4 Arp

Computer Network
APEX
Manoj Gautam
(CCNA, RHCE, MCSE, CCAI)
manojit.gautam@gmail.com
https://www.linkedin.com/in/manojgautamnepal/
contact@codeschoolnepal.com
Syllabus
Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP)
&
ETHERNET
Overview
TCP UDP Transport

Layer
ICMP IP IGMP Network

Layer
Network
ARP Access RARP Link Layer
Media
ARP Ethernet MAC
IP address
ARP and RARP (32 bit)
address
(48 bit)
RARP
• The Internet is based on IP addresses
• Data link protocols (Ethernet, FDDI, ATM) may have different (MAC)
addresses
• An ARP request is broadcast an ARP reply is unicast.
• The ARP and RARP protocols perform the translation between IP

addresses and MAC layer addresses
Address Translation with ARP
ARP Request:
Argon broadcasts an ARP request to all stations on the network:
“What is the hardware address of Router137?”
Argon Router137
128.143.137.144 128.143.137.1
00:a0:24:71:e4:44 00:e0:f9:23:a8:20
ARP Request:
What is the MAC address
of 128.143.71.1?
Address Translation with ARP
ARP Reply:
Router 137 responds with an ARP Reply which contains the hardware
address
Argon Router137
128.143.137.144 128.143.137.1
00:a0:24:71:e4:44 00:e0:f9:23:a8:20
ARP Reply:
The MAC address of 128.143.71.1
is 00:e0:f9:23:a8:20
ARP Packet Format
Ethernet II header
Destination Source Type

address address 0x8060
ARP Request or ARP Reply Padding CRC
6 6 2 28 10 4
Hardware type (2 bytes) Protocol type (2 bytes)

Hardware address Protocol address
Operation code (2 bytes)
length (1 byte) length (1 byte)
Source hardware address*
Source protocol address*
Target hardware address*
Target protocol address*
* Note: The length of the address fields is determined by the corresponding address length fields
Example
• ARP Request from Argon:
Source hardware address: 00:a0:24:71:e4:44
Source protocol address: 128.143.137.144
Target hardware address: 00:00:00:00:00:00
Target protocol address: 128.143.137.1
• ARP Reply from Router137:

Source hardware address: 00:e0:f9:23:a8:20
Source protocol address: 128.143.137.1
Target hardware address: 00:a0:24:71:e4:44
Target protocol address: 128.143.137.144
ARP Cache
• Since sending an ARP request/reply for each IP datagram is inefficient,
hosts maintain a cache (ARP Cache) of current entries. The entries
expire after 20 minutes.
• Contents of the ARP Cache:

(128.143.71.37) at 00:10:4B:C5:D1:15 [ether] on eth0
(128.143.71.36) at 00:B0:D0:E1:17:D5 [ether] on eth0
(128.143.71.35) at 00:B0:D0:DE:70:E6 [ether] on eth0
(128.143.136.90) at 00:05:3C:06:27:35 [ether] on eth1
(128.143.71.34) at 00:B0:D0:E1:17:DB [ether] on eth0
(128.143.71.33) at 00:B0:D0:E1:17:DF [ether] on eth0
Ethernet
• Ethernet: It is a LAN protocol that is used in Bus and Star topologies and implements
CSMA/CD as the medium access method
• Original (traditional) Ethernet developed in 1980 by three companies: Digital, Intel, Xerox
(DIX).
• In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called Project 802, to set
standards to enable intercommunication among equipment from a variety of
manufacturers.
 Current version is called IEEE Ethernet
Ethernet
 Ethernet Frame format
FCS
FCS
Frame formats. (a) DIX Ethernet , (b) IEEE 802.3.
802.3 MAC frame aka Ethernet Frame
IEEE Ethernet
• In IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Data link layer is split into two sublayers:
• Bottom part: MAC
• The frame is called IEEE 802.3
• Handles framing, MAC addressing, Medium Access control
• Specific implementation for each LAN protocol
• Defines CSMA/CD as the access method for Ethernet LANs and Token passing method for Token Ring.
• Implemented in hardware
• Top part: LLC (Logical Link Control)
• The subframe is called IEEE 802.2
• Provides error and flow control if needed
• It makes the MAC sublayer transparent
• Allows interconnectivity between different LANs data link layers
• Used to multiplex multiple network layer protocols in the data link layer frame
• Implemented in software
IEEE standard for LANs
Ethernet Provides Unreliable, connectionless Service
• Ethernet data link layer protocol provides
connectionless service to the network layer
• No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter.
• Ethernet protocol provides Unreliable service to the
network layer :
• Receiving adapter doesn’t send ACK or NAK to sending
adapter
• This means stream of datagrams passed to network layer can
have gaps (missing data)
• Gaps will be filled if application is using reliable transport layer
protocol
• Otherwise, application will see the gaps
Ethernet Frame
• Preamble:
• 8 bytes with pattern 10101010 used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates.
• In IEEE 802.3, eighth byte is start of frame (10101011)
• Addresses: 6 bytes (explained latter)
• Type (DIX)
• Indicates the type of the Network layer protocol being carried in the payload
(data) field, mostly IP but others may be supported such as IP (0800), Novell IPX
(8137) and AppleTalk (809B), ARP (0806) )
• Allow multiple network layer protocols to be supported on a single machine
(multiplexing)
• Its value starts at 0600h (=1536 in decimal)
• Length (IEEE 802.3): number of bytes in the data field.
• Maximum 1500 bytes (= 05DCh)
• CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is discarded
• CRC-32
• Data: carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols
• Pad: Zeros are added to the data field to make the minimum data length = 46 bytes
Ethernet address
 Six bytes = 48 bits
 Flat address not hierarchical
 Burned into the NIC ROM
 First three bytes from left specify the vendor. Cisco
00-00-0C, 3Com 02-60-8C and the last 24 bit should be
created uniquely by the company
 Destination Address can be:
 Unicast: second digit from left is even (one
recipient)
 Multicast: Second digit from left is odd (group of
stations to receive the frame – conferencing
applications)
 Broadcast (ALL ones) (all stations receive the
frame)
 Source address is always Unicast
Note
The least significant bit of the first byte

defines the type of address.
If the bit is 0, the address is unicast;
otherwise, it is multicast.
Note
The broadcast destination address is a

special case of the multicast address in
which all bits are 1s.
Figure 13.7 Unicast and multicast addresses
Minimum and maximum lengths
Note
Frame length:
Minimum: 64 bytes (512 bits)
Maximum: 1518 bytes (12,144 bits)
Ethernet evolution through four generations
Categories of traditional Ethernet
IEEE 802.3 Cable Types
Name Cable Max. Max Cable Nodes
Toplogy
Segment /segment
Length
10Base5 thick coax 500 meters 100
Bus
10Base2 thin coax 185 meters 30

Bus
10BaseT twisted pair 100 meters 1 Star
10BaseF Fiber Optic 2Km 1

Star
10Base5 implementation
10BaseT
• Uses twisted pair Cat3 cable
 Star-wire topology
• A hub functions as a repeater with additional functions

• Fewer cable problems, easier to troubleshoot than coax
• Cable length at most 100 meters
Figure 13.13 10Base-F implementation
13.4 Fast Ethernet
• 100 Mbps transmission rate

• same frame format, media access, and collision
detection rules as 10 Mbps Ethernet
• can combine 10 Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
on same network using a switch
• media: twisted pair (CAT 5) or fiber optic cable (no
coax)
• Star-wire topology
• Similar to 10BASE-T
CAT 3
CAT 5
Ethernet Cabling
Straight-Through Cable
• Host to Switch or hub
• Router to Switch or hub
Rolled Cable
• Serial Port
Crossover Cable
• Switch to Switch
• Hub to Hub
• Host to Host
Fast Ethernet topology
Fast Ethernet implementations
Full Duplex Operation
 Traditional Ethernet is half duplex
 Either transmit or receive but not both simultaneously
 With full-duplex, station can transmit and receive data simultaneously
 With full duplex, Throughput (actual transmission rate) is doubled.
 10-Mbps Ethernet in full-duplex mode, theoretical transfer rate
becomes 20 Mbps
 100-Mbps Ethernet in full-duplex mode, theoretical transfer rate
becomes 200 Mbps
 Changes that should be made with any computer in order to operate
in Full-Duplex Mode
1) Attached stations must have full-duplex NIC cards
2) Must use two pairs of wire one pair for transmitting from host to
switch (inbound) and the other pair for transmitting from switch to
host (outbound)
3) Must use a switch as a central device not a hub
4) Devices must be connected point-to-point (dedicated) to the switch
 Each station constitutes separate collision domain
 CSMA/CD algorithm no longer needed (no collision)
 No limit on the segment length
 Same 802.3 MAC frame format used
Figure 13.18 Full-duplex switched Ethernet
Figure 13.17 Switched Ethernet
13.5 Gigabit Ethernet
• Speed 1Gpbs
• Minimum frame length is 512 bytes
• Operates in full/half duplex modes mostly full
duplex
Note
In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit

Ethernet, there is no collision;
the maximum length of the cable is
determined by the signal attenuation
in the cable.
Topologies of Gigabit Ethernet
Figure 13.23 Gigabit Ethernet implementations
10Gbps Ethernet
 Maximum link distances cover 300 m to 40 km
 Full-duplex mode only
 No CSMA/CD
 Uses optical fiber only
Connecting Devices
• Five connecting devices
• Repeaters
• Hubs
• Bridges
• Switches
• Routers
• Gateway
Five categories of connecting devices
Repeaters
• A physical layer device the acts on bits not on frames or
packets
• Can have two or more interfaces
• When a bit (0,1) arrives, the repeater receives it and
regenerates it, the transmits it onto all other interfaces
• Used in LAN to connect cable segments and extend the
maximum cable length  extending the geographical
LAN range
• Ethernet 10base5 – Max. segment length 500m – 4
repeaters (5 segments) are used to extend the cable to
2500m)
• Ethernet 10Base2- Max. segment length 185m - 4
repeaters (5 segments) are used to extend the cable to
925m
• Repeaters do not implement any access method
• If any two nodes on any two connected segments
transmit at the same time collision will happen
Function of a repeater
A repeater connecting two segments of a LAN
Hubs
• Acts on the physical layer
• Operate on bits rather than frames
• Also called multiport repeater
• Used to connect stations adapters in a physical star topology but
logically bus
• Connection to the hub consists of two pairs of twisted pair wire one
for transmission and the other for receiving.
• Hub receives a bit from an adapter and sends it to all the other adapters
without implementing any access method.
• does not do filtering (forward a frame into a specific destination or drop
it) just it copy the received frame onto all other links
• The entire hub forms a single collision domain, and a single
Broadcast domain
• Collision domain: is that part of the network (set of NICs) when two or
more nodes transmit at the same time collision will happen.
• Broadcast domain: is that part of the network (set of NIC) where each
NIC can 'see' other NICs' traffic broadcast messages.
• Multiple Hubs can be used to extend the network length
• For 10BaseT and 100BaseT the maximum length of the connection
between an adapter and the hub is 100 meters  the maximum length
between any two nodes is 200 m = maximum network length
Hubs
Interconnecting with hubs
• Backbone hub interconnects LAN segments
• Advantage:
• Extends max distance between nodes
• Disadvantages
• Individual segment collision domains become one large collision
domain  (reduce the performance)
• Can’t interconnect different Ethernet technologies(like 10BaseT &
100BaseT) because no buffering at the hub
Here we have a
single collision
domain and a
single
broadcast
domain
Hubs Vs. Repeaters
• Hub are different than repeaters in the following:

• The provide network management features by gathering
information about the network and report them to a monitoring
host connected to the hub so some statistics about the network
(bandwidth usages, collision rates, average frame sizes) can be
generated.
• If an adapter is not working the hub can disconnect it internally
and the network will not be affected.
Bridges/switches
• Acts on the data link layer (MAC address level)
• Used to divide (segment) the LAN into smaller LANs segments, or to
connect LANs that use identical physical and data link layers protocol
(see figure in next slide)
• Each LAN segment is a separate collision domain
• Bridge does not send the received frame to all other interfaces like hubs
and repeaters, but it performs filtering which means:
• Whether a frame should be forwarded to another interface that
leads to the destination or dropped
• This is done by a bridge table (forwarding table) that contains entries
for the nodes on the LAN
• The bridge table is initially empty and filled automatically by
learning from frames movements in the network
• An entry in the bridge table consists of : Node LAN (MAC)
Address, Bridge Interface to which the node is connected to, the
record creation time
Bridges
Connecting two or more LAN segments

together
Bridges (Switches) Vs. Hubs
A Hub sending a packet form F to C.

A Switch sending a packet from F to C
A bridge connecting two LANs
Switch / Bridge learning process
• When the switch receives a frame, it compares the source address of
the frame with each entry in the forwarding table
• If No match is found, the bridge will add to the table the frame source
address and the Interface on which the frame was received.
• If a match is found, the bridge updates the Interface number on which
the frame was received if it is different from the one in the table also it
updates the record time
• Then, the switch compares the destination address of the frame with
each entry in the forwarding table (MAC table)
• If a match is found then
• The bridge compares the interface number on which the frame was received
and the interface number in the table, if they are different the bridge forwards
the frame through the interface number stored in the table. Otherwise, if they
are the same the switches discards (drops) the frame.
• If no match is found, the switch floods the frame on all interfaces except
the one on which the frame was received.
Some switch features
• Implements CSMA/CD
• switches Isolates collision domains (each LAN segment is a separate collision
domain), THIS WILL REDUCE THE POSSIBILITY OF COLLISIONS AND
result in higher total max throughput (see next slide)
• switch forwards a frame with broadcast address to all devices attached to the
whole network (single broadcast domain)
• Can be used to combine Ethernet segments using different Ethernet
technologies (10Base2 and 100BaseT and 10BaseT) because it has buffering
capabilities
• Increases reliability (how?), performance (how?), and security (how?)
• Increases geographical coverage
• No limit on the size of the LANs connected through switches
• Transparent: installing or removing a switch does not require the stations
networking software to be reconfigured.
• (“plug-and-play”): no configuration necessary at installation of switch /switch
or when a host is removed from one of the LAN segments
• Disadvantage: switch does not allow multiple paths between LAN segments or
between any two devices.
Figure 13.14 Sharing bandwidth
Switch
Example:
Three LANs connected through a
bridge
Note: here we have three collision
domains and a single broadcast
domain
Effect of Loop of switches
Switches
 N-Port bridge where N is equal to number of stations
 Usually used to connect individual computers not LANs like bridge
• Allows more than one device connected to the switch directly to
transmit simultaneously
• Can operates in Full-duplex mode (can send and receive frames at the
same time over the same interface)
• Performs MAC address recognition and frame forwarding in hardware
(bridge in software)
• Frame forwarding mechanism:
• Store-and-forward: switch receives the whole a frame on the input
line, buffers it briefly , performs error checking, then routes it to the
appropriate output line (similar to bridge). Buffering will cause
some delay.
• Cut-through: based on the fact that the destination address appears
at the beginning of the MAC frame, so once the address is
recognized the frame is directly sent to the appropriate output line if
the output buffer is empty (no need to buffer it).  no buffering
delay  NO ERROR CHECKING
Isolated
collision
domains
Full-Duplex
operation
Routers
• Operates at network layer = deals with packets not frames
• Connect LANs and WANs with similar or different protocols
together
• Switches and bridges isolate collision domains but forward
broadcast messages to all LANs connected to them. Routers isolate
both collision domains and broadcast domains
• Acts like normal stations on a network, but have more than one
network address (an address to each connected network)
• Deals with global address ( network layer address (IP)) not local
address (MAC address)
• Routers Communicate with each other and exchange routing
information
• Determine best route using routing algorithm by special software
installed on them
• Forward traffic if information on destination is available
otherwise discard it (not like a switch or bridge)
Routers connecting independent LANs and WANs
Routers
An Institutional Network Using Hubs,
Ethernet Switches, and a Router
switch switch switch
15.3 Virtual LANs
3 Collision domains
3 Broadcast domains
If we want to move computers from group1 to group3, then rewiring

(physical replacement) has to be done
What is the alternative solution??
VLAN: Virtual (logical) Local Area Network : Local
Area Network configured by software not by physical
wiring contact@codeschoolnepal.com
Figure 16.15 A switch using VLAN software
VLAN1: Ports 1,2,5,7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VLAN2: Ports 3,4,6
VLAN3: Ports 8,9,10
Separate broadcast domain 
separate network
Using the Virtual LAN technology will allow grouping computers

logically instead of physically.
VLAN divides the physical LAN into several Logical LANs
called VLANs
 Switch maintains a look up table to know to which LAN a
machine belongs to.
Note:
VLANs create broadcast domains.
Advantages Of VLAN
• Reduce cost and installation time:
• Instead of physically moving a station to another segment or another
switch, it can be moved by software.
• Increase security:
• A group of users needing a high security can be put into a VLAN so that
NO users outside the VLAN can communicate with them.
• Stations belong to the same group can send broadcast messages that
will NOT be received by users in others VLAN groups
• Creating Virtual Workgroups
• Stations located at physically different locations can be added easily to
the same broadcast domain so that they can send broadcast messages to
one another.
• EXAMPLE: people from different departments working on the same
project
Wireless LAN
IEEE 802.11 AKA WLAN
IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN,

called IEEE 802.11, which covers the physical and data
link layers.
Topics discussed in this section:

Architecture
MAC Sublayer
Physical Layer
Physical and Data Link Layers in WLAN
Physical Layer:
• The wireless NIC takes frames of data from the link layer, scrambles
the data in a predetermined way, then uses the modified data stream
to modulate a radio carrier signal.
Data Link Layer:
• Uses Carriers-Sense-Multiple-Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA).
802.11 WLAN technologies
• IEEE 802.11 standards and rates
• IEEE 802.11 (1997) 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps (2.4 GHz band )
• IEEE 802.11b (1999) 11 Mbps (2.4 GHz band) = Wi-Fi

• IEEE 802.11a (1999) 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbps (5 GHz band)
• IEEE 802.11g (2001 ... 2003) up to 54 Mbps (2.4 GHz) backward compatible to 802.11b
• IEEE 802.11 networks work on license free industrial, science, medicine (ISM) bands:
802.11a
• 5-GHz band
• Uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
• Not spread spectrum
• Also called multicarrier modulation
• Multiple carrier signals at different frequencies
• Some bits on each channel
• Similar to FDM but all subchannels dedicated to single source
• Data rates 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 54 Mbps
• Up to 52 subcarriers modulated using BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM, or 64-QAM
• Depending on rate
• Subcarrier frequency spacing 0.3125 MHz
• Convolutional code at rate of 1/2, 2/3, or 3/4 provides forward error correction
802.11b
• Extension of 802.11 DS-SS scheme
• 5.5 and 11 Mbps
• Chipping rate 11 MHz
• Same as original DS-SS scheme
• Same occupied bandwidth
• Complementary code keying (CCK) modulation to achieve higher data rate in same
bandwidth at same chipping rate
• CCK modulation complex
• Overview on next slide
• Input data treated in blocks of 8 bits at 1.375 MHz
• 8 bits/symbol  1.375 MHz = 11 Mbps
• Six of these bits mapped into one of 64 code sequences
• Output of mapping, plus two additional bits, forms input to QPSK modulator
802.11g
• Higher-speed extension to 802.11b
• Combines physical layer encoding techniques used in 802.11a and
802.11b to provide service at a variety of data rates
Comparison of WLAN technologies variations.
Comparison 802.11 Specifications.
Wireless LAN Architecture Basic service sets
(BSSs)
Note
A BSS without an AP is called an ad hoc network;
a BSS with an AP is called an infrastructure network.
Extended service sets (ESSs)
BSS Configuration
• Simplest: each station belongs to single BSS
• Within range only of other stations within BSS
• Can have two BSSs overlap
• Station could participate in more than one BSS
• Association between station and BSS dynamic
• Stations may turn off, come within range, and go out of range
Extended Service Set (ESS)
• Two or more BSS interconnected by DS
• Typically, DS is wired backbone but can be any network
• Appears as single logical LAN to LLC
Access Point (AP)
• Logic within station that provides access to DS
• Provides DS services in addition to acting as station
• To integrate IEEE 802.11 architecture with wired LAN, portal used
• Portal logic implemented in device that is part of wired LAN and
attached to DS
• E.g. Bridge or router
MAC layers in IEEE 802.11 standard
CSMA/CA Flowchart
CSMA/CA
• Using an IFS(inter frame space) , the rules for CSMA access are as follows
• 1. A station with a frame to transmit senses the medium. If the medium is idle, it waits to see if the medium
remains idle for a time equal to IFS. If so, the station may transmit immediately.
• 2. If the medium is busy (either because the station initially finds the medium busy or because the medium
becomes busy during the IFS idle time), the station defers transmission and continues to monitor the medium
until the current transmission is over.
• 3. Once the current transmission is over, the station delays another IFS. If the medium remains idle for this
period, then the station backs off a random amount of time and again senses the medium. If the medium is
still idle, the station may transmit. During the backoff time, if the medium becomes busy, the backoff timer is
halted and resumes when the medium becomes idle.
• 4.If the transmission is unsuccessful, which is determined by the absence of an acknowledgement, then it is
assumed that a collision has occurred.
• To ensure that backoff maintains stability, binary exponential backoff, described in Chapter 16, is used.
Binary exponential backoff provides a means of handling a heavy load. Repeated failed attempts to transmit
result in longer and longer backoff times, which helps to smooth out the load. Without such a backoff, the
following situation could occur: Two or more stations attempt to transmit at the same time, causing a
collision. These stations then immediately attempt to retransmit, causing a new collision.
Figure 14.5 CSMA/CA and NAV
Note
The CTS frame in CSMA/CA handshake can prevent collision from
a hidden station.
Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such as
telephones, notebooks, computers, cameras, printers, coffee makers, and so on. A Bluetooth LAN
is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed spontaneously.
• Bluetooth is a PAN Technology
• Offers fast and reliable transmission for both voice and data
• Can support either one asynchronous data channel with up to three simultaneous synchronous speech channels
or one channel that transfers asynchronous data and synchronous speech simultaneously
• Support both packet-switching and circuit-switching
• Short range wireless connectivity.
• Low power consumption
• Automatic recognition.
• Architecture
• Pico Net
• Up to eight Bluetooth devices may be networked together in a master-slave relationship to form a Piconet
• Scatter Net
PICONET
• Topology is established on a temporary and random basis
• Up to eight Bluetooth devices may be networked together in
a master-slave relationship to form a Piconet
• One is master, which controls and setup the network
• All devices operate on the same channel and follow the same
frequency hopping sequence
• Two or more piconet interconnected to form a scatter net
• Only one master for each piconet.
• Up to 255 further slave devices can be inactive, or parked,
which the master device can bring into active status at any
time.
• A device can’t be masters for two piconets
• The slave of one piconet can be the master of another
piconet
Figure 14.20 Scatternet
Piconet vs. Scatternet
• A scatternet contains at least two piconets
Scatternet
Piconet
Slave
Master
Master
Piconet
Slave Slave
Slave
Slave
Piconet and Scatternet
point-to-point multi-point
(piconet) (piconet)
scatternet
Master host Slave host

4 Arp

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

4 Arp

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Computer Network

TCP UDP Transport

ICMP IP IGMP Network

• The ARP and RARP protocols perform the translation between IP

Destination Source Type

Hardware type (2 bytes) Protocol type (2 bytes)

Source protocol address*

Target hardware address*

Target protocol address*

• ARP Reply from Router137:

• Contents of the ARP Cache:

 Ethernet Frame format

Frame formats. (a) DIX Ethernet , (b) IEEE 802.3.

The least significant bit of the first byte

The broadcast destination address is a

10Base2 thin coax 185 meters 30

10BaseT twisted pair 100 meters 1 Star

10BaseF Fiber Optic 2Km 1

• A hub functions as a repeater with additional functions

• 100 Mbps transmission rate

In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit

• Hub are different than repeaters in the following:

Connecting two or more LAN segments

A Hub sending a packet form F to C.

If we want to move computers from group1 to group3, then rewiring

VLAN1: Ports 1,2,5,7

Using the Virtual LAN technology will allow grouping computers

VLANs create broadcast domains.

IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN,

Topics discussed in this section:

• IEEE 802.11b (1999) 11 Mbps (2.4 GHz band) = Wi-Fi

You might also like