensile stress
• Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
Solidification Cracking
Also referred as Hot Cracking
Crack type: Solidification cracking
Location: Weld centreline (longitudinal)
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphor
concentration in steels.
Susceptible Microstructure: Columnar grains In direction of
solidification
Solidification Cracking

• Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the weld metal to form
iron sulphides (low strength, low melting point compounds)
• During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals push still liquid iron
sulphides in front to the last place of solidification, weld centerline
• The bonding between the grains which are themselves under great
stress. may now be very poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will
result, weld centerline
Solidification Cracking
Factors for solidification cracking
• Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal (sulphur,
phosphor and carbon)
• The amount of stress/restraint
• Joint design high depth to width ratios
• Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying grains.
• High contractional strains are present
• High dilution processes are being used.
• There is a high carbon content in the weld metal
• Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded joints
Solidification Cracking Fe Steels

Liquid Iron Sulphide

films

Solidification
crack
*

Contractional strain
Solidification Cracking
Intergranular liquid film
Columnar
grains
HAZ
Shallow, wider weld bead
On solidification the bonding
between the grains may be
adequate to maintain
cohesion and a crack is
unlikely to occur
Columnar
grains HAZ
Deep, narrower weld bead
On solidification the bonding
between the grains may now
be very poor to maintain
cohesion and a crack may
result
Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
•The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a low
dilution process, and change the joint design
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further
dilution????
Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which form
between the grain and maintain grain cohesion
As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should be a
minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution
Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restraint
Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
• The use of high manganese and low carbon content fillers
• Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint during welding

• The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of impurities (Phosphor
& sulphur)
• Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints and any other
sulphur containing product)
• Joint design selection depth to width ratios
 Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
• Requires susceptible hard grain structure, stress, low temperature
and hydrogen
• Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc mainly as result of
contaminated electrode or preparation
• Hydrogen diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
• Cracking developing most likely in HAZ
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Also known as HCC, Hydrogen, Toe, Underbead, Delayed, Chevron
Cracking.

Occurs in:
• Carbon Steels
• Carbon-Manganese
• Low, Medium and High Alloy Steels:
• Mainly in Ferritic or Martensitic steels.
• Very rarely in Duplex stainless steels,
• Never in Nickel or Copper alloys.
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of the 4 factors occur
together:
•Hydrogen More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
•Stress More than ½ the yield stress
•Temperature Below 300oC
•Hardness Greater than 400HV Vickers
•Susceptible Microstructure (Martensite)
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
May occur:
• up to 72hrs after completion
• In weld metal, HAZ, parent metal.
• At weld toes
• Under weld beads
• At stress raisers.
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
• Hydrogen is the smallest atom known H2

• Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc

• Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick-up on the
electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the consumable gas

Water vapour Moisture on

in the air or H2 the electrode
in the H2 or grease on
shielding gas the wire
H2
Oxide or grease on H2 H2
the plate
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Hydrogen
Atomic
diffusion
Hydrogen
(H)

Molecular
Hydrogen
(H2)
Steel in expanded condition Steel under contraction
Above 300oC Below 300oC
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Susceptible Microstructure:
Hard brittle structure – MARTENSITE Promoted by:
A) High Carbon Content, Carbon Equivalent (CE)

CEV = %C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu

6 5 15
B) high alloy content
C) fast cooling rate: Inadequate Pre-Heating
Cold Material
Thick Material
Low Heat Input.

Heat input (Kj/mm) = Amps x Volts x arc time

Run out length x 103 (1000)
Effect of carbon in the properties of
iron
Increasing the carbon content will increase the strength, but
will also increase greatly the risk of formation of Martensite

0.83 % Carbon
(Eutectoid)*
Hardness
Tensile
Strength
Ductility
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
%Carbon
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Under bead cracking Toe cracking
 Cracks

Lamellar Tearing
• Step like appearance
• Occurs in parent material or HAZ
• Only in rolled direction of the parent material
• Associated with restrained joints subjected to through thickness
stresses on corners, tees and fillets
• Requires high sulphur or non-metallic inclusions
 Cracks

Re-Heat Cracking
• Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels during post weld heat
treatment or service at elevated temperatures
• Occurs in areas of high stress and existing defects
• Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor profile material
selection and controlled post weld heat treatment
Welding Imperfections Classification

Cavities
Gas Cavities
Porosity is caused by the absorption
of nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen in
the molten weld pool which is then
released on solidification to become
trapped in the weld metal. Nitrogen
and oxygen absorption in the weld
pool usually originates from poor
gas shielding. As little as 1% air
entrainment in the shielding gas will
cause distributed porosity and
greater than 1.5% results in gross
surface breaking pores. Leaks in the
gas line, too high a gas flow rate,
draughts and excessive turbulence
in the weld pool are frequent causes
of porosity..
Crater Pipe

Weld crater

Crater pipe
 Crater Pipe
Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas defect, it has
the appearance of a gas pore in the weld crater

Causes:
Crater cracks
(Star cracks) • Too fast a cooling
rate
• Deoxidization
reactions and liquid
to solid volume
change

Crater pipe • Contamination

Welding Imperfections Classification

Solid Inclusions
SLAG

Causes
Loss of slag control because of incorrect
manipulation of electrode.
Slag flooding in front of arc if joint line is
tilted downwards.
Fluid slag.
Narrow, deep edge preparations.
Convex profile in multi-run welds.
Lack of interpass cleaning.
Welding Imperfections Classification

Lack of Fusion
Lack of Fusion

DEFINITION:
Lack of union in a weld.

CAUSES:
Contaminated weld prep
Amperage too low / high

LACK OF SIDEWALL FUSION

 Lack of Fusion

Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove

Welding Imperfections
• Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion:
• welding current too low
• bevel angle too steep
• root face too large (single-sided weld)
• root gap too small (single-sided weld)
• incorrect electrode angle
• linear misalignment
• welding speed too high
• welding process related – particularly dip-transfer GMAW
• flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out)
Welding Imperfections Classification

Weld Root Imperfections

Weld Root Imperfections

Lack of root penetration Lack of root fusion

 Weld Root Imperfections

Lack of Root Fusion Lack of Root Penetration

Weld Root Imperfections

Concave Root
Weld Root Imperfections

Excessive root
penetration
Weld Root Imperfections

Concave root Excess root penetration

Weld Root Imperfections

Burn Through
Oxidized Root (Root Coking)

Causes:
• Loss or insufficient back
purging gas

• Most commonly occurs

when welding stainless
steels

• Purging gases include

argon, helium and
occasionally nitrogen
Welding Imperfections Classification

Imperfect Shape and Dimensions

Weld Imperfections
• Typical Causes of Imperfect Shape (including poor toe blend)
• Poor welding technique is the usual cause these imperfections, such as:
• electrode size for the cap passes is too large
• welding speed too slow
• welding current too low
• arc voltage too low (SAW and GMAW)
• poor manipulation of the electrode
• incorrect weld bead positioning / placement
Surface and Profile

Poor Cap Profile & Poor Toe Blend

 Surface and Profile

Poor
Stop / Starts
 Cap Undercut

Intermittent Cap Undercut

Undercut

Root undercut Cap undercut

Welding Imperfections Classification

Miscellaneous Imperfections
Welding Imperfections
• Miscellaneous Imperfections
• Arc strike or stray arc:
• accidental striking of an arc on to base material
• loss of welding cable insulation
• poor connection of ’current return’ cable
• Spatter:
• excessive current or voltage
• Slag:
• poor workmanship (inadequate cleaning)
• Grinding mark / mechanical damage:
• Torn surface
Miscellaneous Imperfections
Causes:
• Excessive current
• Damp electrodes
• Contamination
• Incorrect wire feed speed
when welding with the MAG
welding process
• Arc blow

Spatter
 Miscellaneous Imperfections

Causes:
• Accidental striking of the
arc onto the parent
material
• Faulty electrode holder
• Poor cable insulation
• Poor return lead
clamping

Arc strike
Set-Up Irregularities

Linear Misalignment
Set-Up Irregularities

Linear Misalignment
Welding Imperfections

Any Questions