Original article
The geological and technical
characterisation of Ömer–Gecek
geothermal area and the
environmental impact assessment
of geothermal heating system
in Afyon, Turkey
Mustafa Yavuz Çelik Æ Eyüp Sabah
Abstract Turkey, located in the Alpine–Himalayan
Orogenic Belt, is of great interest because of its
abundant geothermal resources. In particular, the
Ömer–Gecek region of Afyon is one of the important
geothermal fields in Turkey exhibiting high geother-
mal potential. The stratigraphic sequence, from
bottom to top, comprises schist and marbles called
‘Afyon metamorphics’, Neogene sediments, and
trachyte and trachyandesites, which are the products
of Afyon trachytic volcanism, and Karakaya basalts.
The basalt flows form the latest phase of the volcanic
activities. The magma pockets forming the volcanic
rocks are the source of heat for the geothermal sys-
tem. Aquifer rocks forming Pasadagi marbles are
aged Palaeozoic. Despite the high geothermal poten-
tial, Afyon is one of the provinces in Turkey suffering
from air pollution. In order to utilize this potential
and reduce air pollution problems, Afyon Geothermal
Heating System (AFJET) was initiated in 1994 and put
into operation in 1996 with an installed capacity of
10,000 residences out of which 4,453 have been suc-
cessfully heated. If Tunçbilek–Kütahya coal, which
contains 17.56% ash and 1.27% combustible sulphur
was burnt instead of utilizing geothermal energy,
approximately 768 tons of SOx, 78,740 t of CO2 and
4,083 t of particulate matter would have been emitted
to the atmosphere. The results obtained from Afyon
experience reveal that not only the emission of
Received: 30 April 2001 / Accepted: 8 November 2001
Published online: 13 February 2002
ª Springer-Verlag 2002
M.Y. Çelik (&) Æ E. Sabah
Afyon Kocatepe University,
Afyon Vocational School,
03100, Afyon, Turkey
E-mail: mycelik@hotmail.com
942 Environmental Geology (2002) 41:942–953
tremendous amounts of pollutants is eliminated, but
also a cheap energy alternative with an environ-
mental friendly heating source is provided.
Keywords Afyon Æ Geothermal energy Æ
Geothermal fields Æ Geothermal heating Æ Turkey
Introduction
The majority of energy produced in the world today is
obtained from fossil fuels, i.e. coal, petroleum and natural
gas, hydroelectric and nuclear energy. In addition, sus-
tainable and environment friendly resources, such as
geothermal energy, sunlight, wind power, biogas and
wood, are also utilized. Among these, fossil fuels have
maintained their important status among primary energy
resources. It is estimated that only about 3% of the world’s
energy demand is met through renewable energy sources
whereas the remaining 97% is obtained from primary
energy resources. Based on the statistics compiled in 2000,
the primary energy resources are formed of 89% fossil
fuels, 8% nuclear energy and 3% water resources (BP
Amoco 2001).
According to the Annual Report of World Energy Council,
Turkish National Committee (2000), the total energy
demand of Turkey is around 87 million TEP (crude oil
equivalent in tons) in 2000. Turkey is currently importing
67% of its total energy demand. Considering the rapid
development of the Turkish economy and the increase in
population, the total energy demand of Turkey is projected
to reach 130 million TEP in 2005, 171 million TEP in 2010
and 298 million TEP in 2020. Turkey will be able to meet
only 30% of this energy demand. The primary energy re-
sources of Turkey are hydroelectric and coal. Hydroelec-
tric (29%) and coal (36%) meet about two-thirds of the
total demand. In this respect, it is projected that Turkey
will import 143 million t of coal, 74 million t crude oil and
79 billion m3 of natural gas and liquid natural gas (LNG)
in the year 2020 (Tuncali 1998).
DOI 10.1007/s00254-001-0472-0
 Original article

In summary, Turkey needs alternative energy resources in

order to meet the increasing demand and, thus, improve
the productivity of natural resources in view of technical,
economical, social, political and environmental effects.
These are all renewable primary energy resources and
geothermal energy is undoubtedly a major resource among
them. Turkey has 8% of the geothermal energy potential in
the world and ranks fifth in terms of its geothermal energy
potential. Geothermal energy is cheap, renewable and en-
vironment friendly. Although there are 170 geothermal
fields above 40 C, except for a few, most are unutilized
and, thus, run at an economic loss. Turkey has currently
utilized only 1.8% of its environmentally friendly, green
energy potential. Ömer–Gecek field in Afyon is one of the
geothermal fields with considerable geothermal potential.
The Tertiary-aged sedimentary rocks and volcanics are
placed on Palaeozoic-aged metamorphites with an angle of
unconformity and Quaternary-aged alluvium and traver-
Fig. 1
tine formations are placed on the top of these. The marbles Usage of hot springs in Turkey
located on the schists at the bottom of metamorphic layer
form the reservoir rocks of the geothermal area and ex-
hibit folded and fractured structures. The Tertiary sedi- proven geothermal energy potential of Turkey is
ments, which contain sand, clay, marl and tuff, form the 2,490 MWt. According to studies conducted by MTA
cover rocks of the geothermal area. (General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration)
The first well in this geothermal field was drilled in 1970. and the Geothermal Foundation of Turkey, the estimated
The field is located in a graben system called ‘Afyon geothermal potential of Turkey is around 31.500 MWt,
Graben’, which runs in a NW–SE direction along the main which is sufficient to heat 5 million residences (100 m2/
depression. Since 1970, efforts have concentrated on residence). However, this only indicates the theoretical
drilling for geophysical and geological studies to deter- potential (Gençoglu and Cebeci 2000). According to fig-
mine the geothermal potential of the region (Fig. 1). ures from the year 2000, current energy production ca-
In this study, the geology of Ömer–Gecek fields in Afyon is pacity for heating purposes is 493 MWt and it is planned
given in detail. The aim of this paper is to discuss the to heat 52,550 residences (Mertoglu and others 2000).
importance of geothermal energy, its economics and its Table 1 indicates the important centres where geothermal
role in reducing air pollution in Afyon. energy is used for household heating; the number of res-
idences, current energy production capacities and water
temperatures are also provided.
Geothermal resources in Turkey have been used in:
Geothermal applications in Turkey
1. Production of electricity;
Turkey, located in the Alpine–Himalayan Orogenic Belt 2. Heating;
together with Iceland and Japan, is one of the countries 3. Processed hot-water production;
with rich geothermal resources. There are 170 known 4. Production of chemicals;
geothermal fields, at low (<70 C), medium (70–150 C) 5. For health purposes (hot-water resorts).
and high (>150 C) temperatures (Mertoglu 2000). The
Figure 1 shows the current and projected figures related to
richest province, in terms of geothermal resources, is Izmir
geothermal heating in Turkey, balneological evaluation
followed by Denizli, Simav, Gonen, Aydın, Afyon and
and electricity production.
Çesme, respectively. Denizli–Kizildere (242 C) and
Aydin–Germencik (232 C) fields are suitable for electricity
production. In addition, medium-temperature fields, such
as Çanakkale–Tuzla (173 C), Kütahya–Simav (162 C),
Aydin–Salavatli (171 C) and Izmir–Seferihisar (153 C),
The geology of Afyon Ömer–Gecek
can have considerable potential for employing new tech- geothermal fields
nologies for electricity generation. Since 1984, only 75–80-
kWh electricity production has been realized with a plant of The study field was located on Afyon–Kutahya highway
20.4-MWe in capacity at the Kizildere–Denizli geothermal at 15 km NE of Afyon (Fig. 2). The oldest geologic unit
fields in Turkey (Fig. 2). In addition, dry-ice, at a capacity is schist, belong to the Palaeozoic. Dominance of mica-
of 40,000 t/year, has been produced in the same field. schist, quartz-schist, calc-schist and phyllite is evidence of
About 87% of the geothermal energy potential in Turkey is this metamorphic unit called ‘Afyon metamorphics’.
suitable for heating purposes (Mertoglu, Basarir 1995). In Crystallized limestones (marbles) are a transient formation
respect of the current geothermal wells and resources, the located on the schists.

Environmental Geology (2002) 41:942–953 943

 Original article

Table 1
The current use of geothermal heating systems in Turkey (Koçak
2000; Mertoglu and others 2000)
Locality Number of Installed capacity Liquid
heated residence (residence) temperature
(C)

Afyon 4,453 10,000 95

Balçova and 13,000 20,000 125 and 98
Narlidere
Diyadin 1,500 1,500 78
Gönen 3,400 4,500 80
Kirsehir 1,800 1,800 57
Kizilcahamam 2,000 2,250 80
Kozakli 1,000 1,000 90
Sandikli 2,000 5,000 70
Simav 3,200 6,500 120
Total 32,353 52,550
Thermal power 304 493
(MWt)

Palaeozoic-aged rocks

Fig. 2
Location map of the investigated area
Crystallized limestones alternate with mica-schist and
calc-schist. Neogene units cover the schist and/or crys-
tallized limestone (marble) at an angle of unconformity.
This unit begins with conglomerate at the bottom and
continues with a series of sandstone, clay, limestone and
marl. Above, serial tuffs, agglomerates and chert are ob-
served as products of the same volcanism. Travertine and
alluvium are the youngest units in the study area. Alluvi-
um is located around Arap Çayi and at the SE part of the
study area (Erisen and others 1996).
Trachytic, trachyandesitic and andesitic outcrops and
related products, such as tuff, agglomerate and lahar,
which are part of the Afyon trachytic volcanism, are the
oldest rocks in terms of magmatic activity. Karakaya
basalts, composed of basalt lava, represent the youngest
volcanism in the field. These basalt lavas are positioned
on the surface according to youngest fault zones. From
the late Middle Miocene through to the late Upper
Miocene, a widespread terrestrial volcanism of different
stages has dominated the region. Besang and others
(1997) conducted radiometric dating on volcanic rocks
by a K–Ar method and concluded that their ages range
from 14.75 years to 8 million years (Çevikbas and others
1988).
The general direction of faults inclines towards the
NE–SW, NW–SE and W–E directions, with an age of the
end of the Neogene and after the Neogene. According to
field studies and drilling works, Palaeozoic-aged
quartzite, calc-schist, quartz-schist and crystallized
limestones (marbles), Neogene-aged conglomerate,
sandstone, basalt, limestone and all other rocks in fault
zones are characterized as reservoir rocks (Erisen and
others 1996).
Afyon metamorphics
Afyon metamorphics, including schist and marble, exhibit
a back-to-back form in the study area (Fig. 3). Schists
indicate a wide distribution in the study area. They are
generally located under marbles and sometimes intersect
with Pasadagi marbles. It has been observed that schist
shows yellowish, brown, green and grey colours, and are
generally formed by albite–chlorite–muscovite–biotite
schists (Öktü and others 1997).
Schists, members of the Afyon metamorphics, occupy a
wide area in the study area and appear brown and green in
colour. They are generally located under marbles and
sometimes intersect with Pasadagi marbles. They show a
curly and granoblastic texture, and represent green schist
facies. Pasadagi marbles are typically observed on Pasad-
agi Mountain. It is white, grey coloured, hard and looks
crystallized. It is thick-layered and presents regular folds.
It is sequentially ordered in the fields as white, green, grey
and red, respectively. It intersects with schists at the bot-
tom and is covered by Tertiary sediments on the top. The
thickness is variable and only one layer is around 450 m
(Metin and others 1987).
Cenozoic-aged rocks
Gebeciler formation
Its name originates from the Gebeciler district just
outside the study area. After the Mesozoic age, the study
area was subjected to erosional processes, and then the
Gebeciler formation unconformably sedimented over the
Upper–Middle-Miocene-aged crystalline metamorphic
base. It generally appears as a white and greyish-white
colour, and is composed of fine- to thick-layered con-
glomerate, sandstone, agglomerate, tuff, tuffite, marl,
clay–limestone and silica–limestone units. Because of the
presence of marl and clay layers, the Gebeciler formation
can be considered as cover rocks of the geothermal
field. The Gebeciler formation is composed of Özburun
conglomerate, Seydiler tuff, Kocatepe trachyte and

944 Environmental Geology (2002) 41:942–953

 Original article

Fig. 3
Geological map of the investigated area
(modified from Öktü and others 1997).
1 Schist; 2 marble; 3 conglomerate; 4 marl,
clay; 5 tuff; 6 basalt; 7 alluvium; 8 accumulate
cone; 9 travertine; 10 fault; 11 hot spring;
12 motor way; 13 village

Akpinar limestone (Fig. 4; Metin and others 1987; Öktü

and others 1997).
Afyon volcanic rocks
Continental volcanism had been effective in the study field
in various periods between the Late Miocene to the Early
Pliocene. Afyon volcanics, composed of several of these
members, represent volcanic rocks with high potassium.
Karakaya basalt, a member of the Afyon volcanics, is easily
noticed in the field with its blackish and dark-brown ap-
pearance. Basalts contain pyroxene, augite, biotite and
labradorite as porphyritic crystal, and biotite as opaque
minerals. The matrix material is made up of glass and a
vitreous texture is observed.
Slope debris
Slope debris is generally observed on the slopes and skirts
of the mountains in the field, and has an angled and
brecciated appearance. In some zones of the field, conoid
deposits are present together with slope debris.
Alluvium
The alluvium consists of unconsolidated sediments com-
posed of sand, pebbles, silt and clay, and is placed on
plains and river beds extending in large areas. These ma-
terials have been formed as a result of the slow movement
of metamorphic rock fragments, Neogene sediments and Fig. 4
volcanic rocks. The thickness of the alluvium was mea- Generalized columnar section of northern Afyon (modified from Öktü
sured as between 50–150 m during the drilling works of and others 1997)
DSI at about 270 m around Afyon.
Travertine Tectonics
Travertines (CaCO3) from geothermal waters are seen in The tectonics of Anatolia are directly involved in the for-
all the units. They are seen at Oyuklu Tepe and to the west mation of the geothermal fields in Turkey. According to
just beyond Ömer–Gecek, on the Neogene units around the Ercan’s (2000) intersection model (Figs. 5 and 6), the
Gazligöl Spas and around springs. Their thickness ranges hottest places are within the intersection areas of the faults
from 5 to 10 m. and sediments formed as a result of compression in a N–S

Environmental Geology (2002) 41:942–953 945

 Original article
Fig. 5
An intersection model for the location of hottest geothermal areas
in West Anatolia (Ercan 2000). N–S The old fractures, enhancing the
porosity and permeability, formed during the compression process
of Anatolian tectonics before the Miocene. E–W The fractures,
featuring high heat conductivity, developed during the extension of
Anatolian tectonics since the Middle Miocene
direction that dominate in the Aegean before the Miocene,
and in an E–W direction formed by their expansion, which
still continues at present (Ercan 2000). Anatolia is effected
by a number of common tectonic events, which have
continued their activity since the Neogene in Western
Anatolia. These events that have formed grabens in the
Aegean Region, in general, indicate the characteristics of
dip-slip normal faults. Afyon volcanism had been formed
as a consequence of these tectonic movements.
A very large fault, positioned in a NW–SE direction, forms
the main tectonic structure in the study field (Fig. 7) Ömer–
Gecek hot springs was formed at the intersection point of
this fault and Sultandagi fault, which forms the southern
fault of the horst-graben system. In addition, there are
several subfaults and cracks. The layer is generally directed
towards a NW–SE direction (Öktü and others 1997).
Characteristics of the
geothermal field
The heat source of geothermal water, generally, can be a
block of magma, which has not cooled off yet, a young
946 Environmental Geology (2002) 41:942–953
volcanism or an abnormal territorial underground heat
flow. The formation of the geothermal system is completed
with the circulation of meteoric waters, which leak into
porous and reservoir rocks around a heat block. When
reservoir rocks are surrounded by impermeable cover
rocks, heated fluid uses cracks, faults and fractures as
channels to reach the surface (Ölmez 2000).
There are hot springs as a result of faults in the Ömer–
Gecek geothermal field (Fig. 7). The temperature of these
springs is 25–92 C with a flow rate in the range of 0.1 and
3 l/s. However, these springs have become arid as a result
of drilling works in the field. There are 25 wells drilled in
the area (Fig. 8).
Changes in the chemical and mineralogical phases, which
are formed as a result of interaction between rocks placed
in the shallow parts of Earth’s crust and hydrothermal
fluids circulating around these rocks, are defined as
‘hydrothermal alteration’. Alteration in the study field is
observed along the fault lines and at the old geothermal
springs. Alteration traces were seen as tones of yellow
colours. Red siliceous limestones are seen outside of the
study field. The chalks on the west of Gebeciler town
contain hydrothermal quartz formations. In addition,
altered clays were cut in all wells.
The products of on effective volcanism related to tectonic
activities began in the Miocene and continued during the
Pliocene, particularly in Afyon, and occupy very large ar-
eas with large volumes. The basalt flows form the latest
phase of the volcanic activities. The magma pockets
forming the volcanic rocks are the source of heat for the
geothermal system. Aquifer rocks forming the Pasadagi
marbles are aged at Palaeozoic (Öktü and others 1997). In
addition, metamorphic schists indicate the same charac-
teristics as aquifer rocks. At almost all drilling sites, schists
and marbles were cut.
Aquifer rocks
Field studies and drilling works indicate that the primary
aquifer rocks of the geothermal system are formed by
Paleozoic-aged Pasadagi marbles. These aquifer rocks
exhibit a karstic structure. In addition, calc-schists,
observed with the schists, form the reservoir rocks. For
instance, the drilling equipment fall was experienced be-
tween 84.80 and 88.10 m of AF-14 well where a contact
zone of marble and schists was identified (Öktü and others
Fig. 6
Outer shell was thinned as a result of the
tensile stresses in the direction of N–S-
dominating west Anatolia. Outer shell was
thickened as a result of the compressive
stresses in the direction of N–S and domi-
nates east Anatolia. The outer shell from the
west towards the east was thickened and a
progressive retreat from the heater occurred
as a result of shearing movements in central
Anatolia (Ercan 2000)
 Original article

Fig. 7
The draft model of the Afyon Ömer–Gecek
geothermal field system

Fig. 8
The tectonic map of Ömer–Gecek (Afyon)
geothermal field, hot springs, old geothermal
springs, and location of hot spring drillings
(modified from Öktü and others 1997; Erisen
and others 1996). 1 Fault; 2 probable fault;
3 old geothermal springs; 4 hot springs;
5 hot springs drillings

1997). The loss of circulation liquid in the marble zones Chemistry of the geothermal water
during the drilling works indicated the very permeable Chemical analyses of the geothermal water samples taken
nature of the area. from the wells and the source were performed at the
laboratories of Green Chemical Ltd. S. in Kocaeli, Turkey.
Cover rocks The chemical analyses of geothermal waters from the
The clay and marl levels, which form the Gebeciler for- Ömer–Gecek area are presented in Table 2. The pH values
mation, also form the cover rocks. These units prevent the in the samples ranged from 7.16 to 8.26. The total dis-
loss of heat in the geothermal system. As seen in Fig. 9, the solved solids (TDS) of the thermal waters varied from
thickness of Middle–Upper Miocene-aged Gebeciler for- 3,895 to 4,325 mg/l. CaCO3, Cl–, Si and Ca2+ ions domi-
mation increases towards the eastern area of the geother- nated the samples. The excess amount of CaCO3,and Ca2+
mal area (Öktü and others 1997). in the samples revealed the contact with marble and
limestones. The presence of large amounts of Cl– and Si
Hydrogeological cycle points to the water’s contact with volcanic rocks.
The meteoric water on the alluvium and Pasadagi marbles
moves deep into these rocks and is heated by the magma Geothermometry
pockets formed by Afyon volcanics. These heated waters The results of chemical geothermometers applied to the
reach the surface through main faults that form the host- thermal waters of the Ömer–Gecek geothermal area are
graben system and other subfaults (Fig. 8). given by Mutlu (1998). The quartz geothermometers of

Environmental Geology (2002) 41:942–953 947

 Original article

Table 2
Chemical analyses of geothermal waters from the Ömer–Gecek
geothermal area
AF-17 AF-11 AF-20 AF-16 AF-15
(mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

pH 8.22 8.26 8.21 7.26 7.16

TDS 3,895 3,970 3,995 4,325 4,150
Mg 17.0 17.0 17.0 17.0 16.0
Fe 1.7 15 0.5 10 0.5
Cu 0.05 0.08 0.4 0.8 0.07
Fig. 9 Cr 0.01 0.2 0.1 0.03 0.04
Geological section in A–A’ direction taken from the drilling works Zn 0.06 0.1 0.1 1.2 0.2
shown in Fig. 7 (modified from Öktü and others 1997). Sc Schist Cd 0.1 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.06
(aquifer rocks); M marble (aquifer rocks); N, L+T: Gebeciler Pb 0.04 0.04 0.3 1.0 0.05
formation (impermeable cover rocks); B basalt (a heater rock to heat, Si 47.0 95.0 48.0 49.0 54.0
unheated in deep); Q alluvium Al 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.0 0.04
Mn 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.07 0.04
Ca 145.0 95.0 150.0 150.0 74.0
Fournier and Potter (1982) and Arnorsson (1985) yield CaCO3 470.0 420.0 490.0 480.0 470.0
reservoir temperatures ranging from 105 to 180 C. The Cl 1,861 1,861 1,896 2,074 1,950
chalcedony geothermometers of Fournier (1977) and As – – – <0.5 –
CN – – – <0.1 –
Arnorsson and others (1983) display relatively lower res-
ervoir temperatures of between 75 and 158 C. The reservoir
temperatures computed from the cation geothermometers
produced in the Ömer–Gecek geothermal area was, after
for each water are generally higher than those of silica
heating, poured into the Akarçay stream in Afyon at
geothermometers. The Na–K geothermometers of Arnosson
around 55 C. After the failure of a reinjection well spe-
and others (1983) and Giggenbach (1988) give temperatures
cifically opened for this purpose, reinjection tests were
in the range of 171–193 and 213–230 C, respectively. The
carried out in wells abandoned because of low flow rates.
K–Mg geothermometer of Giggenbach (1988) yields a
For this purpose, reinjection test were carried out in AF-1,
maximum temperature of 145 C. When the Na–K–Ca–Mg
R-260, AF-3, AF-4 and AF-22 wells. The geothermal fluid
geothermometers of Fournier and Potter (1979) is applied to
produced from AF-21 well at a 156-l/h flow rate was
the thermal water of Ömer–Gecek area, more realistic results
reinjected into the well at gradually increasing flow rates.
are obtained. The range of reservoir temperatures is then
The reinjection capacities remained limited because the
reduced to 85–155 C, which is in agreement with those of
reinjected fluid was exposed to high pressures in R-260
quartz and chalcedony, which ranges from 105 to 180 and
and AF-1 wells. As a result, it was decided that these wells
from 75 to 158 C, respectively (Mutlu 1998).
were not suitable for reinjection purposes. It was also
decided that AF-3 well, where lower pressures were
Information on wells in the geothermal field
observed, could be used after cleaning the well. AF-4 and
The general directorate of the Mineral Research and
AF-22 geothermal wells were determined to be the best
Exploration of Turkey (MTA) drilled 25 wells (AF-1
wells for reinjection purposes because they showed
through AF-23, R-240 and R-260) in the Ömer–Gecek area
significantly high reinjection capacities (Durak and Küçük
from 1971 to 1997 within the frame work of the AFJET
2000). The used geothermal water has been reinjected into
(Afyon Geothermal Energy Project). Table 3 list some
AF-4 and AF-22 wells successfully since the second half of
details about these wells including their depth, tempera-
the 2000–2001 production year (Karabuga 2000). The
ture, flow rate of the reservoir waters, type of the reservoir
geothermal water produced in Ömer–Gecek geothermal
rocks, status of the wells and time of drilling. The
field was reinjected after use by its use in the reinjection
production of some of these wells was stopped for various
wells. Therefore, pollutant metals and composites do not
reasons (etc R-240, AF-2, AF-5, AF-6, AF-8, AF-12). The
pollute the environment. The lithology and well logs of the
temperature of fluid produced from these wells ranged
AF-4 well is shown in Fig. 10.
between 81 and 107 C. The temperature of water at the
bottom of wells was around 105–115 C. The deepest well
is AF-1, and has a depth of 905 m. Among the wells, AF-1
has the hottest water with a measured temperature of
107 C. Figure 7 shows the location of wells in the Ömer–
Afyon Geothermal Central
Gecek geothermal area. Heating System
The reinjection of geothermal water Afyon Geothermal Heating, abbreviated as AFJET, was
Reinjection is the best method to increase the production founded in 1994 to install central heating systems for
of geothermal areas; this maintains the pressure of buildings to utilise geothermal water resources and to
reservoirs and eliminates the used geothermal waters, provide hot water for commercial greenhouses by using
which contain large amount of produced chemicals, in re-circulated geothermal water. The AFJET shareholders
an environmentally friendly way. The geothermal water are Afyon IL Özel Idare Müdürlügü (59.42%), Municipality

948 Environmental Geology (2002) 41:942–953

 Original article

Table 3
Data on the Ömer–Gecek (Afyon) geothermal wells (Erisen and others 1996; Öktü and others 1997; Mutlu 1998)
Well no. Year Well depth Temperature Flow rate Reservoir rock Status
(m) (C) (l/s)

R-240 1971 117.00 70 – – Not used

R-260 1971 166.00 98 18–80 Marble–schist Working condition
AF-1 1974 905.00 107 7–20 Quartz–mica schist Working condition
AF-2 – 56.80 98 150 Marble–schist Blowout, not active
AF-3 1975 250.00 97 110 Mica–calc schist Will use for reinjection
AF-4 1982 125.70 95 80 Marble–schist Will use for reinjection
AF-5 1982 207.40 79 15 Marble–schist Not used
AF-6 1983 211.40 92 10 Quartz–mica schist Not used
AF-7 1983 210.00 100 5–6 Marble–schist–cong Ömer thermal spring
AF-8 1984 250.00 91 5–10 Marble–mica schist Not used
AF-9 1990 320.00 51 66 Basalt–sandstone Oruçoglu Thermal Resort Hotel
AF-10 1990 320.40 98 100 Marble–schist Private sector (I. Turunc)
AF-11 1995 185.00 98 150 Marble–schist In working condition
AF-12 1995 59.00 88 15 Marble–schist Blowout, not active
AF-13 1996 560.00 81 47 Quartz–mica schist In working condition
AF-14 1996 122.00 96 >100 Marble–schist In working condition
AF-15 1996 170.70 97 45 Marble–schist In working condition
AF-16 1996 218.00 96 >100 Marble–schist In working condition
AF-17 1996 260.00 99 80 Marble–schist In working condition
AF-18 1997 363.00 92–99 40–60 Marble–schist In working condition
AF-19 1997 – – – Marble–schist –
AF-20 1997 230.00 90 100 Marble–schist In working condition
AF-21 1997 210.00 91 45 Marble–schist In working condition
AF-22 1997 227.00 95 50–70 Marble–schist Will use for reinjection
AF-23 1997 235.30 90 50 Marble–schist In working condition

of Afyon (26.66%), Afyon Commerce and Industry (6.03%)
and other small shareholders (7.89%). The final aim of the
project is to heat 10,000 homes and the present Afyon
Geothermal Central Heating System currently heats 4,453
homes, which is equivalent to a total of 445,336 m2.
The geothermal resources needed for this central heating
system are located in the Ömer–Gecek region. There are
ten wells of AFJET, all equipped with suitable equipment
for central heating methods. There are eight working wells
at 484 l/s flow rate and the production needed for geo-
thermal heating is obtained from three wells at an average
temperature of 95 C and 170 l/s flow rate. After passing
through the cylindrical separators that are 56.5 m3 in
volume, the gases are separated, and the geothermal water
is stored in collection sumps with 1,000-m3 capacity. It is
then pumped through the main pipeline to the Central
Heating System in Afyon. The main pipeline is composed
of isolated and epoxy-coated 450-mm diameter main
pipeline from the source to Afyon, and unisolated return
pipeline, which is 14,650 m long. A cathodic production
system was installed to avoid corrosion of the pipeline.
There are five heat plate exchangers at a 67 billion J/h total
capacity in the heating center, one of which can be used in
an emergency. In the center, there are 16 pumps that can
be used for different purposes, a pool with a 300-t storage
capacity to collect the returned water, five balance tanks, a
pick-power system and a water-purification heating plant
(Fig. 11). The exchanger system under the buildings went
into operation in January 1999 to prolong the life-cycle of
the central heating system by reducing the pressure and to
provide better circulation. This system provides warm
water for homes at 20 C and, through this, heating
economy will be re-established.
Economy of using geothermal energy
for heating purposes in Afyon
The production costs of geothermal energy are far less
compared with other energy resources, particularly that of
fossil energy. The cost is even more reduced when inte-
grated use of this energy is possible. The total investment
cost of Afyon Geothermal Heating System at the end of
2000 was US$3.2 million (1$=1,000,000 TL), and the de-
tailed cost structure is shown in Table 4. As Table 4 in-
dicates, apart from the depreciation cost of about 39.55%,
the electricity cost forms 13.87% of the overall expenses.
The share of chemicals, maintenance and general expenses
is around 31.90%, and salaries, administration and
personnel expenses represent an overall cost of 14.68%.
The conversion to heating from geothermal energy is
much cheaper then conversion to other conventional
heating systems because the boiler, fuel-oil burner, fuel-oil
tank, diesel tank and expansion chamber are not needed in
residences heated by geothermal central heating system.
The installation cost of the Geothermal Central Heating
System per residence was $240 in 1998 and additional
expenses for indoor installation should be added to this
cost in residences heated by a stove. The natural gas
conversion cost per 100 m2 for a stove-heated residence,
including radiators and exchanger was $540. In addition
to the above advantages in investment costs, the cost for
geothermal heating is around one-third to as much as
one-twelfth that of fossil fuels (Table 5).
In addition, changes in price of geothermal heating system
are not affected by negative pressures of economical and
political instability. When the heating costs in 1995
(Table 6) and in 2001 (Table 5) are compared, the change
in cheapness of the cost proves the advantages of

Environmental Geology (2002) 41:942–953 949

 Original article

Considering the average temperature in Afyon in winter

is around –12 C, according to heating calculations by
Turkish Standards TS 2164 (1983), 35,521 kJ/h of heating
energy is need to heat a 100-m2 space. By using these
standards, the total energy needed to heat 4,453 residences
with a total area of 445,336 m2 by geothermal energy is
134,459,630 kJ/h.
445; 336  0:85
Qh ¼ 35; 521 ¼ 134; 459; 630kJ=h ðaÞ
100
It is equivalent to the energy obtained by burning 7.14 t of
lignite in 1 h. If one considers that the residences are
heated for 24 h a day during the 6-month winter season,
the total savings from coal consumption are around
31,000 tons, which would cost US$1.55 million according
to figures from the year 2000.

Contribution of the use of geothermal energy

in reducing air pollution in Afyon
Air pollution is one of the most important problems
brought about by modern life conditions, and mainly re-
sults from fuel combustion. Production of energy and the
formation of solid and gas wastes upon combustion of
fuels creates a relationship between air pollution and the
production of energy. Air pollution comes into existence
Fig. 10 as a result of the concentration of these emissions and its
The lithology of the AF-4 reinjection well negative impact on all living matter.
Two of the most important polluters to threaten human
geothermal heating. It is not dependent on international health and the environment are the forms of sulphur (SOx)
markets and there is no stock-exchange market for it. and particulate matter (PM). As seen in Table 7, the primary
Therefore, it is impossible to experience abnormal price fuels, in terms of sulphur oxide emissions, are coal and fuel
differences. Another advantage is that it has no relationship oil. In terms of particle emissions, coal is the most important
with international politics. For example, the local officials fuel. Although SOx and particle emissions are negligible in
are entitled to determine prices of geothermal heating in natural gas, nitrogen oxide is then the main pollutant.
Afyon and, therefore, there cannot be any speculative gains. When geothermal energy is compared with traditional
There is another dimension to the use of geothermal types of energy, it is very cheap from the point of energy
energy in Afyon and its contribution to the economy. provision and has no rival in terms of the environment.

Fig. 11
Afyon geothermal heating centre (Sabah and Çelik 1999)

950 Environmental Geology (2002) 41:942–953

 Original article

Table 4 Depending on environmental relief conditions, the wind

Annual expenditures of Afyon geothermal heating system (AFJET) in that blows in Afyon comes from certain directions. The
2000
direction and the speed of the fastest wind direction does
Expenses Amount not differ much in a year. The average wind speeds in
(US$) November, December, January and February, when air
Electricity 108,743 pollution is intensive, are as low as 1.8, 1.5, 1.6, 1.5 m/s
Administration and personnel 115,108 and not strong enough to remove various pollutants in
Chemicals 50,881 the atmosphere. When the direction of the dominating
Maintenance 73,713 wind is considered, because of the series of mountains
General 125,428 that lies in a SW direction, the formation of an adequate
Depreciation 310,108
Total 783,981 air current is hampered and polluted air accumulates
Total AFJET annual income 655,115 over the city centre, leading to air pollution.
There was a total of 27,961 residences (5,165 centrally
heated, 22,805 stove-heated) in 1990, which increased to
The CO2, NOx and SOx wastes are at very low levels in 45,675 in 2000 in the Afyon city centre (Güngör 2000).
modern geothermal electricity production plants. The Around 10% of these residences are heated by geother-
discharge rate of these gases in central heating systems is mal heating. In Afyon, which has mixed residential
approximately nil. Geothermal energy is environmentally settlement, the residences, industrial establishments and
friendly, and is a renewable resource. government buildings have used coals with high sulphur,
Air pollution in Afyon, which has important geothermal ash and humidity, with low calorific values, for heating.
energy potential in Turkey, is rather high. The city is Because these fuels have high levels of ash, sulphur
surrounded by a series of mountains in a SW direction dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO2) and unburned
and hills in a N–NE direction. Therefore, the city’s carbon particles, upon burning they emit these to the
geographical location and meteorological conditions atmosphere and, depending on meteorological condi-
facilitate the formation of air pollution. The most tions, cause intensive air pollution in winter over the city
important factors in the circulation of air pollution dif- centre. Inefficient combustion systems coupled with
fusion and dilution depend on the direction of wind and unaware and inexperienced operators, inadequate
its strength. The direction of the dominating primary inspection, inadequate insulation in buildings etc., plus
wind in Afyon (at 46.2%) in January is SE and the sec- meteorological conditions, cause air pollution to reach
ondary dominating direction is NW at a rate of 31.4%. very dangerous levels.

Table 5
Residence heating costs in 2000 by type of fuels
Fuel type Calorific value Unit price Average fuel yield $/1,000 kJ Order of cheapness
(%)

Afyon geothermal 209,340 kJ/m3 0.135 $/m3 40 6.70·10–3 1

Lignite 18,841 kJ/kg 0.050 $/kg 60 1.85·10–2 2
Natural gas-Ankara 34,541 kJ/m3 0.145 $/m3 90 1.95·10–2 3
Imported coal-Afyon 25,121 kJ/kg 0.095 $/kg 68 1.08·10–2 4
Fuel-oil (boiler) 40,612 kJ/kg 0.236 $/l 80 3.04·10–2 5
Firewood 10,467 kJ/kg 0.060 $/kg 60 4.00·10–2 6
LPG (12 kg) 46,892 kJ/kg 0.458 $/kg 88 4.60·10–2 7
Diesel 42,705 kJ/kg 0.454 $/l 84 5.29·10–2 8
Electricity 3,600 kJ/kWh 0.045 $/kWh 99 5.28·10–2 9
Kerosene 43,543 kJ/kg 0.471 $/l 84 5.39·10–2 10

Table 6
Comparison of fuel prices in 1995 (Yilmaz 1996)
Fuel type Calorific value Unit price Average fuel yield $/1,000 kJ Order of cheapness
(%)

Geothermal energy 167,472 kJ/m3 0.022 $/m3 40 1.30·10–3 1

Natural gas – Ankara 34,541 kJ/m3 0.140 $/m3 90 1.88·10–2 2
Fuel-oil (boiler) 40,612 kJ/kg 0.260 $/kg 80 3.35·10–2 3
Imported coal 25,121 kJ/kg 0.153 $/kg 68 3.75·10–2 4
Lignite 23,027 kJ/kg 0.147 $/kg 60 4.45·10–2 5
LPG (12 kg) 46,892 kJ/kg 0.507 $/kg 88 5.14·10–2 6
Diesel 42,705 kJ/kg 0.505 $/kg 84 5.89·10–2 7
Kerosene 43,543 kJ/kg 0.603 $/kg 84 6.90·10–2 8
Firewood 10,467 kJ/kg 0.115 $/kg 60 7.66·10–2 9
Electricity 3,600 kJ/kWh 0.068 $/kWh 99 7.98·10–2 10

Environmental Geology (2002) 41:942–953 951

 Original article

Table 7
Emission values produced in burning equivalent of 1 t of fuel (Bilgili
Conclusions
1997)
Considering the rapid growth in the Turkish economy and
Fuel emissions Coal 1%, Fuel-oil 1% Natural gas the increase in the population of Turkey, a significant
sulphur 10% ash sulphur
increase in demand for energy is expected in the coming
Particulate matter (kg) 100.0 1.8 0.1–0.3 years. Turkey has the ability to meet only 30% of the
Sulphur oxides (kg) 29.2 20.0 – overall energy demand from its primary energy resources.
Carbon monoxide (kg) 1.5 0.7 0.3 Turkey has to utilise alternative energy resources by
Nitrogen oxides (kg) 11.5 8.2 2.3–4.3
Hydrocarbon (kg) 1.5 0.1 – evaluating their technical, economical, political and envi-
ronmental impacts to meet the increasing energy demand
at present and in the future. There is no doubt that the
most important energy resource among alternative re-
As an alternative energy source to fossil fuels in resi- sources is geothermal energy. Turkey ranks fifth in the
dential heating, the Afyon Geothermal Heating System world in terms of its geothermal energy potential. Around
was applied to areas where the air pollution is intensive 87% of the geothermal energy potential of Turkey is
and high-rise flats are concentrated. There was a con- suitable for heating purposes. The overall power of this
siderable reduction in air pollution in these areas in potential for heating is around 31,500 MWt. By using this
comparison with other sections of the city. If one potential, it is possible to heat 5 million residences easily.
considers that 31,000 t of coal is needed to heat 4,453 At present, an effective operation of geothermal energy
residences during the 6 months of the winter season, the power capacity is 493 MWt and 52,550 residences are
amount of SOx and PM that will enter the atmosphere heated by this system.
according to the USEPA (United States Environmental The Anatolian tectonics have formed the geothermal fields
Protection Agency 1985), and CO2 (Table 8), are as in Turkey. According to an intersection model, the hottest
follows: places at the intersections of various cracks and depres-
For SOx: sions are a result of compression in a N–S direction. The
Aegean region at Miocene have cracks and depressions in
CoalamountðtonÞ  19:5S  ðkg=tonÞ ð1Þ
an E–W direction, which were formed by expansion in the
where * is the combustible sulphur rate of coal (%). same direction, which still continues. The Afyon–Gecek
For PM: field is one of the most important geothermal fields in
Turkey with an adequate water temperature and geother-
CoalamountðtonÞ  7:5A  ðkg=tonÞ ð2aÞ mal liquid potential. A very large fault in a NW–SE di-
rection is located at the main tectonics structure of this
31; 000  19:5  1:27 ¼ 767; 715kg ¼ 768tonsSOx ð2bÞ field. Ömer–Gecek hot springs were formed at the point
where this fault intersects the Sultandagi fault to form the
31; 000  7:5  17:56 ¼ 4; 082; 700kg ¼ 4; 083tonsPM ð2cÞ south fault of the horst-graben system. The magma
pockets, the last stage of volcanic activity, formed basalt
flows, which are the heaters for the geothermal system.
56:60 1kg=molC 1kgmolCO2 43:999
1kgcoal  ð Þð Þð Þð Þ They are composed of aquifer rocks, Palaeozoic-aged
81:79 12:01115kg 1kgmolC 1kgmol Pasadagi marbles and metamorphic schists. Neogene-aged
¼ 2:54kgCO2 =kgcoal ð2dÞ sediments in the region form the cover rocks of the
geothermal system.
31; 000  2:54 ¼ 78; 740tonsCO2 ð2eÞ The main target of the Afyon Geothermal Heating Project
(AFJET) is to heat 10,000 residences. At present, 4,453
where ** is the ash rate of coal (%). residences, equivalent to 445,336 m2, are heated with the
As proven by the result of the Afyon case, emission of geothermal heating system. Apart from the depreciation
thousands of tons of SOx, CO2 and PM is prevented and costs of 39.55%, the overall investment cost of Afyon
geothermal energy is not only a cheap alternative, but also Geothermal Heating System was US$1.3 million which
an environmentally friendly energy source. consisted of electricity at 13.87%, chemicals, maintenance

Table 8
The properties of Tunçbilek–Kütahya lignite coal
Chemical analysis Ultimate analysis (%)

Comb. Volatile Moisture Ash Calorific C H N S O

sulphur matter (%) (%) value
(%) (%) (kJ/kg)

Tunçbilek lignite coal 1.27 31.20 16.65 17.56 18,703 56.60 4.51 1.44 3.00 16.24
Total: 81.79

952 Environmental Geology (2002) 41:942–953


and general expenses at 31.90%, and workmanship, ad-
ministration and personnel expenditures at 14.68%, which
formed the general cost structure of AFJET in 2000. By
considering this cost structure, the unit price for
geothermal water was calculated as 0.049 $/m3 and the
amount of money paid for 4.1868·106 J was determined as
$6.7·10–3. Subscribers currently pay $0.17, including VAT,
for heating each square meter.
The energy need to heat a 100-m2 area in Afyon is
35,521 kJ/h and the overall energy needed for residences
heated by the geothermal central heating system is
134,459,630 kJ/h. This is equivalent to energy produced by
combustion of around 7.14 t of lignite coal, and the total
coal saving is approximately 31,000 t/year. The financial
dimension of this saving is $1.55 million according to
figures from the year 2000.
Taking the amount of heat consumed by residences into
consideration, when lignite is burnt instead of geothermal
energy, the amount of emission of SOx is 768 t, 4,083 t of
PM and 78,740 t of CO2. As proven by the results of the
Afyon case, the emission of tremendous amounts of SOx
and PM is prevented and geothermal energy is not only a
cheap alternative, but also an environmentally friendly
source of energy.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the General
Manager of AFJET A.ª. (Afyon Geothermal Plants, Tourism, In-
dustry and Trade Inc.), Mr Cahit Serteser and the Managing Di-
rector, Mr Atilla Karabuga, for their contributions to this study.
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