Phonetics is the scientific study of the production and perception of human speech sound, for example place and manner of articulation, Articulatory phonetics is the study of the articulation of speech sounds using different combination of hunan speech organs. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the speakers to the listener, iii) Auditory Phonetics: Auditory phonetics is the study of the reception of the spezch sounds by the listener. iv) Forensic Phoneties: Forensic phonetics is the study of the identification of speech sounds by the forensic experts. It is usually used in understanding the signals used in telephonic conversations used in crimes. Phonology is the study of the arrangement of human speech sounds into meaningful whole (ic. words). English has fixed consonant clusters e.g. str (CCC) — as in the beginning of the words like strong, straight, straw. In phonology, we do tend to study the stress patterns, intonation patterns, elision and assimilation of sounds in different words. Difficulties of foreign learners in pronouncing English speech sounds There are as many different ki ids of English as there are speakers of it. Two different people cannot speak exactly alike. We can always hear differences between them. The pronunciation of English words varies a great deal in different geographical areas. Here are some factors which cause difficulty for foreign earners in learning English speech sounds. 1 Words having same alphabets (spellings) but different pronunciation such as man /maen/, father /fa:da/. Both the words have letter a" but it is pronounced in two different ways in both of them, a sat /seet/ many /meni/ among fomay) father /ta:08/ 2 Words having different alphabets but same pronunciation e.g, see /si:/ and each /i'tf! cause problem in pronunciation for foreign learners. Poge 13. L1 interference: LI means mother tongue of a learner. A baby starts listening sounds of his own mother tongue and its speech sounds become familiar to him as his native language. So, LI interferes in learning L2 e.g. (W/ as in but, put, cut, /a/ as in mother, father; /x/ as in purse, bird, third etc. are present in English language but not present in Urdu that is why Pakistani leamers face problem in pronouncing them. 4 Habit formation: Habit formation is another factor responsible for the difficulties faced by Pakistani learners in learning English sounds. A speech is made by definite movements of the organs of speech and their movements are exactly repeated, the result will always be the same sound but due to habit formation of pronouncing Urdu sounds, the Pakistani leamers face difficulties in pronouncing Urdu sounds, 3 Age: ‘The next factor is age. We as grown-ups already have the habit of pronouneing sounds of our own language so strong that itis very difficult to break that habit, Solutions to the difficulties 1. Practice 2. We should not depend on spelling for learning English language. 3, The speaker must learn to listen to speech sounds in their proper plac radio or CD. 4, Learn how to use standard variety of English language such as BBC English. in connected speech on TV, Important definitions/key terms: i) Language: ‘A human system of communication that uses arbitrary signals, such as voiced sounds, gestures or writter symbols is called language. The scientific study of human language is called linguistics e.g. Urdu, English, French, Spanish ete. Phonetics: The general study of characteristics of speech sounds is celled phonetics e.g. alphabet a can be pronounced in different ways. In English phonetics, we study 44 speech sounds, how they are pronounced and how they are perceived. Phonology: The study of arrangement of speech sounds into a meaningful whole (i.e. words). iv) Phoneme: The minimal unit of sound which can make a difference in meaning is called a phoneme OR ‘A phoneme Is the smalfest meaningful unit of sound e.g. /p/ and /by in pack and back. y) Allophones: Different types of the same phoneme are called allophones e.g. Clear /l/: It comes in the beginning of the words such as lamp, less, late ete. Dark /V/: It comes in the middle or final position of the word c.g. bubble, trouble, settle ete, Phonemic distinction in a language can be tested via pairs and sets of words. When two words such as pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, Page 2vii) ‘occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair e.g. fan-van, bet-pet. site-side ete, These pairs or sets of words are used to determine the al understanding a language, Vowels: The speech sounds which are made with vibration of voeal cords but without audible frietion are called vowels. English has 20 vowel sounds which include 12 pure vowels (monophthongs) and 8 diphthongs (5 triphthongs are also there; a combination of a pure vowel and a diphthong).. ies of non-natives in Pure Vowels { Diphthongs: Triphthongs: ‘Consonants: Consonants are produced by blocking or hindering the air stream in some way and then releasing it through the mouth with a plosion or friction or through the nose e.g, /p/, by, /t,/f ivf, fan, fh, 10, (9. Place of Articulation: The term used to describe many sounds are those which denote the place of articulation of the sound: that is, the location, inside the mouth, at which the constriction takes place. @/Bilabial: articulated with two lips e.g. /p/ /b, fe, wi 8) Labio-dental: articulated with the upper row of teeth against the lower lip e.g. /f, /w/ Dental: articulated with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth e.g. /0/, /0/ Alveolar: articulated with the tip of tongue against the avelor ridge e.g. /t/, /d/, /s/, (2/, /n/, MY, fel Alveo-palatal: articulated with the tongue at the very front of the palate, near the alveolar ridge e.g. (jl /3/. AD! i! PPWelak? articulated with the back of the tongue against the soft-palate e.g. /k/, /z/, /y/ 8). Glottal: articulated with the glottis e.g. /h/ ‘The term used to describe consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated, /|Plosive: formed by complete closure of the air passage. The air is compressed and on release issves suddenly making an explosive sound or a miniature plosion e.g. pl, /b/, Vy ial, Hk, fg! By! Fricative: formed by narrowing the air passage to such an extent that the air in escaping produces audible friction e.g. /1/, /¥/, (0/10! (ly /2 NJ /3 A! 9 Affricate: formed as a plosive consonant, however, the compressed air is released slowly 2. Ids! Nasal: formed by complete closure in the mouth cavity, the soft-palate being lowered so that the air passes out through the nasal cavity e.g, /mv, /n, /1/ 8! lLateral: formed by blocking the centre of air channel but leaving a free passage for the air on one or both sides of the closure e.g. V Poge 3H//Approximants: are those sounds where the to either stop it or create friction e.g. /w/. /il (tf stream is obstructed, but not so much as Semi-vowel are vowel-like consonants; that is the airflow is not stopped or impeded so as to cause a friction-sound, but the aperture through which the air passes is smaller than the aperture of any vowel e.g. /w/, fi! Phonemes which are produced with the vibration of vocal cords are called voiced phonemes. These sounds are called lenis e.g. b/, /g/, /d/, ‘mi, inf, M, /3/ Phonemes which are produced without the vibration of vocal cords are called voiceless or unvoiced phonemes, These sounds are also called fortis e.g. /p/, (kit, /fl, 10! xii) Articulation: The act or manner of producing speech sounds with the help of speech organs is called articulation. We make use of some major organs which pronounce different words, a, Wind pipe (trachea) b. Vocal cords (vocal folds) Soft palate (velum) 4. Hard patate e. Teeth ridge (alveolar ridge) f. Tongue (tip, front, centre, back, root) g Teeth (upper, lower) 1h, Nasal cavity i. Lips (upper, lower) Glottis Besides a brain (and the knowledge of language), we need speech organs to use a spoken language communication. The organs that help us in the articulation of the sounds are called speech organs (articulators). Following are the organs that help us in speaking a language: © Lips © Teeth LS : 2 Tate At ite sade © Hard palate a * Soft palate Vier sn Nasal cavity ee Lp Back of Tongue + Vocal cords, — Midle(Dorsun) + Glottis FrontBlade) © Wind Pipe Wind Pipe ~ i Page 4Lips are present at the opening of mouth in front of the teeth, below the nose and above the chin. These are two in number ie. upper lip and lower lip. Lips are soft, fleshy. They are moveable and their skin is not hairy, Lips help in the articulation of sounds. These sounds ere bilabial sounds and labio-dental sounds. * Bilabial sounds: Bi means two Jabio means lips. Sound made with the help of both lips is called bilabial sound e.g. /p, /b/,/m!, /w/. Sounds made with the help of lower lip and upper row of teeth ae called Jabio-dental sounds e.g. /f,/v. } Teeth are present into two rows. Upper row of teeth is located behind the upper lip and the lower row of teeth is located behind the lower lip. Teeth are white in colour, These are hard and bony. Function: ‘Teeth help in the articulation of labio-dental sounds and dental sounds. Sounds made with the help of lower lip and upper row of teeth are called labio- dental sounds e.g. /f, Dental sounds are formed with the help of tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. ‘The term interdental is sometimes used describe a manner of pronunciation with the tongue tip between (inter) the upper and lower teeth e.g. ¢ 3. Tongue: ‘Tongue is in the back of the mouth, the tongue is anchored into the hyoid bone, It is below the hard palate of the mouth cavity. Tongue is soft, muscular ané flexible. It an move in a verity of front part of the mouth behind the lips. There are thirty-two teeth divided possible movements. ‘Tongue helps in producing a variety of different sounds. These are Dental sounds are formed with the help of tongue tip behind the upper front teeth, ‘The term interdental is sometimes used to describe a manner of pronunciation with the tongue tip hetween (inter) the upper and lower teeth e gl, JN Sound produced by the front of the tongue with teeth ridge, e.g. /t/, /dl, /s!,//, nl, MW, il = Alveo-palatal sounds: Sound produced by front of the tongue with the hard palate (near to teeth ridge) e.g 9M 1d), Hi! Page SSound produced by back of the tongue with soft palate e.g. /k/, /e/,/n/ = Teeth ridge is also known as alveolar ridge. ‘Teeth ridge is present behind the front upper teeth in front roof of the oral ca is a bony, hard ridge like area. ‘Teeth ridge Teeth ridge helps in producing alveolar sounds e.g. /v,/dl, /s/,/2/, in, , fel. ! Hard palate is located in the roof of the oral cavity. Hard palate is thin horizontal bony palate. Hard palate helps in producing alveo-palatal sounds. Alveo-palatal sounds are /f), /s//t/, i. i. 2 Soft palate is located behind the hard palate. It is a soft area and also known as velum, Soft palate is located at the back of the roof of the mouth cavity. It separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. Soft palate is soft muscular palate composed of soft tissues. It does not contain bone. Soft palate stops air escaping through nose during speech. If air escapes through the nose during speech, the speech is perceived as hyper nasal. Soft palate helps in producing velar sound e.g. Mk, /ah Nasal cavity is located behind the nose; above the hard palate of the mouth cavity. Nasal cavity is an air filled space. This cavity continues to the two nostrils In articulation of sounds, nasal cavity helps in producing the nasals e.g. /m/, /n/ fy 8 Vocal Cords: Vocal cords are also known as voeal folds or voice reeds Page 6Vocal cords are located within the larynx (also known ss voice box) at the top of trachea. Vocal cords are composed of twin in-folding of mucous membrane stretched horizontally from back to front across the larynx. Vocal cords vibrate, modulating the flow of air being expelled from the lungs during phonation. Inside the larynx are the vocal cords which take two basic positions. (1) When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them ‘unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless (2) When the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating @ vibration effect. Sound produced in this way doseribed as voiced. If the vocal cords are closed it means person is dead. 9% Glottis: * Position & Structure: The glottis is the space between the voeal cords in the larynx. Glotts is a hollow, tubular like structure connected to top of trachea. * Function: Glottis helps in vibrating vocal folds. The resulting vibration produces a “buzzing” quality to the speech called voice, voicing or pronunciation. Sound production that involves moving the vocal folds close together is called glottal. There is only one glottal sound ice. /h Place of Articulation Manner of Articulation | Bilabial | 1*1° | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glotal a[w[+[~|+[~]a[ [+] w|+]y|4] wv Stops/Plosives pl tp 4 k[e Fricatives tly[epelte[=2|sts i Affricates: y | ds Nasals m 2 3 Tateral T Approximants : w I English /r/ sound is very eritical. A Pakistani speaker has to keep in mind some of the important rules for using /t/ sound. Page 71, /4/ sound usually occurs in the initial position of the words such as room, rabbit, restore, remember, remind ete. 2. /n! sound is pronounced only if it appears before a vowel sound such as remain, restoration, rol, rule, three ete. /r/ sound is not pronounced if it appears before a consorant e.g. first, bird, third, fork ete. 3. Linking fe! The rule also works to join words in the sentence e.g. @ The teacher is teaching. (underlined r is pronounced) The teacheg was teaching. (underlined r is not pronounced) e.g, mother and daughter In this example /+/ sound will also be pronounced. ‘Sometimes, native speakers join words together with /r/ even if there is no /r/ in the spell Some examples are: China___and India My idea of a joke This occurs when a schwa sound /a/ appears at the end of the word, followed by another vowel sound, Although some speakers would argue that it is correct to join in this way. 5. Rhoticity and accents The technical term for an accent that does not pronounce /t/ sounds in syllable — final positions is ,non-rhotic. So a lot of British English accents are known as non-rhotic. American English is mainly rhosie-speakers pronounce every written /r/. This is, however, a generalization as there are areas of Britsin that are rhotie, and areas of America that are non rhotic. 6. In the North of England, rolled /r! is generally used in the initial position, Rolled /t/ is formed by a rapid succession of taps of the tip of the tongue against the teeth-ridge. The taps are not made by any conscious muscular movement of the tip of the tongue. The tongue is held loosely in the appropriate position, and the air stream causes the tip to vibrate. 1, This sound is not pronounced at the initial position in any word in English. 2. Itis usually found in the words that end with ~ing such as sing /siy, bring /bruy, bang been’ etc. 3. It also exists in words having -ng in the medial position of a word e.g. English /'up.ghf?, finger /'fin.go /, language /"len.gwid3 4, In the middle of two-morpheme word such as singer /'st.a/ or hanger "haen.a/, if there is -ng, then ‘n/ is pronounced and ‘g/ is dropped.(exception) 5. Words with nk are pronounced with /n/ and addition of (k/ e.g. linking /Iinkuy/, thankful /"Geenk.f V, sinking /sinkin/ * Place of articulation: Bilabial sound; sound produced with the help of two Poge 8Manner of articulation: Plosive/Stop; the air from the lungs enters into the oral cavity soft palate is raised. Due to partial closure/blockage in the oral cavity, the air is released with slight explosion or oiceless sound Soft palate: Raised Found in positions: Initial: parrot, poem, pen Medial: wrapped, napkin, happy Final: map, mop, hop, top Rules: In the initial position /p/ sound is more aspirated as compared to its medial position such as payment” /p"eimont ‘p/ phoneme is heard with sound /m/ or /n/ as in ,topmost” and hypnotized” in the medial position. ‘p/is silent in some of the initial positions such as in words ,pneurionia, ,psychology”, ,psalm' ete. Place of articulation: Bilabial sound; sound produced with the help of two lips. Manner of articulation: Plosive/Stop; the air from the lungs enters into the oral cavity soft palate is raised. Due to partial closure/blockage in the oral cavity, the air is released with slight explosion or stop. Voicing: Voiced sound Soft palate: Raised Found in positions: Initial: bed, bid, bare Medial: October, bubble, rubber Final: rob, tribe, hub Rules: When /m/ or /n/ comes after this sound, it is articulated with a slight nasal plosion as in,,submit", abnormal” ‘b/ is slightly voiced in the initial and final positions, when follows by a voiceless consonant as in hitby* ‘When /b/ is in the final position and preceded by /w, it Tt is also silent in words such as ,,debt”, ,,doubt", ,,subth Place of articulation: Libodental sound; sound produced with the upper teeth and the lower lip. ‘Manner of articulation: Plosive/Stop; the air from the lungs enters into the oral cavity soft palate is raised. Due to partial closure/blockage in the oral cavity, the air is released with slight explosion or lent as in amb", .comb" etc. etc. Soft palate: Raised Found in positions: I: ten, team, test jal: bottle, hotel, metal Final: mat, cat, rest Page 9When /t/ is followed by a vowel n stressed syllable, itis aspirated as in talkative" /t°o:kotty /, and ken" (etkon. pronounced before /0/ and /8/ as in ,cight", ,look at this”, /t/ is pronounced even before /r/ sound as in ,rest-room’, ,at Rome”, /t/ is pronounced before /V/ as in ,bottle”, .at last”. ‘Al sound is silent in words ending in -stle and -sten such as ,castle", fasten", hasten’ etc. Place of articulation: Alveolar sound; sound produced with the front part of tongue on the alveolar ridge, immediately behind the upper teeth. Manner of articulation: Plosive/Stop; the air from the lungs enters into the oral cavity soft palate is raised. Due to partial closure/blockage in the oral cavity, the air is released with slight explosion or stop. Voicing: Voiced sound Soft palate: Raised Found in pos Initial: parrot, poem, pen Medial: wrapped, napkin, happy Final: map, mop, hop, top 1, [d/is pronounced at the initial of a word e.g. dog, damn, drag, drum ete, AV is pronounced at the medial position ofa word e.g, riddle, brical, bundle etc. /d/ is pronounced as /r/, if the word/adjective ends on ed e.g, aged, grounded, pleaded etc. ‘d/ isa voiced consonant, but it is treated as voiceless consonant in some cases such as birthday, sports-day, colourday ete. (dV is pronounced before /t/ or /m/ e.g. drive, admire, would write ete. /d/ is pronounced without plosion, if it is followed by /t/, tf! or /ds/ e.g. bed-time, bad time, good jam. Place of articulation: Velar sound; sound produced with the back of the tongue against the velum (soft palate) Manner of articulation: Plosive’Stop: the air from the lungs enters into the oral cavity soft palate is raised. Due (o partial closure/blockage in the oral cavity, the air is released with slight explosion or stop. Voicing: Voiceless sound Soft palate: Raised Found in postiiony: Initial: cat, king, kitchen Medial: fact, sect, rocket Final: cook, kiek, coke Rules: In RP (Received Pronunciation), most of the words starting with alphabet/letter ,c" contains /k/ sound e.g. ear, carrot, carriage ete. ‘k/ is highly aspirated in the initial and medial position e.g, baker, sky, king, queen ete. Page 10yeepre Usually in most of the English words, /k/ is followed by long vowels such as /i:/ or /u:/ as in cool, keep, creep ete. ‘kis also pronounced atthe position of a word e.g. cake, brake, break ete Place of articulation: Velar sound; sound produced with the back of the tongue against the velum, (soft palate). Manner of articulation: Plosive/Stop; the air from the lungs enters into the oral cavity soft palate is raised, Due to partial closure’blockage in the oral cavity, the air is released with slight explosion or stop. Voicing: Voiced sound Soft palate: Raised Found in positions: Initial: gun, give, go Medial: rugby, ago, Google Final: mug, beg, fig Ruk ‘g/ is pronounced at the initial position of a word e.g. game, ground, gadget ete. /a/ is pronounced with normal plosion when followed by /nr/ or /n/ as in dogmatic, vagueness etc. ‘g/ is pronounced in the medial position such as bringing, ringing ete. /a/ is pronounced in the final position of a word e.g. big, egg, mug ete. /a/ is pronounced with /ty in the medial position if we have -ng in a double-morpheme word e.g ringing, brining ete. Front Central Back Close 1 Hall.Close Poge 11Sri Vowels Description Found in words Other This is a long vowel Height of tongue: neatly close Part of tongue which is highest: centre of front Position of lips: spread or neutral Opening between the jaws: narcow to medium Soft palate is raised Vocal cords vibrate Field (f:ld! brief sbris seize ‘siz! leat ity machine /ma‘fi:n’ geese gis! chief /fi:t? need ‘nisd/ meet mic these /Si:z/ feel /i:t! This is a shot vowel Height of tongue: neatly half-close Part of tongue which is highest: the cabbage Pkecb.ady/ preface /'pref.is! college /"kol.1d3/ Ce hinder part of the front city /‘stti/ Position of lips: spread or neutral three (ri:/ aot thon Opening between the jaws: narrow to | image /um.id medium minute /‘min.t! - Soft palate is raised busy /"biz.i/ Voval eons vibrate letmes (lets! ‘women /‘wimin/ become /br'kam/ Iisa short vowel pen ipen! Height of tongue: between half-open | many/‘men.i! and helf-close gem (dgemn/ Part of tongue which is highest: the | yes lies! 3.1 lef front bed /bed! Position of lips: spread or neutral text Mekst/ Opening between the jaws: medium deaf (defi Soft palate is raised kept ‘kept! Vocal cords vibrate get igo! check /tfek/ Itisa short vowel pat (peu Height of tongue: between half-open _| bad /teed and open tax /tecks! Part of tongue which is highest: the | damp /dsemp/ front cat /keet a)ore Position of lips: spread or neutral gas /gies/ Opening between the jaws: medium to _ | chat ‘feet! wide jam (seem! Soft palate is raised man (meen/ Vocal cords vibrate Jamb fleem/ shall fel! Sc oan Itis along vowel bath /oa:07 Page 12Height of tongue: fully open task fia: sk/ Part of tangue which is highest: centre | dark idack/ of the back jar /dsa:! Position of lips: neutral fear /fa:/ Opening between the jaws: medium to _| half /ha:ff wide laugh /la:f? Soft palate is raised class iklas! Vocal cords vibrate grass ‘gra's/ father fa:.d9 / Ttisa short vowel God lend? Pakistani speakers Height of tongue: fully open got /ept! don"t round their Part of tongue which is highest: the cot /kot! lips in pronouncing back sorry /'soril this sound and 6. Vy Position of lips: open lip-rounding hop ‘kop! substitute it with Opening between the jaws: medium to | often "of.n/ // sound. wide shop iJop/ Soft palate is raised want wont) Vocal cords vibrate long /loy! dog ‘dog Itisalong vowel saw is: Height of tongue: between half-open _| more ‘mo:/ and open shore /fo:/ Part of tongue which is highest: the | all (xl back floor ffl: Tt Position of lips: between open and close, | door ‘do:/ form [fo:m/ Opening between the jaws: medium to | short fot! fairly wide broad /bra:d! Soft palate is raised town lo:n Vocal cords vibrate forty /"fo:.ti/ Itisa short vowel pull ipol” This sound does Height of tongue: just above half-close | bull /bol/ not exist in initial uw Part of tongue which is highest: the fore | book "bok! or final position of, part ofthe back look ak! a word except for 8. | oR Position of lips: faicly close, lip- good ‘god! some weak form of rounding push /pof! words such as..f00" a Opening between the jaws: medium butcher /‘botf.a/ | and ,,who” Soft palate ic raised soot /soU! Vocal cords vibrate wool ‘wal! could ‘kod! Itisalong vowel pool pul! Height of tongue: neatly close tomb ‘tum! | = Part of tongue which is highest: the | doom /du:m/ back goose /gus! Position of lips: fairly close, lip- June idgu:n! rounding move /mu:v/ Page 13,‘© Opening between the jaws: narrow to | loose Mus) medium lose /iu:z! * Soft palate is raised rule /nu:V © Vocal cords vibrate soup isup/ new /aju:! '* Itisashort vowel that always occurs in | among/a'man/ | Pakistani speakers unstressed syllable colour "kaa! do not find + Height of tongue: between open and _| collar /"kol.o/ difficulty in close famous /‘fe.mas/ | pronouncing this ‘© Part of tongue which is highest: the | doctor /‘dok.ta’ | sound but no fee centre method /'me®.od/ | sometimes, they Schwa | Position of lips: neutral mother /‘mad.a/ | replace this sound © Opening between the jaws: medium | picture "pik.tfal_—_ | with //. ‘© Soft palate is raised dinner /“din.a/ © Vocal cords vibrate comfortable 'kam.fata.bl/ apply /a’plaw! © Itisalong vowel Tearn /l3:n This sound varies © Height of tongue: half way between _| bird ‘bs:d/ in length. It is ‘open end close third (Os:d/ longer if followed ‘© Part of tongue which is highest: the first / fs:st! by a voiced sound centre jourmal /‘ds:.nal’__| than an unvoiced ue} fs © Position of lips: spread ‘world /ws:ld/ sound ‘© Opening between the jaws: narrow pearl ‘pa:l/ © Soft palate is raised girl /gsl * Vocal cords vibrate oe purse (pais nurse ns's! + Itisashort vowel cut Fk? # Height of tongue: half open bout ‘bw + Part of tongue which is highest: the fore | among /o'man/ part of the back come /kam/ wa) 44 + Position of lips: spread country /"kan.tri/ * Opening between the jaws: wide flood lad! + Soft palate is saised ee * Vocal cords vibrate Seay shut (ft Diphthong: ‘A sound formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable, in which the sound begins as one vowel and moves towards another or A diphthong is a glide from one vowel to another one. English diphthongs are 8 in number. Page 14DIPHTHONGS a. centring closing \ ending in fay ending in Av ending in fr fal feel just far fer fort fev! favs The eight English diphthongs Sré | Diphthongs Description Found in words ‘Other play /plei’ © Itstarts with /e/ and glides towards / / | Pay (peu! de eee * Usually this diphthong iseonfused | “haree Mendy! with / / by Pakistani users. game /gem/ make /merk/ + Ticight of tonguc: low pile pail © Part of tongue: front child /tfarld/ ‘* Position of lips: neutral five /farv/ 2] 11 |S opening of jaws: wide wing ara The speakers start with // sound but | Pay, immediately proceed to // sound in | eye iat/ English fine /fam/ «Height of tongue: low town /taon/ © Part of tongue: front pound /paund/ 5 et ae | enn oe eel a ‘pening Of Jaws: : house /haos/ ‘© Pakistani users sometimes substitute | 4Qud /lauds ‘this sound / / with /w/ mouth /mao6/ ‘© Height of tongue: half-open and half- | go /go0/ close cold /kauld/ ‘© Part of tongue the back be eny ait Ei nS passa args eee el © Opening of jaws: medium so sav! ‘Pakistani speakers (users) substitute | sow /sou! this sound with English diphthong _| crow /krou/ Page 15© Height of tongue normal hay ‘bat! ‘¢ Part of tongue: centre joy sdgau ww ‘© Position of tongue: round voice bee coin kon © Opening of jaws: partially close Sale # Vocal cords vibrate ji 5 dear dia! «Iris. falling diphthong which starts | tear ‘tea! 7 al about the position of English short | here /hra! Hand ends at // fear fic! ear [a + Height of tongue: slightly raised air ea! ‘© Part of tongue: the front ee + Position of lips: neutral thet Bea! a : rare /rea/ / © Upening of jaws: slightly wide ae aes) # Vocal cords vibrate chair Afea! ‘© This sound is usually used if the word | mayor /meo ends on ~er or rin the words fair fea! © Itstarts with /7and ends with schwa | moor /moa? i pure /pjua! © Itisa falling diphthong oe ont " + Sometimes, Pakistani speakers add it! | OOF Kigay sound after this diphthong such as | poor /p/ poor. They pronounce it /pu:t/ instead | jury /‘dges.il of/p/ Lriphthong: A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third; all produced rapidly and without interruption. There are 5 English triphthongs. yt fire ara, tired /tarad/ ’ player /‘plet.ay, layer /‘let.a/ {loyal /loral/, royal /"ro.al/ hour /aval, our /ava/ yi i lower /120.9/, widower /'wid.90.9/ A syllable is phonological unit composed one or more phonemes OR Any of the units into which a word is divided, containing a vowel sound and usually one or more consonants. A syllable must contain a vowel (or vowel like) sound. Every syllable has a nucleus which is usually a vowel (but which may be a syllabic liquid or nasal). The nucleus may be preceded by one or more phonemes called the syllable and followed by one or more segments called the coda. Both the onset and the coda ean consist of more than one consonant known as a consonant cluster. The combination st is a consonant cluster (CC) as onset in the Page 16 setword stop, and as coda in the word post.In rhyming words, the nucleus and the coda of the final syllable of both words are identical. For this reason, the nucleus + coda constitute the syllabic unit called a rhyme (rime). lable Rhyme Nucleus Coda spl r nts ok w iz ‘Types of syllabl i) Open syllable: When coda is not present in the syllable is known as open syllable. For instance bar fba/, key ;, more /ma*/, me /mi:/, to /tu:/, so /sav/, no /navl. ii) Closed syllable: ‘When coda is present the syllable is termed as closed sylleble. For example am /zem, ought Joti, ease /is2/, run /raw, sat /seeU/, fil /HW/, cup /kxp/, hat /haet/, mat /haet, red /red/, Phonatactic Constraints The rules prescribed by the linguistics allow us to combine certain sounds permissible ot one language. These rules are called phonotacticas constraints e.g. we can have a consonant cluster as /str-/ in English but not /flgz~/ because English language doesn"t have any such rules that allow formation of words with this combination of sourds. Similarly, words like bgrade and shptart cannot be part of English because these syllable structures are not permissible sequences of consonants and vowels in this language. Phonotactics constraints allow any language to have limited set or structure of syllable required to form words. The basic syllable structure in English is VC or CV which is necessary to form a meaningful word with the help of linked phonotactie constraints, The process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation, There are two co-articulation effects, called assimilation” and ,clision”. s of replacing a sound by another sound under the influenced of a third sound which is near to it in the word or sentence, Assimilation is defined as the proc: OR When two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other, the process is known as assimilation. Page 17Examples: horseshoe fha:s,fry = s ——> haf fur/ his shirt hz fs:t/ > I hf fat five pens Marv penzi/ = > —_—_farf'penz/ Assimilation is of two kinds, historical and contextual assimilation, {) Historical Assimilation: it is an assimilation on which has taken place in the course of development of a language and by which a word which was once pronounced in a certain way came to be pronounced subsequently in another way eg. 3) An example of historical assimilation is the change of /m/ to /n/ in the word , ant”. In the the 13! and 14" century, this word was written ,amete” or ,amte”, and was pronounced /aemato/ and later /aenv. Spelling with pronounced /eent/. In this case /m/ was replaced by /n/ under the influence of /t/;/t/ an /n/ both being alveolar sounds. b) The change of /ti/ in the word picture” and question". These words originally pronounced as /prk.tju/ and /"kwes.tjan/, In this case, t/ and (j/ are coalesced into the affricate /tf! as /"pik.tfa/ and kwes.tfov. Similarly, in the word ,grandeur" / graen.dgo/, was pronounced /'graen.djut/ in the past, the sound /d/ and /j/ are coalesced into the affricate /dy/. V first appeased in the fifteen century whieh led te the modern spelling ant”, ii) Contextual Assimilation: It is an assimilation which is occasioned when words come together in a sentence, or in the formation of compounds, as a result of which a word acquires a pronunciation different from that which it has when said by itself. This happens because the sound at the end of one word is influenced by the sound at the beginning of the next word and as a result, (i) a new sound is produced, or (ii) the two sounds coalesce into one sound. 8) Horse shoe is pronounced as /"ha‘f fu:! by This shop is pronounced as /O1f fop/ 9 Ten minutes is pronounced as /tem min. Don't you is pronounced as /daunt fu:! His shirt is pronounced as /hif fs:t! d) Miss Shaheen is pronounced as /myf fa:hrw’ As it has been mentioned above, it is particularly noticeable in ordinary conversational speech. By itself, you may pronounce the word can" as /kzen/, but if you tell someone says , can go” fax keen gov/, the influence of the following velar /g/ will almost certainly make the preveding nasal sound eames ant as fe! (a velar) rather than /n/ (an alveolar). The most commonly observed ,conversational” version of the phrase ,/ can go" is /at kon gaol. Notice that the vowel /se/ in can" has also changed to schwa /a/ from the isolated word version /«/. In many words spoken carefully, the vowel receives stress, but in the course of ordinary talk, that vowel may no longer receive any stress and reduce to schwa. For example, you may pronounce sand" as fend! in isolation, but in the use of the phrase .you and me", you almost certainly say /an/, as in ju on mu/, Page 18i) Progressive Assimilation: The assimilation is termed as progressive, if the assimilated sound is influenced by preceding, sound such as foads /lavdz/ (s> 2) and dogs /dogz! (s > 2). ii) Regressive Assimilation: The assimilation is termed as regressive, if the assimilated sound is influenced by a following, sound. For example, horseshoe /ha‘f.fu:/ (8 >.) and newspaper /nju:s, pet.po/ (2.> 8). Under certain circumstances, sounds disappear or may be omitted; this disappearance or omission of a sound segment which would be present in the deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation is technically described as elision. In technical terms, elision means that a phoneme has zero realization. In running day- to-day conversation, vowels and consonants are omitted for the sake of flueney and rhythm Elision is of two kinds, historical and contextual clision. i) Historical Elision: In historical ision, a sound which existed in an earlier form of a word was omitted in a later form eg. The loss of all /r/ sounds finally or before consonants in Southe:n English is a noteworthy example of historical elision. Up to the 15" century. the /r/ sound in words Ii pronounced. by The loss of /I/ sound in words like walk", ,talk", ,half*, which were pronounced with /I/ in earlier times. The /p/ sound in ,cuphoardt" (now /"kab.od/), the /A/ sound in ,windmilf" (now /’ win. mul/) and the /d/ sound in ,Aindness" (row /kain.nasi) all have disappeared in present English. The elision of unstressed vowels, especially /1/ and /a/ (schwa), is common in Engl history" is now pronounced as /"his.tr.i/ and university" as / june var.st.t The word ii) Contextual Elision: In contextual elision, « sound exists in a word said by itself is dropped in a compound or in a connected phrase e.g. a) Blind man is pronounced as /blain.maen/ b) 4 good deal is pronounced as /o.g0.dial/ 9 Last time is pronounced as / la:s.tam/ 4) Sit down is pronounced as /si.daun/ ©) Gouilhye is pronounced as /gv-bai! Stress may be defined as the degree of force with which a sound or syllable is uttered. Syllables which are pronounced with a greater degree of stress force than the neighbouring syllables in a word or sentence are said to be stressed. Syllables pronounced with a relatively smaller degree of stress are said to be unstressed, Page 19All stressed syllables have one characteristic in common whieh is called prominence. A stressed syllable stands mote prominently than its immediate neighbouring syllable. There are four factors that make it prominent. a) Loudness: Ifone syllable is made louder than the other, it will be heard stressed. b) Length: Ifa syllable is made longer than the other, that syllable is heard stressed. ©) Piteh: Pitch is related to the frequency of vibration of vibration of the voeal cords. If one syllable is said with a pitch which is roticeably different from that of the others, it will produce the effect of prominence. 4) Change of vowel sound: In English language, words having weak syllables have /1/, /o/ and /a/. Therefore, words having long vowels arz stressed. Stress can fall on any syllable m the word e.g. First syllable: father /“fa.60/, happy /*heep i Second syllable: perhaps /po'heeps/, allowed /o' laud Fourth syllable: academic /,wek.o'dem.ak/, photographic / fou.to' greef.ak/ In linguistics, intonation is the variation which takes place in the pitch of the voice in connected speech. Intonation and stress are two main elements of linguistic prosody. Intonation is @ part of supra~ segmental phonology. Intonation helps to recognize the language that you hear in the same way as the melody of a song helps to recognize the song that you hear. Pitch is the highness and lowness of sound created with the help of vibrations of vocal cords. There are three types of pitch. It is always described in terms of high and low. ‘The most important information involves higher pitch. b) Low piteh: — Unimportant information involves lower pitch. ©) Level or steady piteh: Natural speech, pitch keeps up changing An important feature of English Intonation is the use of an intonational accent (and extra stress) to mark the focus of a sentence. Normally this focus accent goes on the last major word of the sentence. Functions of intonation: Function of intonation refers to how some of these pitch vari communicative meaning. ms are linguistically significant and i) Attitudinal Funetion: Intonation is tke mean of conveying attitudes and emotions. It reveals whether the speaker's attitude is of politeness, assertiveness, angry, excitement, happiness, pride ete. ii) Aecentual Function: Page 20Intonation performs an accentual function, means it enables the speaker to make any part of his utterance more prominent in accordance with meanings he would convey. ‘Grammatical Function: The word grammatical tends to be used in a very loose sense in this context. It is used to illustrate the grammatical sentences by inventing sentences which, when written, are ambiguity and those ambiguity can only be removed by using differences of intonation, For example The difference between a command and a requests that the command is said with a falling tone and the request is said with a rising tone e.g. a) Shut the door. (command) bb). Shut the door. (request) iv) Discourse Function: Looking at the broader level, speaking in a broader way can see that the intonation can sign to the listener what is to be taken as new information and what is already given when speaker is indicating some sort of contrast within another tone, unit and in conversation what kind of response is expected. Such functions are examples of intonation discourse function, The two basic types are falling intonation and rising intonation, Other main types of intonation include: high fall, low fal, fall-rise, high rise, midlevel rise, low rise. Falling intonation is the most common type of standard un-emphatic intonation in English. It is used for asking and giving information in normal, quict, un-emphatic style. Sounds more, are confident and convineing than rising intonation, Standard patterns: Falling intonation is used on the last stressed syllable of the sentence in: Statements (declarative sentences): We live in \MOScow. He doesn"t have a\CAR. Special questions: Where do you \ LIVE? i) Commands (imperative sentences): ‘STOP in) Exclamatory sentences: What a wonderful sur\PRISE! \¥)_ The last part of alternative questions (after “or”) Do you want /TEA or \COFfee? vi) Tag questions (When we the speaker is sure that the answer will be “yes”): You \LIVE here, \DON"T you?(The speaker is sure and expects the answer “yes”) Rising intonation in English is a pretty complicated phenomenon. It can express a number of various emotions such as ; non-finslity, surprise, doubl, politeness, interest, lick Uf confidence, Suandard rising intonation in English first goes down a little and then up. Standard patterns: ‘Rising intonation 1s used in; i) General questions: Was he glad to /SEE him? ii) Dependent or introductory parts of sentences: Ifhe /CALLS, ask him to /COME. Page 21‘The first part of alternative questions (before “or”): Would you like an /APPle or a PEAR? iv) Direct address: /SIR, you dropped your \NOTEbook. y) Enumerating items ina list: She bought / bread, /cheese and to\MAtoes. ) Tag questions: (When we the speaker is not sure that the answer will be “Yes” or wants your opinion): Its a beautiful \ TOWN, ISN"T it? (The speaker thinks that the town is beautiful but asks for your opinion and confirmation). Page 22