Module 1 Introduction to Microbiology and Parasitology

One of the subject of this course is the study of viruses which includes

SARS-CoV-2, a novel corona virus that is rapidly spreading in humans,
causing COVID-19.


Module 1 – Introduction to Microbiology and Parasitology



In Module 1, Introduction to Microbiology and Parasitology, you will explore
the definitions of microbiology and parasitology and other basic terms used
in the course. You will also encounter the different types of microorganisms
and other organisms covered by microbiology and parasitology. You will
also learn about naming and classifying of microorganisms and a brief
history of microbiology.


Learning Outcome:

At the end of this module, you should be able to make an informative essay describing Sars-2-Cov as a
microorganism.

Objectives

At the end of this module you should be able to:

1. Identify branches the branches of microbiology
2. List down the positive and negative impacts of microorganisms
3. Identify the distinct structure of each type of microorganism
4. Write scientific names correctly
5. Identify the events in the history of microbiology and parasitology

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 1

CONTENT EXPLORATION

Microbiology and Parasitology

Microbiology (from Greek μῑκρος, mīkros, "small"; βίος, bios, "life"; and -
λογία, -logia) is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular
(single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells).
Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology,
bacteriology, phycology, protozoology, protistology, mycology,
immunology and parasitology.

Parasitology is the study of parasites - organisms that use other species
of plants and animals as hosts. Parasitology in microbiology focuses on
the parasitic effects of microorganisms and helminthes (worms).

Microorganisms

Microorganisms are a collection of organisms that share the
characteristic of being visible only with a microscope. Microorganisms are
very diverse and are ubiquitous in nature – which means that they are
almost everywhere. They constitute the subject matter of microbiology.

Some species of microorganisms cause infectious disease. They
overwhelm body systems by sheer force of numbers, or they produce
powerful toxins that interfere with body physiology. Viruses inflict
damage by replicating within tissue cells, thereby causing tissue
degeneration. Members of the microbial world are very diverse and

Take Note include bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, alga, viruses, and the parasitic

What are the negative impacts of
helminthes. The majority of microorganisms contribute to the quality of
microorganisms? human life by doing such things as maintaining the balance of chemical
What are the uses of microorganisms?
elements in the natural environment, by breaking down the remains of
all that dies, and by recycling carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and
other elements.

Types of Microorganisms

1. Bacteria are unicellular organisms. Because they have no
nucleus, the cells are described as prokaryotic. Most bacteria have a
peptidoglycan carbohydrate and protein complex) cell wall; they divide
by binary fission, and they may possess flagella. Bacteria can use a wide
range of chemical substances (can be living and nonliving sources) for
their nutrition. Bacterial cells generally appear in one of several shapes:
bacillus (rodlike); coccus (spherical or ovoid); spiral (corkscrew or

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 2

curved); star-shaped or square (some). They also have different

formations: pairs, chains, clusters, or other groupings; such formations are
usually characteristic of a particular genus or species of bacteria. They exist
in most environments on earth. For instance, they live at temperatures
ranging from 0° to 100°C and in conditions that are oxygen rich or oxygen
free. They are so small a microscope is necessary to see and study them.

2. Archaea, like bacteria, are prokaryotic cells but they lack peptidoglycan in
their cell walls. Archaea are not known to cause disease in humans. They
can be found in extreme environments and are divided into three main
groups shown in the table below.

ARCHAEA GROUP ENVIRONMENT/CHARACTERISTIC

Methanogens Produce methane as main product of respiration
Extreme halophiles Live in extremely salty environments such as the
(halo – salts; Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea
philic – loving)
Extreme thermophiles live in hot sulfurous water, such as hot springs at
(therm – hot) Yellowstone National Park

3. Fungi (singular:fungus) are eukaryotes (cells with distinct nucleus covered
by a nuclear membrae) which include mushrooms, molds, and yeasts.
Fungi can be unicellular or milticellular. Large multicellular fungi, such as
mushrooms, may look some-what like plants, but unlike most plants, fungi
cannot carry out photosynthesis. True fungi have cell walls composed
primarily of a substance called chitin. The unicellular forms of fungi, yeasts,
are oval microorganisms that are larger than bacteria. The most typical
fungi are molds. Molds form visible masses called mycelia, which are
composed of long filaments (hyphae) that branch and intertwine. The
cottony growths sometimes found on bread and fruit are mold mycelia.
Fungi can reproduce sexually or asexually. Fungi obtain nutrients by
absorbing organic material from their environment.

4. Protozoa (singular: protozoan) are unicellular eukaryotic microbes.
Protozoa obtain nourishment by absorption or ingestion through
specialized structures. Protozoa move by pseudopods (false feet;
Amebae), flagella (long appendages), or cilia (numerous shorter
appendages). Protozoa have a variety of shapes and live either as free
entities or as parasites that absorb or ingest organic compounds from their
environment. Some protozoa, such as Euglena are photosynthetic (use
light as a source of energy and carbon dioxide as their chief source of
carbon to produce sugars). Protozoa can reproduce sexually or asexually.

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 3

5. Algae (singular: alga) are photosynthetic eukaryotes (unicellular or

multicellular) with a wide variety of shapes and both sexual and asexual
reproductive forms. The algae of interest to microbiologists are usually
unicellular. The cell walls of many algae are composed of a carbohydrate called
cellulose. Algae are abundant in freshwater and saltwater, in soil, and in
association with plants. As photosynthesizers, algae need light, water, and
carbon dioxide for food production and growth, but they do not generally
require organic compounds from the environment. As a result of
photosynthesis, algae produce oxygen and carbohydrates that are then utilized
by other organisms, including animals. Thus, they play an important role in the
balance of nature.

6. Viruses are very different from the other microbial groups. They are so
small that most can be seen only with an electron microscope, and they are
acellular (that is, they are not cells). Structurally very simple, a virus particle
contains a core made of only one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. All
living cells have RNA and DNA, can carry out chemical reactions, and can
reproduce as self-sufficient units. Viruses can reproduce only by using the
cellular machinery of other organisms. Thus, on the one hand, viruses are
considered to be living only when they multiply within host cells they infect. In
this sense, viruses are parasites of other forms of life. On the other hand,
viruses are not considered to be living because they are inert outside living
hosts.

7. Multicellular animal parasites are not strictly microorganisms. Animal

Take Note parasites are eukaryotes. The two major groups of parasitic worms are the
flatworms and the roundworms, collectively called helminths. During some
What are the different types of
microorganisms? stages of their life cycle, helminths are microscopic in size. Laboratory
Which groups of microbes are prokaryotes?
Which are eukaryotes?
identification of these organ- isms includes many of the same techniques used
for identifying microbes.

This tree of life shows the different types of microorganisms.

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 4

The Spectrum of Microbiology

Classifying Microorganisms

Like all other living things, microorganisms are placed into a system of
classification. Classification highlights characteristics that are common among
certain groups while providing order to the variety of living things. The science
of classification is known as taxonomy, and taxon is an alternative expression
for a classification category. Taxonomy displays the unity and diversity among
living things, including microorganisms. Among the first taxonomists was
Carolus Linnaeus. In the 1750s and 1760s, Linnaeus classified all known plants
and animals of that period and set down the rules for nomenclature or naming.

In the classification scheme, various species are grouped together to form a
genus. Among the bacteria, for example, the species Shigella boydii and Shigella
flexneri are in the genus Shigella because the organisms are at least 70 percent
similar. Various genera are then grouped as a family because of similarities, and
various families are placed together in an order. Continuing the classification
scheme, a number of orders are grouped as a class, and several classes are
categorized in a single phylum or division. The various phyla or divisions are
placed in the broadest classification entry, the kingdom Classification schemes.

The fundamental rank of the classification as set down by Linnaeus is the
species. For organisms such as animals and plants, a species is defined as a The classification
population of individuals that breed among themselves. For microorganisms, a scheme of living
species is defined as a group of organisms that are 70 percent similar from a things, including
biochemical standpoint. microorganisms.


Numerous criteria are used in establishing a species and in placing species
together in broader classification categories. Morphology (form) and structure
are considered, as well as cellular features, biochemical properties, and genetic
characteristics. In addition, the antibodies that an organism elicits in the human
body are a defining property. The nutritional format is considered, as are
staining characteristics.

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. Because of their characteristics, microorganisms
join all other living organisms in two major groups of organisms: prokaryotes
and eukaryotes.

Bacteria are prokaryotes (simple organisms having no nucleus or organelles)
because of their cellular properties, while other microorganisms such as fungi,
protozoa, and unicellular algae are eukaryotes (more complex organisms
Based on the diagram above, what is
whose cells have a nucleus and organelles). Viruses are neither prokaryotes nor the major difference between a
eukaryotes because of their simplicity and unique characteristics. eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell?


MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 5

 The Five Kingdoms. The generally accepted classification of living things was
devised by Robert Whittaker of Cornell University in 1969. Whittaker suggested
a five-kingdom classification.

The first of the five kingdoms is Monera (in some books, Prokaryotae).
Prokaryotes, such as bacteria and cyanobacteria (formerly, blue-green algae),
are in this kingdom; the second kingdom, Protista, includes protozoa,
unicellular algae, and slime molds, all of which are eukaryotes and single-celled;
in the third kingdom, Fungi, are the molds, mushrooms, and yeasts. These
organisms are eukaryotes that absorb simple nutrients from the soil. The
remaining two kingdoms are Plantae (plants) and Animalia (animals).

Nomenclature of Microorganisms. Organisms of the same species, including
Escherichia coli
GENUS SPECIFIC EPITHET microorganism, have different names all over the world. In order to have a
universal name for each organism, the system of nomenclature (naming),
For example, Escherichia coli, the bacteria in
scientific name, for organisms was established in 1735 by Carolus Linnaeus.
our intestines which aids digestion and even Scientific nomenclature assigns each organism two names—the genus (plural:
synthesize some vitamins that our bodies
require, including B vitamins for metabolism genera) is the first name and is always capitalized; the specific epithet (species
and vitamin K for blood clotting can be
written as:
name) follows and is not capitalized. The organism is referred to by both the
a. Escherichia coli – genus (first name) is genus and the specific epithet, and both names are underlined or italicized. By
capitalized; species name or specific
epithet (second name) not capitalized; custom, after a scientific name has been mentioned once, it can be
both names are italicized
b. Escherichia coli – genus is capitalized; abbreviated with the initial of the genus followed by the specific epithet.
species name or specific epithet not
capitalized; both names are underlined
c. E. coli or E. coli – the initial of the genus Scientific names can, among other things, describe an organism (shape, color,
is used followed by specific epithet
arrangement), honor a researcher, or identify the habitat of a species. Below
is a table of examples of common microorganisms that you will encounter.

TABLE 1 Scientific Names of Some Microorganisms

Microorganism Source of Genus Name Source of Specific Epithet

Salmonella enterica (bacterium) Honors public health microbiologist Found in the intestines (entero-)
Daniel Salmon
Streptococcus pyogenes (bacterium) Appearance of cells in chains Forms pus (pyo-)
(strepto-)
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) Fungus (-myces) that uses sugar Makes beer (cerevisia)
(saccharo-)
Penicillium chrysogenum (fungus) Tuftlike or paintbrush (penicill-) Produces a yellow (chryso-)
appearance microscopically pigment


A Brief History of Microbiology

Microbiology has had a long, rich history, initially centered in the causes of
infectious diseases but now includes practical applications of the science. Many
individuals have made significant contributions to the development of
microbiology.

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 6

The First Observations
In 1665, after observing a thin slice of cork through a crude microscope, Robert
Hooke reported that life’s smallest structural units look like “little boxes,” which
is now known as “cells.” Using his improved microscope, Hooke later saw
individual cells. Hooke’s discovery marked the beginning of the cell theory—
the theory that all living things are composed of cells.

In 1673-1723, Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe live
microorganisms (he called animalcules) clearly, through his simple, single-lens
microscope. Until his death in 1723, van Leeuwenhoek revealed the
microscopic world to scientists of the day and is regarded as one of the first to
provide accurate descriptions of protozoa, fungi, and bacteria.








Figure 3 Van
Leeuwenhoek’s drawing of
Van Leeuwenhoek’s microscope
replica
“animalcules”

The Debate of Spontaneous Generation
After van Leeuwenhoek died, the study of microbiology did not develop rapidly
because microscopes were rare and the interest in microorganisms was not
high. In those years, scientists debated the theory of spontaneous generation,
which stated that microorganisms arise from lifeless matter such as beef broth.
This theory was disputed by Francesco Redi in 1688, who showed that fly
maggots do not arise from decaying meat (as others believed). Instead, he
demonstrated that maggots appear on decaying meat only when flies are able
to lay eggs on the meat.

The case for spontaneous generation of microorganisms seemed to be
strengthened in 1745, when John Needham found that even after he heated
that microbes developed spontaneously from the fluids. In 1765, Lazzaro
Spallanzani disputed the theory of spontaneous generation by suggesting that
microorganisms from the air probably entered Needham’s solutions after they
were boiled. He showed that nutrient fluids heated after being sealed in a flask
did not develop microbial growth.

In 1858, Rudolf Virchow introduced the concept of biogenesis: living cells can
arise only from preexisting cells. Because he could offer no scientific proof,

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 7


arguments about spontaneous generation continued until 1861, when the issue
was finally resolved by the French scientist Louis Pasteur.

Pasteur had to disprove spontaneous generation to sustain his theory, and he
therefore devised a series of swan-necked flasks filled with broth. He left the
flasks of broth open to the air, but the flasks had a curve in the neck so that
microorganisms would fall into the neck, not the broth. The flasks did not

Check Your Understanding become contaminated (as he predicted they would not), and Pasteur's

What evidence support spontaneous
experiments put to rest the notion of spontaneous generation. His work also
generation? encouraged the belief that microorganisms were in the air and could cause
How was it disproved?
disease. Pasteur postulated the germ theory of disease, which states that
microorganisms are the causes of infectious disease.

Louis Pasteur’s Experiment

The First Golden Age of Microbiology
The science of microbiology advanced rapidly between 1857 and 1914 and is
considered to be the First Golden Age of Microbiology. The advances in this
period are spearheaded by Pasteur and Koch. Discoveries included both the
agents of many diseases and the role of immunity in preventing and curing
disease. During this productive period, microbiologists studied the chemical
activities of microorganisms, improved the techniques for performing
microscopy and culturing microorganisms, and developed vaccines and surgical
techniques.

One of the key steps that established the relationship between microorganisms
and disease occurred when a group of French merchants asked Pasteur to find
out why wine and beer soured. They hoped to develop a method that would
prevent spoilage when those beverages were shipped long distances. At the
time, many scientists believed that air converted the sugars in these fluids into
alcohol. Pasteur found instead that microorganisms called yeasts convert the
sugars to alcohol in the absence of air. This process is called fermentation.

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 8

Souring and spoilage are caused by different microorganisms, called bacteria.
In the presence of air, bacteria change the alcohol into vinegar (acetic acid).
Pasteur’s solution to the spoilage problem was to heat the beer and wine just
enough to kill most of the bacteria that caused the spoilage. The process, called
pasteurization, is now commonly used to reduce spoilage and kill potentially
harmful bacteria in milk and other beverages as well as in some alcoholic
beverages.

The discovery of Pasteur led to the discovery that microorganisms cause
diseases. This idea is known as the germ theory of disease. Agostino Bassi
(1835) and Pasteur (1865) showed a causal relationship between
microorganisms and disease, specifically silkworms.

In the 1860s, Joseph Lister introduced the use of a disinfectant to clean surgical
wounds in order to control infections in humans. This is based from his
knowledge of Hungarian physician’s, Ignaz Semmelweis, observation in the
1840s that physicians who did not disinfect their hands had transmitted
infections (puerperal, or childbirth, fever) from one patient to another. He also
heard of Pasteur’s work connecting microbes to animal diseases. From there,
he used phenol (carboxylic acid), a solution known for killing bacteria in treating
wounds. The practice reduced the incidence of infections and deaths. His
findings proved that microorganisms cause infection.

The first proof that bacteria actually causes disease came from Robert Koch in
1876. Koch, a German physician, was Pasteur’s rival in the race to discover the
cause of anthrax, a disease that was destroying cattle and sheep in Europe.
Koch discovered rod-shaped bacteria now known as Bacillus anthracis in the
blood of cattle that had died of anthrax. He cultured the bacteria on nutrients
and then injected samples of the culture into healthy animals. When these
animals became sick and died, Koch isolated the bacteria in their blood and
compared them with the originally isolated bacteria. He found that the two sets
of blood cultures contained the same bacteria. The sequence of procedures
that he used is now called Koch’s postulates which is still used today to prove
that a particular microorganism causes a particular disease.

In 1798, Edward Jenner demonstrated that inoculation with cowpox material
provides humans with immunity to smallpox. About 1880, Pasteur discovered
that avirulent bacteria could be used as a vaccine for fowl cholera. Modern
vaccines are prepared from living avirulent microorganisms or killed pathogens,
from isolated components of pathogens, and by recombinant DNA techniques.

The Second Golden Age of Microbiology
The Second Golden Age began with the discovery of penicillin’s effectiveness
against infections. Two types of chemotherapeutic agents are synthetic drugs

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 9

 (chemically prepared in the laboratory) and antibiotics (substances produced
naturally by bacteria and fungi that inhibit the growth of bacteria). Paul Ehrlich
introduced an arsenic-containing chemical called salvarsan to treat syphilis
(1910). Alexander Fleming observed that the Penicillium fungus inhibited the
growth of a bacterial culture. He named the active ingredient penicillin (1928).
Researchers are tackling the problem of drug-resistant microbes. Bacteriology
is the study of bacteria, mycology is the study of fungi, and parasitology is the
study of parasitic protozoa and worms. The study of AIDS and analysis of the
action of interferons are among the current research interests in immunology.
New techniques in molecular biology and electron microscopy have provided
tools for advancing our knowledge of virology. The development of
recombinant DNA technology has helped advance all areas of microbiology.

The Third Golden Age of Microbiology

Work with viruses could not be effectively performed until instruments were
developed to help scientists see these disease agents. In the 1940s, the electron
microscope was developed and perfected. In that decade, cultivation methods
for viruses were also introduced, and the knowledge of viruses developed
rapidly. With the development of vaccines in the 1950s and 1960s, such viral
diseases as polio, measles, mumps, and rubella came under control.

Modern microbiology reaches into many fields of human endeavor, including
the development of pharmaceutical products, the use of quality control
methods in food and dairy product production, the control of disease-causing
microorganisms in consumable waters, and the industrial applications of
microorganisms. Microorganisms are used to produce vitamins, amino acids,
enzymes, and growth supplements. They manufacture many foods, including
fermented dairy products (sour cream, yogurt, and buttermilk), as well as other
fermented foods such as pickles, sauerkraut, breads, and alcoholic beverages.

One of the major areas of applied microbiology is biotechnology. In this
discipline, microorganisms are used as living factories to produce
pharmaceuticals that otherwise could not be manufactured. These substances
include the human hormone insulin, the antiviral substance interferon,
numerous blood-clotting factors and clot dissolving enzymes, and a number of
vaccines. Bacteria can be reengineered to increase plant resistance to insects
and frost, and biotechnology will represent a major application of
microorganisms in the next century.

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 10

 REFERENCES

1. Tortora, G.J., Funke, B.R., Case, C.L. (2019) Microbiology: An introduction, 3rd ed.. Boston: Pearson.
2. Madigan, M. T., Martinko, J. M., Stahl, D. A., & Clark, D. P. (2012). Brock biology of microorganisms,
13th ed. Benjamin Cummings: San Francisco, CA.
3. Duran, E. Jr., & Duran, A. (2005). Microbiology and Parasitology. Philippines.
4. Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., & Jackson, R. B. (2011).
Campbell biology, 9th ed.. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.
5. Rabago, L. M., Joaquin, C. C., Lagunzad, C. G. B., & Carvajal, J. C. (2006). Functional biology:
Modular approach. Quezon City: Vibal Publishing House
6. Raven P.H. & Johnson J.B. (2002). Biology, 6th ed.. USA: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 11

 EXERCISE

I. Direction. Match the scientists’ work which best fits with the field of microbiology.
1. Studies biodegradation of toxic wastes
2. Studies the causative agent of Covid 19 a. Biotechnology
3. Studies the production of human proteins by b. Immunology
bacteria c. Microbial ecology
4. Studies the symptoms of AIDS d. Microbial genetics
5. Studies the production of toxin by E. coli e. Microbial physiology
6. Studies biodegradation of pollutants f. Molecular biology
7. Develops gene therapy for a disease g. Mycology
8. Studies the fungus Candida albicans h. Virology

II. Direction. Match the microorganisms in column A to their descriptions in column B.

1. Archaea a. Not composed of cells

2. Algae b. Cell wall made of chitin
3. Bacteria c. Cell wall made of peptidoglycan
4. Fungi d. Cell wall made of cellulose; photosynthetic
5. Helminths e. Unicellular, complex cell structure lacking a cell wall
6. Protozoa f. Multicellular animals
7. Viruses g. Prokaryote without peptidoglycan cell wall

III. Direction. Match the people in column A to their contribution toward the advancement of
microbiology, in column B.

1. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty a. Developed vaccine against smallpox

2. Beadle and Tatum b. Discovered how DNA controls protein synthesis in
3. Berg a cell
4. Ehrlich c. Discovered penicillin
5. Fleming d. Discovered that DNA can be transferred from one
6. Hooke bacterium to another
7. Iwanowski e. Disproved spontaneous generation First to
8. Jacob and Monod characterize a virus
9. Jenner f. First to use disinfectants in surgical procedures
10. Koch g. First to observe bacteria
11. Lancefield h. First to observe cells in plant material and name
12. Lederberg and Tatum them
13. Lister i. Observed that viruses are filterable material
14. Pasteur j. Proved that DNA is the hereditary material
15. Stanley k. Proved that microorganisms can cause disease
16. van Leeuwenhoek l. Said living cells arise from preexisting living cells
17. Virchow m. Showed that genes code for enzymes
18. Weizmann n. Spliced animal DNA to bacterial DNA
o. Used bacteria to produce acetone
p. Used the first synthetic chemotherapeutic agent
q. Proposed a classification system for streptococci
based on antigens in their cell walls


MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 12

 ACTIVITY

Make a timeline of events of discoveries in Microbiology and Parasitology. Specify the following
periods: The First Discoveries, The First Golden Age of Microbiology, The Second Golden Age of
Microbiology, and The Third Golden Age of Microbiology.

ANALYSIS

Choose 3 questions to answer from the list below.

1. How did the idea of spontaneous generation come about?
2. How did the theory of biogenesis lead the way for the germ theory of disease?
3. Even though the germ theory of disease was not demonstrated until 1876, why did
Semmelweis (1840) and Lister (1867) argue for the use of aseptic techniques?
4. Find at least three supermarket products made by microorganisms. (Hint: The label will state
the scientific name of the organism or include the word culture, fermented, or brewed.)
5. In the 1960s, many physicians and the public believed that infectious diseases were
retreating and would be fully conquered. Discuss why this didn’t happen. Is it possible?
6. In 1864, Lister observed that patients recovered completely from simple fractures but that
compound fractures had “disastrous consequences.” He knew that the application of phenol
(carbolic acid) to fields in the town of Carlisle prevented cattle disease. Lister treated
compound fractures with phenol, and his patients recovered without complications. How
was Lister influenced by Pasteur’s work? Why was Koch’s work still needed?

APPLICATION

Answer the following questions.

1. The genus name of a bacterium is “erwinia,” and the specific epithet is “amylovora.”
Write the scientific name of this organism correctly. Using this name as an example,
explain how scientific names are chosen.
2. Is it possible to purchase the following microorganisms in a retail store? Provide a reason
for buying each.
a. Bacillus thuringiensis
b. Saccharomyces
3. Discuss whether antibacterial soaps and detergents should be used in the home.

RESEARCH

Make an informative essay describing Sars-2-Cov as a microorganism. The following are the
guidelines for the paper:
1. Use your own words.
2. Should be at least 100 words but not more than 300 words.
3. Write your reference at the end.

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 13

 REFLECTIVE ANALYSIS

Encircle the emoji that reflects your feelings towards the topic of the module. Below it, write about
what you feel about the topic. Take a picture of this page and send to your instructor.

*Write your answers in ACTIVITY, ANALYSIS, APPLICATION, RESEARCH, AND EXERCISE in separate sheets of
paper. You may also type and send as PDF file. You may send as hardcopy or softcopy, whichever is
convenient for you. Compile and make sure that everything is labeled.

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY 14