Speeches about Events

An event is anything that happens or is regarded as happening. By this definition, the following are
examples of suitable subjects for informative speeches about events: Festival of the Sun; cyber
terrorism; therapeutic massage; sleep deprivation; Battle of Little Big Horn; Olympic Games. If your
specific purpose is to recount the history of an event, you will organize your speech in chronological
order, relating the incidents one after another in the order they occurred. You can approach an event
from almost any angle or combination of angles—features, origins, implications, benefits, future
developments, and so forth. In such cases, you will put your speech together in topical order.

Speeches about Concepts

Concepts include beliefs, theories, ideas, principles, and the like. They are more abstract than objects,
processes, or events. The following are examples of subjects for speeches about concepts:
Confucianism; original-intent doctrine; string theory; nutritional theories; philosophies of education;
numerology. Speeches about concepts are usually organized in topical order and focus on the main
features or aspects of your concept. Another approach is to define the concept you are dealing with,
identify its major elements, and illustrate it with specific examples. Speeches about concepts are often
more complex than other kinds of informative speeches. When dealing with concepts, pay special
attention to avoiding technical language, to defining terms clearly, and to using examples and
comparisons to illustrate the concepts.

Guidelines for Informative Speaking

All the previous chapters of this book relate to the principles of informative speaking. Selecting a topic
and specific purpose, analyzing the audience, gath- ering materials, choosing supporting details,
organizing the speech, using words to communicate meaning, delivering the speech-all must be done
effectively if an informative speech is to be a success. Here we emphasize five additional points that will
help make yours a success.

DON'T OVERESTIMATE WHAT THE AUDIENCE KNOWS In a speech about meteorology, a student said, "If
modern methods of weather forecasting had existed in 1900, the Galveston hurricane disaster would
never have taken place." Then he was off to other matters, leaving his listeners to puzzle over what the
Galveston hurricane was, when it happened, and what kind of destruction it wreaked. The speaker
assumed his audience already knew these things. But they were not experts on meteorology or on
American history. Even those who had heard of the hurricane had only a fuzzy notion of it. Only the
speaker knew that the hurricane, which killed more than 6,000 people when it unexpectedly struck on
September 8, 1900, is still the deadliest natural disaster in American history.

RELATE THE SUBJECT DIRECTLY TO THE AUDIENCE

Speakers have been known to give much the same answer in saving face after a dismal informative
speech. "Oh," they say, "the speech was fine, but the audience just wasn't interested." And they are at
least partly right-the audi- ence wasn't interested. But there is no such thing as a fine speech that puts
people to sleep. It is the speaker's job to get listeners interested-and to keep them interested.
Informative speakers have one big hurdle to overcome. They must recog- nize that what is fascinating to
them may not be fascinating to everybody. Once you have chosen a topic that could possibly be
interesting to your listen- ers, you should take special steps to relate it to them. You should tie it in with
their interests and concerns. Start in the introduction. Instead of saying.

DON'T BE TOO TECHNICAL

What does it mean to say that an informative speech is too technical? It may mean the subject matter is
too specialized for the audience. Any subject can be popularized—but only up to a point. The important
thing for a speaker to know is what can be explained to an ordinary audience and what cannot. Even
when the subject matter is not technical, the language used to explain it may be.

AVOID ABSTRACTIONS

"My task," said the novelist Joseph Conrad, “is, before all, to make you see." And make the reader see is
just what Conrad did. Witness this passage, in which Conrad describes the aftermath of an explosion
aboard a ship:

The first person I saw was Mahon, with eyes like saucers, his mouth open, and the long white hair
standing straight on end round his head like a silver halo. He was just about to go down when the sight
of the main deck stirring, heaving up, and changing into splinters befare his eyes, petrified him on the
top step. I stared at him in unbelief, and he stared at me with a queer kind of shocked curiosity. I did not
know that I had no hair, no eyebrows, no eyelashes, that my young mustache was burnt off, that my
face was black, one cheek laid open, my nose cut, and my chin bleeding.
A speech is not a novel. Still, many informative speeches would be vastly improved by the novelist's bent
for color, specificity, and detail. One way to avoid abstractions is through description. When we think of
description, we usually think of external events such as the explosion described by Conrad. But
description is also used to communicate internal feelings.

PERSONALIZE YOUR IDEAS

Listeners want to be entertained as they are being enlightened. Nothing takes the edge off an
informative speech more than an unbroken string of facts and figures. And nothing enlivens a speech
more than personal illustrations. Whenever possible, you should try to personalize your ideas and
dramatize them in human terms.

Let's say you are talking about autism, the developmental disability marked by impaired communication
and interaction skills. You would surely note that the condition affects 1 in every 500 children, occurs
four times more frequently in males than in females, and is most prevalent among Caucasians. You
would also note that the symptoms of autism include abnormal introversion, severely limited use of
language, repetitive behaviors, avoidance of eye contact, loss of emotional control, and passive
responses to affection.

SAMPLE SPEECH WITH COMMENTARY

The following classroom speech provides an excellent example of how to apply the guidelines for
informative speaking discussed in this chapter. Notice how the speaker takes what could be a dry,
technical topic and makes it interesting. Pay special attention to how crisply the speech is organized, to
how the speaker uses well-chosen supporting materials to develop her ideas, and to how she clarifies
her ideas with concrete lan- guage and personal examples. You can view the speech in the online Media
Library for this chapter.

Persuasion is the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions.' The ability to
speak (and write) persuasively will benefit you in every part of your life, from personal relations to
community activities to career aspirations. When economists added up the number of people-lawyers,
sales representatives, public relations specialists, counselors, administrators, and others-whose jobs
depend largely on persuading people to adopt their point of view, they concluded that persuasion
accounts for 26 percent of the U.S. gross domestic product!?
When you speak to persuade, you act as an advocate. Your job is to get listeners to agree with you and,
perhaps, to act on that belief. Your goal may be to defend an idea, to refute an opponent, to sell a
program, or to inspire people to action. Because persuasive speakers must communicate information
clearly and concisely, you will need all the skills you used in speaking to inform. But you will also need
new skills that take you from giving information to affecting your listeners' attitudes, beliefs, or actions.

ETHICS AND PERSUASION

No matter what the speaking situation, you need to make sure your goals are ethically sound and that
you use ethical methods to communicate your ideas. This can be especially difficult when speaking to
persuade. When you work on your persuasive speech, keep in mind the guidelines for ethical speaking
discussed in Chapter 2. Make sure your goals are ethically sound and that you can defend them if they
are questioned or challenged. Study the topic thoroughly so you won’t mislead your audience through
shoddy research or muddled thinking. Learn about all sides of an issue, seek out competing viewpoints,
and get your facts right. You also need to be honest in what you say. There is no place in ethical
speechmaking for deliberately false or deceptive statements. Also be on guard against more subtle
forms of dishonesty such as quoting out of context, portraying a few details as the whole story, and
misrepresenting the sources of facts and figures. Take care to present statistics, testimony, and other
kinds of evidence fairly and accurately. Keep in mind as well the power of language and use it
responsibly. Show respect for the rights of free speech and expression, and stay away from name-calling
and other forms of abusive language. Finally, check the section of Chapter 17 that discusses the role of
emotional appeal and make sure that any appeal is appropriate to the Topic.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSUASION

Persuasion is a psychological process. It occurs in a situation where two or more points of view exist. The
speaker supports Social Security reform, but many listeners do not. The speaker considers cloning
immoral, but some in the audi- ence think it is justified in certain circumstances. The different points of
view may be completely opposed, or they may simply be different in degree. Which- ever the case, there
must be a disagreement, or else there would be no need for persuasion.
THE CHALLENGE OF PERSUASIVE SPEAKING

Of all the kinds of public speaking, persuasion is the most complex and the most challenging. Your
objective is more ambitious than in speaking to inform, and audience analysis and adaptation become
much more demanding. In some persuasive speeches you will deal with controversial topics that touch
on your listeners' basic attitudes, values, and beliefs. This may increase their resistance to persuasion
and make your task more difficult. It is much easier, for example, to explain the history of capital
punishment than to persuade an audience either that capital punishment should be abol- ished or that it
should be reinstituted in every state. In the persuasive speech you must contend not only with your
audience's knowledge of capital punish- ment but also with their attitudes toward crime and justice,
their beliefs about the deterrent value of capital punishment, and their values about the taking of
human life. Lines of argument that work with one part of the audience may fail with-or even upset-
another part. What seems perfectly logical to some listeners may seem wildly irrational to others. No
matter how expert you are on the topic, no matter how skillfully you prepare the speech, no matter how
cantivating vour deliverr some listeners will not agree with you.

HOW LISTENERS PROCESS PERSUASIVE MESSAGES

We often think of persuasion as something a speaker does to an audience. In fact, persuasion is

something a speaker does with an audience. Listeners do not just sit passively and soak in everything the
speaker has to say. Instead, they engage in a mental give-and-take with the speaker. While they listen,
they assess the speaker's credibility, delivery, supporting materials, language, reasoning, and emotional
appeals. They may respond positively at one point, negatively at another. At times they may argue,
inside their own minds, with the speaker. This mental give-and-take is especially vigorous when listeners
are highly involved with the topic and believe it has a direct bearing on their lives.

THE TARGET AUDIENCE

Unfortunately, no matter how carefully you plot your speech, you will seldom be able to persuade all
your listeners. Like most audiences, yours will probably contain some listeners who are hostile to your
position, some who favor it, some who are undecided, and some who just don't care. You would like to
make your speech equally appealing to everyone, but this is rarely possible. Most often you will have a
particular part of the whole audience that you want to reach with your speech. That part is called the
target audience.

WHAT ARE QUESTIONS OF FACT?

What college basketball team has won the most games since 1990? Who was the first African American
to sit on the U.S. Supreme Court? How far is it from New York to Baghdad? These questions of fact can
be answered absolutely. The answers are either right or wrong. But many questions of fact cannot be
answered absolutely. There is a true answer, but we don't have enough information to know what it is.
Some ques- tions like this involve prediction: Will the economy be better or worse next year? Who will
win the Super Bowl this season? Other questions deal with issues on which the facts are murky or
inconclu- sive. What will happen next in the Middle East? Is sexual orientation geneti- cally determined?
No one knows the final answers to these questions, but that doesn't stop people from speculating about
them or from trying to convince other people that they have the best possible answers.

ANALYZING QUESTIONS OF FACT

In some ways, a persuasive speech on a question of fact is similar to an infor- mative speech. But the
two kinds of speeches take place in different kinds of situations and for different purposes. The situation
for an informative speech is nonpartisan. The speaker acts as a lecturer or a teacher. The aim is to give
information as impartially as possible, not to argue for a particular point of view. On the other hand, the
situation for a persuasive speech on a question of fact is partisan. The speaker acts as an advocate. The
aim is not to be impartial but to present one view of the facts as persuasively as possible. The speaker
may mention competing views of the facts, but only to refute them.

ORGANIZING SPEECHES ON QUESTIONS OF FACT

Persuasive speeches on questions of fact are usually organized topically. Sup- pose, for example, you
want to convince your classmates that a major earth- quake of 9.0 or above on the Richter scale will hit
California within the next ten years. Each main point in your speech will present a reason why someone
should agree with you.

WHAT ARE QUESTIONS OF VALUE?

What is the best movie of all time? Is cloning morally justifiable? What are the ethical responsibilities of
journalists? Such questions not only involve matters of fact, but they also demand value judgments-
judgments based on a person's beliefs about what is right or wrong, good or bad, moral or immoral,
proper or improper, fair or unfair.

ANALYZING QUESTIONS OF VALUE

Contrary to what many people think, questions of value are not simply matters of personal opinion or
whim. If you say, "I enjoy bicycle riding," you do not have to give a reason why you enjoy it. You are
making a statement about your personal taste. Even if bicycle riding were the most unpleasant activity
ever invented, it could still be one of your favorites.Whenever you give a speech on a question of value,
be sure to give special thought to the standards for your value judgment.

ORGANIZING SPEECHES ON QUESTIONS OF VALUE

As you can see, speeches on questions of value may have strong implica- tions for our actions. A person
who is persuaded that capital punishment is morally and legally wrong is more likely to support
legislation abolishing the death penalty. But speeches on questions of value do not argue directly for or
against particular courses of action. Once you go beyond arguing right or wrong to arguing that
something should or should not be done, you move from a question of value to a question of policy.

WHAT ARE QUESTIONS OF POLICY?

Questions of policy arise daily in almost everything we do. At home we debate what to do during spring
vacation, whether to buy a new television, which movie to see on the weekend. At work we discuss
whether to go on strike, what strategy to use in selling a product, how to improve communication
between management and employees. As citizens we ponder whether to vote for or against a political
candidate, what to do about airport security, how to main- tain economic growth and protect the
environment. All these are questions of policy because they deal with specific courses of action.
Questions of policy inevitably involve questions of fact. (How can we decide whether to vote for a
candidate unless we know the facts of her or his stand on the issues?) They may also involve questions
of value. (The policy you favor on abortion will be affected by whether you think abortion is moral or
immoral.) But questions of policy always go beyond questions of fact or value to decide whether
something should or should not be done.

TYPES OF SPEECHES ON QUESTIONS OF POLICY

When you speak on a question of policy, your goal may be either to gain passive agreement or to
motivate immediate action from your listeners. Deciding which goal you want to achieve will affect
almost every aspect of your speech.

Speeches to Gain Passive Agreement

If your goal is passive agreement, you will try to get your audience to agree with you that a certain
policy is desirable, but you will not necessarily encourage the audience to do anything to enact the
policy.

Speeches to Gain Immediate Action

When your goal is immediate action, you want to do more than get your lis- teners to nod their heads in
agreement. You want to motivate them to action- to sign a petition for abolishing the electoral college,
to campaign for lower tuition, to purchase organic foods, to contribute to a fund drive, and so forth.

ANALYZING QUESTIONS OF POLICY

Regardless of whether your aim is to elicit passive agreement or to gain imme- diate action, you will
face three basic issues whenever you discuss a question of policy-need, plan, and practicality.

ORGANIZING SPEECHES ON QUESTIONS OF POLICY

Effective organization is crucial when you seek to persuade listeners on a question of policy. Although
any of the basic patterns of organization explained in Chap- ter 8 can be used, four special patterns are
especially valuable for policy speeches. They are problem-solution order, problem-cause-solution order,
comparative advantages order, and Monroe's motivated sequence.

Sample Speech with Commentary

The following persuasive speech deals with a question of policy and provides an excellent example of
problem-cause-solution structure. As you read the speech, notice how the speaker deals with the issues
of need, plan, and practi- cality. Notice also how she uses strong, well-chosen supporting materials to
back up her point of view on what she knew would be an unpopular issue among her classmates. Finally,
observe how clear and uncluttered the speech is. There are few wasted words and the ideas progress
cleanly and crisply.
"Distinguished guests, the President of the United States." If you are ever in a situation in which you
have to introduce the President, you will need no more than the eight words that begin this paragraph.
The President is so well known that any further remarks would be inappropriate and almost foolish.
Most of the time, however, a speech of introduction will be neither this brief nor this ritualized. If you
are introducing another speaker, you will need to accomplish three purposes in your introduction:

Build enthusiasm for the upcoming speaker.

Build enthusiasm for the speaker's topic.

Establish a welcoming climate that will boost the speaker's credibility.

A good speech of introduction can be a delight to hear and can ease the task of the main speaker.
Usually you will say something about the speaker and about the topic-in that order. Following are some
guidelines for speeches of introduction.

Be Brief

During World War I, Lord Balfour, Great Britain's foreign secretary, was to be the main speaker at a
rally in the United States. But the speaker introducing him gave a 45-minute oration on the causes of the
war. Then, almost as an afterthought, he said, "Now Lord Balfour will give his address." Lord Balfour rose
and said, "I'm supposed to give my address in the brief time remaining. Here it is: 10 Carleton Gardens,
London, England."! Everyone who has ever sat through a long-winded introduction knows how dreary it
can be. The purpose of a speech of introduction is to focus atten- tion on the main speaker, not on the
person making the introduction.

Make Sure Your Remarks Are Completely Accurate

Many an introducer has embarrassed himself or herself, as well as the main speaker, by garbling basic
facts.Always check with the speaker ahead of time to make sure your introduction is accurate in every
respect.Above all, get the speaker's name right.If the speaker's name is at all difficult- especially if it
involves a foreign pronunciation-practice saying it in advance.However, don't practice so much that you
frighten yourself about getting it wrong.This was the plight of an announcer whose gaffe is now a classic:
“Ladies and gentlemen, the President of the United States-Hoobert Heever!"

Adapt Your Remarks to the Occasion

In preparing your introduction, you may be constrained by the nature of the occasion. Formal occasions
require formal speeches of introduction. If you were presenting a guest speaker at an informal business
meeting, you might be much more casual than at a formal banquet.

Adapt Your Remarks to the Main Speaker

No matter how well it is received by the audience, a speech of introduction that leaves the main speaker
feeling uncomfortable has failed in part of its purpose. How can you make a main speaker
uncomfortable? One way is to overpraise the person-especially for his or her speaking skills. Never say,
"Our speaker will keep you on the edge of your seat from beginning to end!" You create a set of
expectations that are almost impossible to fulfill.

Speeches of Presentation

Speeches of presentation are usually brief, like introductory speeches. The main purpose is to tell the
audience why he or she is receiving the award. Depending on the audience and occasion, you might
have to explain the award briefly, and/or take a moment to praise the losers. Speeches of presentation
are given when someone receives a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition. Usually
such speeches are brief. They may be no more than a mere announcement (“And the winner is . . .”) or
be up to four or five minutes in length. The main purpose of a speech of presentation is to tell the
audience why the recipient is receiving the award. Focus on achievements related to the award, and
discuss these achievements in a way that will make them meaningful to the audience. Depending on
the audience and the occasion, you may also need to discuss two other matters in a speech of
presentation. First, if the audience is not familiar with the award, you should explain it briefly. Second, if
the award was won in a public competition and the audience knows who the losers are, you might take
a moment to praise the losers.

Speeches of Acceptance
The purpose of an acceptance speech is to give thanks for a gift or an award. When giving such a speech,
you thank the people who are bestowing the award and recognize the people who helped you gain it.
The acceptance speech on the next page is the companion piece to the speech of presentation by Bill
Clinton. It was delivered by Nelson Mandela in accepting the Congressional Gold Medal, and it
exemplifies the major traits of a good acceptance speech-brevity, humility, and graciousness.?

Commemorative Speeches

Commemorative speeches are speeches of praise or celebration. You'll probably have to give the
audience information about your subject. You have to inspire them, and heighten their appreciation for
the person, institute or idea you are praising. This kind of speech depends the most on the creative and
subtle use of language. Commemorative speeches are speeches of praise or celebration. Eulogies,
Fourth of July speeches, and dedications are examples of commemorative speeches. Your aim in such
speeches is to pay tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea. As in an informative
speech, you probably will have to give the audience information about your subject. Your fundamental
purpose in a commemorative speech, however, is not to inform your listeners but to inspire them—to
arouse and heighten their appreciation of or admiration for the person, institution, or idea you are
praising. Of all the kinds of speeches, none depends more on the creative and subtle use of language.
We continue to find such speeches meaningful and inspiring largely because of their eloquent use of
language. When speaking to commemorate, your success will depend on your ability to put into
language the thoughts and emotions appropriate to the occasion. It is easy—too easy—to fall back on
cliche̕s and trite sentiments. Your challenge will be to use language imaginatively to invest the
occasion with dignity, meaning, and honest emotion.