Reconstructing the History of Music Education from a Feminist Perspective

Author(s): Sondra Wieland Howe

Source: Philosophy of Music Education Review , Fall, 1998, Vol. 6, No. 2 (Fall, 1998), pp.
96-106
Published by: Indiana University Press

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/40327121

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 Reconstructing the History of Music Education
From a Feminist Perspective

Sondra Wieland Howe

Wayzata, Minnesota

in the early twentieth century of high school

The history of music education has been
music, instrumental music, and music apprecia-
written as a chronological account of the teach-
tion, and describes the formation of such organi-
ing of western music in American public schools
since the middle of the nineteenth century. zations as the Music Division of the NEA (Na-
Scholars have emphasized major male leaders, tional Education Association), MTNA (Music
Teachers
the history of institutions, and the development National Association), and the MSNC
of national music associations. Publications have (Music Supervisors National Conference), includ-
concentrated on band music, note-reading meth- ing pictures of male and female leaders. Lloyd
ods, and the growth of large city school systems. Sunderman's history, published in 1971 and
It is time to use a broader definition of the based on his dissertation in 1939 follows Birge' s
history of music education, telling the story of chronological order, adding details on several
the education of students of all age groups, in city school systems and normal schools.2 Theo-
music of all types, and in diverse community dore Tellstrom's history covers the same time
settings. Alternative perspectives of the history period, concentrating on philosophies of educa-
of music education could include those of Afri- tion (humanism, utilitarianism, progressivism,
can-Americans and women in music education. experimentalism), each illustrated by a major
Various methodologies should be used including male music educator.3 James Keene's history
oral history, sociology, and ethnomusicology. also explores American music education by topic
As these new methods are used and different with additional information on private academies,
perspectives taken, a more comprehensive, richer, music appreciation, and teacher education.4
fuller historical account will emerge. More recently, Michael Mark and Charles
Gary's history provides a well- written account,
Current Publications with excellent footnotes and bibliography. The
nineteenth century is described with short bio-
Published books on the history of music graphical material on major leaders and descrip-
education have chronicled the major figures andtions of major textbooks. The second half of the
organizations that have shaped American public book shows the development of professional
school music. In the main, these writings have educational organizations, notably, the NEA,
MTNA, MSNC, and MENC.5 Mark's Source
minimized the contributions of women. For
example, Edward Birge describes singingReadings includes excerpts from the philosophers
schools, the introduction of music in the Boston of ancient Greece and Rome to modern writers
schools in 1838, and the concentration on musicin Europe and the United States. These writers
reading and development of textbooks in theare all male except the authors Hannah Matthews
nineteenth century.1 He notes the development Cundiff and Hazel Nohavec Morgan, and the

© Philosophy of Music Education Review 6, no. 2 (Fall 1998): 96-106.

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 Sondra Wieland Howe 97

first leader of MSNC,

centage of France
music teachers, the published accounts
Mark's Contemporary Music
of music education in English-speaking countries E
ments the neglect
Mark andthe contributions
Gary of women. Carolyn
histor
second of
Livingstonthe half
surveyed fivetwentiet
books on the history of
likewisemale-American
and music education and found that al-
institutiona
was a time of
thoughsome164 women were cited, creative
only eleven were
Kodály, mentioned
Suzuki, five or
Dalcroze, more times. Nor do the Gor
men and histories
developed include an assessment
by of the work
women of
into school female music educators.12 around
systems Jere Humphreys t
also a time of examined
the the histories
growth of Birge and Mark and of M
important Gary and found an inequitable representation
conferences: Tangle of
Juüliard women; Birge cited 116
Repertory women out of a total of Go
Project,
and the 361 music educators
adoption of (32%) and Mark and Gary
National S
Bernarr Rainbow's well^documented ac-
cited 95 women out of 414 (23%). Ten individ-
count of music education in Europe goes back touals were cited ten or more times by Birge and
ancient Greece and Rome, the Middle Ages, and Mark and Gary, and only one of these individu-
the Renaissance. For modern history, he discuss- als was a woman (Frances Clark, founder of
es the writings of Jean- Jacques Rousseau, the MSNC). Humphreys attributes this to a "top-
travels of Charles Burney, and the philosophy ofdown" approach in a field where men have
Johann Pestalozzi, the diverse note-reading predominated in leadership roles in the past.13 It
methods of Guillaume Bocquillon-Wilhem,is not surprising that historians have written
Galin-Paris-Chevé, Sarah Anna Glover, John about music education institutions and the offi-
Hullah, Joseph Mainzer, and John Curwen, and cers of associations since this source material is
twentieth century developments up to the 1960s, readily available. However, these organizations
including various musical organizations in Eng- have usually been led by men and the work of
land.8 A likewise male-oriented approach is women, many of whom have been active in
taken by Gordon Cox who describes the majormusic education throughout the twentieth centu-
male figures in English music education 1872-ry, is therefore invisible. As Humphreys shows,
1928 (W. H. Hadow, John Hullah, W. G. in 1907, 64% of the founders of MSNC were
McNaught, Cecil Sharp, Geoffrey Shaw, Arthur women, from 1912 to 1938 there were more
Somervell, John Stainer, and C. V. Stanford) and female than male members, and in a 1990 sur-
the development of school curriculum. vey, 53% of MENC members were women.14
J. Paul Green and Nancy Vogan's history Since historians have relied on secondary sources
of Canadian music education is presented chro- that have traditionally ignored women, women
nologically, province by province. They describe have been underrepresented in published histories
various Canadian music organizations, including of music education. Additional sources of
information on music in the community and in evidence (diaries, oral interviews, newspaper
parochial schools10 The lengthy article on "Edu- accounts) would be needed if historians were to
cation in Music" in the New Grove (1980) gives write accurate accounts that include the female
a similarly chronological account of the history experience in music education.
of music education from classical antiquity to the The extant scholarly publications on the
1970s with details on various countries. The history of music education, written by white
account of the United States includes the devel- male authors, are chronological with an emphasis
opment of MENC, American public schoolon white male educators in public school music.
music, and music in higher education.11 They also have emphasized the music teaching
Although women make up a large per- of white educators teaching the music of North
European countries. New approaches, different

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 98 Philosophy of Music Education Review

primary sources, and different styles,research

and a new global awareness. Students
methods
could produce a comprehensive listen tohistory of
the music they music
prefer and are influenced
education that includes the contributions of by consumerism, advertising, and the multina-
women and men, and the teaching of various tional corporations controlling the media. Do the
ethnic groups that have influenced American traditional methods of describing a few leaders
school and community music.15 and the major music organizations provide a
comprehensive view of the second half of the
Challenging the Canon twentieth century? Clearly not.
During the past fifteen years there has been
A canon is an authoritative list of books or an explosion of material on women composers
a body of material that is considered to be and the role of women in music. Feminist
essential for understanding a subject. Music musicologists have published scholarly books,
education historians in the United States have compiled anthologies, taught courses on women
built a canon that is disseminated to undergradu- and music, and attempted to incorporate
ate and graduate students. This history is an women's music into the traditional curriculum.
account of public school music beginning with In this process they have encountered problems
the singing schools of colonial America and the and have begun to challenge the traditional
introduction of music in Boston (1838) and other canon of music history. Undergraduate music
large cities on the East coast. It continues in the history courses in the 1990s still emphasize
nineteenth century with accounts of male music western art music and great male composers, in
educators who taught classroom teachers, trained chronological order. Donald Grout's A History
music teachers, and published textbooks. And in of Western Music, first published in 1960, re-
the twentieth century, it includes the expansion mains a major college text. However, female
of instrumental music (especially bands) and composers do not always fit into the periods of
music appreciation programs that emphasized music organized with the male composers as the
European classical music, and it details the norm.16 Musicologists are challenging their
development of the MENC which teaches public departments to use interdisciplinary approaches
school teachers through conferences and organiz- and social history, and to study the implications
es symposia that establish agendas for public of class, gender, and race on music throughout
schools. history. Music educators can learn from the
There is a problem with the perspective of research of their feminist musicologist counter-
this canon of historical material. Women are parts.
minimized because they did not participate in Marcia Citron has analyzed the relation-
band music until recently. Women did not write ships between gender and the musical canon. A
the textbooks until the twentieth century, and canon represents a certain set of values and a
only 18% of the Presidents of MSNC/MENC certain segment of society. "Canons embody the
(1907-1997) have been female. Although wom- value systems of a dominant cultural group that
en were not the apparent leaders, they comprised is creating or perpetuating the repertoire . . . '\17
a large number of the classroom teachers,A canon evolves over a period of time and
worked on conferences, and translated textbooks, develops internal categories; phenomena are
among a host of other contributions. grouped in categories, but material is excluded if
Do these historical research approaches of it does not conform to what is considered the
the past work in describing the second half of normal and traditional pattern.
the twentieth century? This has been a time of According to Citron, there are repertorial
wars, nuclear fears, new technologies, huge gaps canons and discipline canons in music. In the
between rich and poor, an explosion of musical

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Sondra Wieland Howe 99

repertorial the
canonsstandard
there or
are
tions that are On
performed,
another t
po
studied. There
called
is an"a
assump
discip
does not change. This cano
refers to goals
publications, textbooks,
conventions,con
ins
a great power. The systems,
belief teachin
influence on future
ence, musical
language
important. The repertorial
various other p
implies that there
define are
a com
discip
divinely inspired geniuse
standard, accep
pieces which should be stu
Within the dis
in musical periods. As mu
historical res
the lives and works of pas
Journal of Re
however, they find that wom
97, only 9.2% (
fit into the historical frame
have been hist
the work of men. Standard
dissertations h
es and texts the
study history
total numb
Middle Ages, high Renais
performing art
(Bach and Handel),
to 1989
Classic
.25 Inst
Beethoven), Romantic, Impr
quantitative m
Hildegard ofstudents
Bingen (1098
are en
composer, writer, and teach
topics with an
Ages, and women
music were les
educatio
Middle Ages and Renaiss
endeavor in a t
Baroque composers
are written (Ba
in
Francesca Caccini, for inst
tative than qua
Italian vocal music in the
sis, description
composing, publishing,
Although teac
calls
late Baroque, women were n
journals menti
ties to study and
system,perform
the "
period women were
courage active
histor a
and performers in higher
historians c
defe
they did not following
have the suppo
a qu
symphonies, the
not major
spending foe
era.20 During the Romant
historical disci
limited to certain
music genres
educati
chamber music) and had lim
defending wh
write large compositions.21
historians ne
the first half of the twen
(feminist mu
encouraged to continue
education th
histo
writing andtheir
were own
exclude
dis
courses in higher education
gests, canons m
new dissonant styles.22 His
nizing the pas
have been no significant
and an increas
because the women who did
change the wa
the repertorial canon of m

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 1 00 Philosophy of Music Education Review

Alternate Canons in Music Education a gradual acceptance of jazz in the public

schools and universities. This wealth of material
on the black experience would add a rich dimen-
At least four alternative perspectives can be
pursued in constructing a comprehensive history sion to our "canon" of the history of music
of music education: African-Americans, the education.
female experience, African-American women, Another important canon of the history of
and music in oral traditions. The history of music education can be constructed from a
American music education from a Black perspec- female perspective, beginning with women in the
tive would look to roots in both Africa and Catholic church of the European Middle Ages.
Europe. Among the major themes, the church Hildegard composed, taught, and performed
has been a significant influence on African- music, and directed the nuns in her scriptorium.
American culture, the colonial era as a time Nunsof founded and ran many abbeys in Europe.
In the Baroque orphanages of Venice, women
congregational singing, Protestant missions to the
black population, recreational music activities,composed, performed, and taught both choral and
and during the antebellum period, urban blacksinstrumental music. There were many opportuni-
were active in bands and orchestras, the concert
ties for women in the eighteenth-century French
courts.29
stage, and in churches and schools, and rural
blacks had an active musical life on the planta- From the middle of the eighteenth century
tion. During the Civil War, there were opportu- through the nineteenth century, women were
nities for black bandsmen in both the Union and involved in domestic music, studying instruments
Confederate armies.26 deemed appropriate for their sex, performing in
From 1865 to 1919, African- Americans had upper-class homes, and composing in genres
increased educational opportunities in academies considered feminine (keyboard music, songs, and
of the American Missionary Association and in chamber music). Women taught in their homes
urban colored high schools. Important artist- and established schools. Marianne Martinez and
teachers were violinist William Nickerson, Maria Theresia von Paradis founded schools in
composer and conductor Nathaniel Clark Smith, Vienna to improve music education for women.
and bandmaster Francis Eugene Mikell. Impor- By 1910, sixty-six percent of musicians and
tant institutions of higher education were the music teachers in the United States were wom-
Washington Conservatory of Music founded by en.30
Harriet Gibbs Marshall, Chicago Musical Col- The women's music club movement con-
lege, Oberlin College, and Fisk University. Jazz tributed to music education by organizing festi-
musicians learned their music through oral vals, lending libraries, and concerts, sponsoring
traditions and experience and many musicians young talent, and promoting public school music.
had classical training, especially on piano.27 Many of these clubs, founded in the nineteenth
During the Black Renaissance of the 1920s century, are actively supporting music for young
and 1930s, black concert choral groups devel- people today. The Music Teachers National
oped, composers won awards, and scholars Association, an organization of independent
studied Negro folklore and songs. Among the female and male teachers founded in 1876,
organizations to help black musicians were the sponsors contests and examinations and cooper-
National Association of Negro Musicians, the ates with public schools to promote music for
Society of Black Composers (founded 1968), and all.31
the Afro- American Music Opportunities Associa- Female music educators have always been
tion (founded 1969).28 Jazz, rock, and popular active in the United States.32 Women violinists
music have been an essential aspect of African- attended conservatories, taught, and performed.
American music. The twentieth century has seen Women orchestras played classical music in New

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 Sondra Wieland Howe 101

York, Cleveland, Boston,

ing Consuella Carter and Anna Mae Winburn. a
Women established music
The Sweethearts toured the United States, raising sc
Cincinnati Conservatory
money for the Piney Woods School and enter- of
Ettie Crane, Potsdam, New
tained troops in Europe during World War II. Yo
tute (1884); Many of the alumnae of the band
Jeannette had long
Thurber
vatory of careers in public
Music in school music.35
New York
Daniels Schenck, Manhattan
During the early twentieth century in
(1917).33 In Chicago, there
the were black music schools, many cen
twentieth
active in the music organizations, an orchestra formusic
preschool women,
movement, asand music
church music programs. Women were
supervis
in elementary active participants
and in thisgeneral
musical scene. This m
They authored and
context encouraged Florence Priceedited
(1887-1953),
textbooks and
Margaretwere professo
Bonds (1913-1972), and Betty Jackson
universities. King (born 1928) who composed, performed,
As we look at the
and taught. contributio
The important schools in Chicago
in music were the Chicago University
education of Music, founded
throughout
may not by Pauline Jamesa
produce Lee, The American Conserva-
neat chron
the musical tory
and (1886), and educationa
The Chicago Musical College
major which was founded in 1867
institutions, butand became Roose-
wome
present on velt University
the musical in the 1950s.36 scene a
taught, encouragedStill another canon students,
could be comprised of
trons. Since the history of music
they are education from the perspec-
often in
and unpaid, ortive of receive
oral traditions. Music educatorslow
can learn pay
adequate about these
recognition. traditions from ethnomusicologists.
They h
aged from For example, in her book,publicity
seeking Lessons from the
encouraged to World, Patricia Shehan Campbell
stay involved writes of oral i
(like keyboard traditions, ear-training,
music and improvisation
and s
participate as throughout
conductors history in both western and non- of la
as orchestras. western cultures.37 In discovering
They are this perspec-
ofte
they have been tive, historians
taughtcannot rely on institutional
and re- su
although present ports and textbooks,
in but must
large look to other num
teachers. Their sources toinvisibility
tell the story. st
that they usually Music educators work
could examine historywit
teach privately, from the perspective
and of the oral traditions of the
apply
scenes in female
organizations.34 Native Americans. For example, Judith
Yet another Vander held
canon interviews and participated
might in
women and Native American
the ceremonies to tell the story of
African-Ame
Black women trained musicians in churches. the Shoshone women in Wyoming who learn
They studied and taught piano and were active in music from their parents, peers, and religious
the development of jazz, playing the piano and groups. Emily Hill (born 1911) learned her
doing the bookkeeping for bands. LiF Hardin extensive repertoire from her mother: "My
Armstrong and Mary Lou Williams did arranging mother, she sings good. She's got all kinds of
for major bands, thus educating others. The songs. That's where we got our songs."38
International Sweethearts of Rhythm at the Piney Schools were not a vehicle for learning because
Woods Country Life School in Mississippi, a the reservation boarding schools forbade the
group of female jazz musicians from many children to learn their traditional music. But the
ethnic backgrounds, had female directors includ-

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 1 02 Philosophy of Music Education Review

the sources
schools brought peers together, so the and Shoshone
stories, is the narrative a true
and Arapahoe girls secretlyreflection
traded of songs.39
the woman's experience, or the
Lenore Shoyo (born 1959) learned music
inaccurate through
interpretation of another person?44
the Wind River Protestant Church and the meet-
A traditional biography follows the Who?
ings of the Native American Church.40 Today What? Where? When? Why? of newspaper
Shoshone women are actively participating in reporting, however, different questions must be
powwows and teaching their oral musical tradi- asked to determine the biographies and career
tion. patterns of successful female music educators.
New canons of the history of music educa- How were they educated? Were they limited to
tion can be constructed to include the contribu- certain areas of specialization? Who were their
tions of and perspectives of women and many mentors and role models? What did they
ethnic groups that have been hitherto invisible. achieve? What were their support systems?
These multiple canons, developed with alterna- How did they gain confidence? Did they receive
tive research methodologies, can include the recognition for their accomplishments? How did
perspectives of such marginalized groups as they react to success and how did others react to
African-Americans and women, and reflect their successes? Did they experience discrimi-
written and oral traditions in music education. nation and how did they react to discrimination?
What is the time line for female careers? Are
Describing Women's Lives female music educators able to have a continu-
ous career throughout their lives? During which
Since the early 1980s, there has been an periods of their lives are women most produc-
explosion of material on the history of women, tive? How do they balance the demands of
as the invisible women of the past have become caring for children and/or elderly parents with
visible.41 In musicology there are excellent the demands of a career? Does their position as
histories of women in music, anthologies, and women prevent them from doing the travel
biographies of composers. Comparable research necessary for expanding a career? Do they
on the contributions of women in music educa- receive recognition for their accomplishments,
tion in the United States and other countries is during their lifetime and in the history books?
needed. There are some dissertations on out-
standing female leaders, but a lack of published Women in Music Education
biographies and analyses of women's lives.42
How are women described? Perhaps we In analyzing the contributions of women in
have to use different methods, ask different music education, it is important to look not only
questions, and use different sources when de-at the female leaders but also at the invisible
scribing women. This is not an altogether new women. In the MENC there have been eleven
approach for various scholars have addressed this female presidents. Francis Clark was the first
issue of writing a woman's life. For example, in leader of MSNC in 1907, and she had a long
1946 Mary Beard wrote about women as a career of writing articles, giving lectures, and
powerful force in history.43 Feminist scholarshipworking at RCA to develop materials for teach-
is working to reconstruct the understanding of ing music appreciation. In the middle of the
the world through the recovery and interpretation century the leaders were Mabelle Glenn, music
of women's lives. Men's experiences are not director from Kansas City; Lilla Belle Pitts, who
"normative"; they are actually limited by gender, led MENC during difficult war time; and
class, and race. As the female experience isMarguerite Hood, who was active in the Interna-
added to the story of history, authors musttional Society for Music Education (ISME).
analyze the "voice" of the female narrative. InFrances Andrews (president 1970-72) and Mary

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 Sondra Wieland Howe 103

Hoffman (presidentWhile there have been 1980-82)

strong women
professors, and active
leaders in music organizations, musicMENC
teaching,
end of the twentieth
and textbook publication, women century
have also made
valuable contributions
female presidents: as an invisible force.
Dorothy St
Lindeman, andThroughout
June history, Hinckley.
they have often been con- I
esting to see if
finedthis
to the privatepattern
sphere and discouraged by of
male leadership continues
their family into
and friends from participating in the t
century.45 public sphere. Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel
Women have also participated in textbook directed choral and instrumental ensembles,
publication. The nineteenth-century and early composed, and performed in her large Berlin
twentieth-century editors were male: Lowell home, but family pressures and responsibilities
Mason, Luther Whiting Mason, Hosea Holt, prevented her from publishing and traveling to
Osbourne McConathy. Women were invisible perform.52 Nadia Boulanger had a long career of
on the title pages, but they were part of the encouraging major twentieth-century composers
process. For example, Mary Stanley Dana in her home in Paris and taught in colleges in the
Shindler probably translated Christian Heinrich United States, but never had a full time position
Hohmann's Praktischer Lehrgang (Practical in an institution.53 Women continue to teach
Course of Instruction in Singing, 1856-58), the piano and voice in their homes. Even at the end
book that Luther Whiting Mason used to develop of the twentieth century, women predominate in
his National Music Course. G. H. Pollock is classroom music but have a difficult time suc-
acknowledged for her translations and original ceeding in band and leadership positions.54
materials in the preface of Luther Whiting Invisible women have contributed to music
Mason's Fourth Music Reader (1872). Adelia L. education by supporting men's careers. For
Loughlin translated texts from French and Ger- example, Luther Whiting Mason had many
man for the second series of the National Music women who helped him maintain his busy
Course (1886) and The Mason School Music international career. His wife ran the households

Course (1898-99). The songbooks in Mason's in Boston and Maine while he spent years travel-
personal library have notes to Loughlin, suggest- ing around the world. His two daughters taught
ing material for translation and Lydia J. Cranston music in the public schools of Boston (for no
is thanked for her valuable assistance on The pay) so he could travel to Europe in 1872. In
Mason School Music Course.46 Tokyo, Mason had several young female assis-
Women are more visible in twentieth- tants who accompanied, translated, and helped
century publications. Two women, Mabelle him teach.55
Glenn and Helen S. Leavitt, were on the editorial
staff of the The World of Music.41 The editors of Research Questions From a New Perspective
Our Singing World were Lilla Belle Pitts,
Mabelle Glenn, and Lorrain E. Waiters.48 In Music education historians have emphasized
recent years Mary Hoffman was an author for public school music, performance ensembles
several editions for Silver Burdett: The Music such as bands, orchestras, and choirs, and the
Connection, Silver Burdett Music, and Teaching development of the Music Educators National
Music.49 Eunice Boardman and Barbara Andress Conference. However, careful thought should be
were the editors of The Music Book, and three of given to asking research questions from new
the seven consultants were women.50 For recent perspectives in order to access the contributions
publications by Macmillan, six of the nine of women and various ethnic groups. Music
authors of Music and You and four of the five education should be defined more broadly as
authors of Share the Music were women.51 encompassing the learning of all types of music,
by all ages, in diverse settings.

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 1 04 Philosophy of Music Education Review

There are many topics to pursue.

music they prefer,Ifwiththetheir peers; they are
historical account is going to
ignoring
segment of the American population,
research should be done on classroom music and among music educators today. Quantitative
community music. Within the public schools in
the United States, most students do not partici-
pate in bands, orchestras, and choirs. The typi-
cal student learns some music in elementary
school from the classroom teacher, studies a little
general music in middle school or junior high,
and is exposed to music outside of school.
Research needs to be focused on these experi-
ences as well.
The history of music outside of the K-12
public school should be examined. Independent
music teachers have played an important role in
training musicians. The church has been an
important music educator from the convents of
the Middle Ages, orphanages of the Baroque,
cathedral schools, to parochial schools and black
churches. Research needs to be done on teacher
training institutes, music in normal schools,
community music schools, and conservatories,
among the other places where music instruction
is carried on.
The traditional histories of music education
are also inadequate for the second half of the
twentieth century. The method of telling the
story, with accounts of major figures and the
development of music organizations, does not do
justice to the complexity of these issues. With
advances in technology, students are learning the
reflect
a large
the traditional institutions of learning.
Perhaps there is less interest in history
historical
research is considered more important as music
educators try to prove their worth in a scientific,
technological world. As we look back in history,
there have been other times when a scientific
approach was advocated. At the end of the
nineteenth century, educators like Hosea Holt
criticized Luther Whiting Mason's emphasis on
songs. Holt's publications were considered
"scientific" because they included textless exer-
cises that were not fun for students. Early in the
twentieth century, educators became interested in
psychological research. They devised scientific
tests to measure the musical ability of students.
When music is measured by some extrinsic
scientific value, the emotional qualities that make
music worthwhile are ignored. Music is impor-
tant in society for its intrinsic value, its emotion
and expression. It is essential to understand the
intrinsic values of music in various cultural
settings in the past and present.
Such questions as these would help gener-
ate a comprehensive account of the history of
music education that would more truly reflect the
experience of all those involved in music educa-
tion, in leading and training people of all ages in
music of all styles. This would not only provide
a more accurate perspective on the past, but help
teachers recognize opportunities for the future.

NOTES

1 . Edward Bailey Birge, History of Public School Music and Winston, 1971).
4. James A. Keene, A History of Music Education in
in the United States (Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1928,
1939; Washington, D.C.: Music Educators National the United States (Hanover and London: University
Conference, 1966). Press of New England, 1982).
2. Lloyd Frederick Sunderman, Historical Foundations5. Michael L. Mark and Charles L. Gary, A History of
of Music Education in the United States (Metuchen, American Music Education (New York: Schirmer
N.J.: The Scarecrow Press, 1971). Books, 1992).
3. A. Theodore Tellstrom, Music in American Educa- 6. Michael L. Mark, bouree Readings in Music educa-
tion: Past and Present (New York: Holt, Rinehart tion History (New York: Schirmer Books, 1982).

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 Sondra Wieland Howe 105

7. Mark, Contemporary and 191-223 on "Musiciennes of the Ancien

York: Schirmer Regime."
8. Bemarr Rainbow, 20. On the role of women
Practice: A Survey period, Carol from
Wales: Boethius Anthology
9. Gordon Cox,
land 1872-1928 sity
1993).
10. J. Paul Green and Nancy F. Vogan, Music Education
in Canada: A Historical Account (Toronto: Universi-
ty of Toronto Press, 1991).
1 1. Warren Anderson, et al., "Education in Music," The
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
(1980); Richard Colwell, James W. Pruett, and
Pamela Bristahl, "Education in Music," The New
Grove Dictionary of American Music (1986).
12. Carolyn Livingston, "Women in Music Education in
the United States: Names Mentioned in History
Books," Journal of Research in Music Education, 45
no. 1 (Spring 1997): 130-44. The study does not
compare the number of times men's names are
mentioned.
13. Jere T. Humphreys, "Sex and Geographic Represen-
tation in Two Music Education History Books,"
Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Educa-
tion 131 (Winter 1997): 67-86.
14. Mark and Gary, A History, 230-32; Humphreys and
Charles P. Schmidt, "Membership of the Music
Educators National Conference from 1912-1938: A
Demographic and Economic Analysis," unpublished
paper, MENC poster session, Phoenix, 1998, 15-16;
and Humphreys, "Sex and Geographic Representa-
tion," 79.
1 5. Terese M. Volk, Music, Education, and Multicultura-
lism: Foundations and Principles (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1998) does include some historical
material on ethnic groups in twentieth-century
American cities.
16. Marcia J. Citron, Gender and the Musical Canon
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, 199-
200.
17. Ibid., 20.
18. See Jane Bobko, ed., Vision: The Life and Music of
Hildegard von Bingen (New York: Penguin Books, 27. Ibid.,
1995). On invisible women in the late Middle Ages,
see Kimberly Marshall, "Symbols, Performers, and 28. Ibid., 404-65 on the Harlem Renaissance, 311-12,
Sponsors: Female Musical Creators in the Late
Middle Ages," Rediscovering the Muses: Women's 29. See Bowers and Tick, Women Making Music, Pendei,
Musical Traditions, ed. Kimberly Marshall (Boston:
Northeastern University Press, 1993), 140-68.
Music Edu
Books, 1996).
Music musicians in the in Classic Educ
Neuls-Bates, ed., Women 800 B.C
in Music: An
Press, 1989).
of Source Readings from the Middle Ages
A History
to the of Univer-
Present, rev. ed. (Boston: Northeastern Musi
Press, 1996), 73-88; andEngland:
(Hants, Karin Pendei, ed.,
Women and Music: A History (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1991), 77-92.
21. On "Women and the Lied, 1775-1850" see Bowers
and Tick, Women Making Music, 224-48.
22. Amy Beach and Cécile Chaminade, who both died in
1944, continued writing in a nineteenth-century style.
See Adrienne Fried Bloak, Amy Beach, Passionate
Victorian (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998)
andn Marcia J. Citron, Cécile Chaminade: A Bio-
Bibliography (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press,
1988). On the opposition towards modern women
composers see Catherine Parsons Smith, '"A Distin-
guishing Virility': Feminism and Modernism in
American Art Music," Cecilia Reclaimed: Feminist
Perspectives on Gender and Music, eds. Susan C.
Cook and Judy S. Tsou (Urbana and Chicago:
University of Illinois Press, 1994), 90-106.
23. Citron, Gender and the Musical Canon, 19.
24. Survey of author.
25. There were 188 historical dissertations on music
education topics in 1967-71, 106 in 1972-76, 35 in
1977-81, 51 in 1982-86, and 59 in 1987-91. George
N. Heller, "Historical Research in Music Education
and Music Therapy: A Quarter-Century of Research,
Writing, and Publication," The Quarterly Journal of
Music Teaching and Learning 3, no. 1 (Spring 1992):
60.; and Humphreys, David M. Bess, and Martin J.
Bergee, "Doctoral Dissertations on the History of
Music Education and Music Therapy," The Quarterly
Journal of Music Teaching and Learning 7, no. 2-4
(1996-97): 120.
26. Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A
History, 3rd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton and
Company, 1997). On the Colonial Era see 23-58;
antebellum urban life, 97-150; antebellum rural life,
151-204, and Civil War, 205-217.
286-91, 424-34, 574-76 on education; 365-403
on jazz.
474-75, 542 on organizations.
Women and Music, and Neuls-Bates, Women in
Music.

19. On the Baroque period see Jane Bowers and Judith 30. Neuls-Bates, Women in Music, 80-86, 184.
Tick, Women Making Music: The Western Art 31. Ibid., 179-91.
Tradition, 1150-1950 (Urbana and Chicago: Universi- 32. See Christine Ammer, 'Teaching Music," Unsung: A
ty of Illinois Press, 1986), 116-67 on "The Emer- History of Women in American Music (Westport, CT:
gence of Women Composers in Italy, 1566-1700," Greenwood Press, 1980), 224-44.

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 1 06 Philosophy of Music Education Review

33. Ammer, Unsung, 226-27; Mark and(Boston:

Gary, Ginn,
A 1936).
History,
192. 48. Lilla Belle Pitts, Mabelle Glenn, and Lorrain E.
34. On women in invisible spheres see Waiters, eds., Our Singing
Jennifer C. Post,World (Boston: Ginn,
1949).
"Erasing the Boundaries Between Public and Private
49. Silver Burden
in Women's Performance Traditions," Music
Cecilia (Morristown, N.J.: Silver
Re-
claimed, 35-51. Burdett, 1974); World of Music (Morristown, N.J.:
Silver Burdett,
35. D. Antoinette Handy, The International 1988); and The Music Connection
Sweethearts
(Morristown, N.J.:Press,
of Rhythm (Metuchen, N.J.: The Scarecrow Silver Burdett, 1995).
1983). 50. Eunice Boardman and Barbara Andress, eds., The
36. Helen Walker-Hill, "Black Women Composers in Music Book (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Chicago: Then and Now," Black Music Research 1981).
Journal, 12 no. 1 (Spring 1992): 1-23. 51. Barbara Station, et al., Music and You (New York:
37. Patricia Shehan Campbell, Lessons from the World: Macmillan, 1991) and Judy Bond, et al., Share the
A Cross-Cultural Guide to Music Teaching and Music (New York: Macmillan McGraw Hill, 1995).
Learning (New York: Schirmer Books, 1991). 52. Francoise Tillard, Fanny Mendelssohn, trans. Camille
38. Judith Vander, Songprints: The Musical Experience Naish (Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 1992).
of Five Shoshone Women (Urbana and Chicago: 53. Léonie Rosenstiel, Nadia Boulanger: A Life in Music
University of Illinois Press, 1988), 10. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1982).
39. Ibid., 23. 54. See Elizabeth S. Gould, "Playing Outside Inside
40. Ibid., 197. Music Education: Women College Band Directors
41. Georges Duby and Michelle Perrot, eds., A History and Layers of Experience," unpublished paper
of Women in the West (Cambridge: Harvard Univer- presented at The Sonneck Society for American
sity Press, 1992), 5 vols.; Bonnie S. Anderson and Music, Kansas City, Missouri, February 1998.
Judith P. Zinsser, A History of Their Own: Women in 55. Howe, Luther Whiting Mason, 53, 85-89.
Europe from Prehistory to the Present (New York:
Harper & Row, 1988), 2 vols.; and Sara M. Evans,
Born for Liberty: A History of Women in America
(New York: The Free Press, 1989).
42. Eugene M. Stoddard, "Frances Elliott Clark" (Ph.D.
diss., Brigham Young University, 1968); George
Holgate, "Mabelle Glenn" (Ed.D. diss., University of
Southern California, 1962); Christy Izdebski,
"Vannett Lawler" (D.M.A. diss., The Catholic
University of America, 1983); Gerald L. Blanchard,
"Lilla Belle Pitts" (Ed.D. diss., Brigham Young
University, 1966). Notice that most of these disserta-
tions were written in the 1960s.
43. Mary R. Beard, Woman as Force in History: A Study
in Traditions and Realities (New York: Collier
Books, 1946, 1962).
44. See Carolyn G. Heilbrun, Writing a Woman's Life
(New York: Ballantine Books, 1988); and Personal
Narratives Group, eds., Interpreting Women's Lives:
Feminist Theory and Personal Narratives (Blooming-
ton: Indiana University Press, 1989).
45. Sondra Wieland Howe, "Leadership in MENC: The
Female Tradition," paper presented at the 17th ISME
Research Seminar, Johannesburg, South Africa, July
1998.
46. Howe, Luther Whiting Mason: International Music
Educator (Warren, MI: Harmonie Park Press, 1997),
18, 47-48, 50.
47. Mabelle Glenn, Helen S. Leavitt, Victor L. F.
Rebmann, Earl L. Baker, eds., The World of Music

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