CP 4 Database

Chapter 4
Structured Query Language (SQL)

2
4.1 Structured Query Language (SQL)

4.1.1 Basic command and functions of SQL
4.1.2 Data types and constraints of SQL
4.1.3 SQL table structure
Database Systems, 9th Edition

Introduction to SQL
3
 Ideally, a database language should allow a user to:

 create the database and relation structures;
perform basic data management tasks, such as the insertion,
modification, and deletion of data from the relations;
 perform both simple and complex queries.
 SQL functions fit into two broad categories:
 Data definition language
 Data manipulation language
 Basic command set has vocabulary of fewer than 100 words

 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) prescribes a standard
SQL
 Several SQL dialects exist
4

SQL Data types
5
 Data type selection is usually dictated by nature of

data and by intended use

SQL Constraints
6
 SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.
 Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures
the accuracy and reliability of the data in the table. If there is any violation
between the constraint and the data action, the action is aborted.
 Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to a
column, and table level constraints apply to the whole table.
 The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:
 NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value
 UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different
 PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies
each row in a table
 FOREIGN KEY - Uniquely identifies a row/record in another table
 CHECK - Ensures that all values in a column satisfies a specific condition
 DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column when no value is specified
 INDEX - Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly
SQL table structure
7
 A table is a collection of related data held in a table format within

a database. It consists of columns, and rows
 CREATE TABLE Syntax:
 Example

8
 Features:
 The NOT NULL specifications for the attributes ensure that a data entry
will be made.
 The UNIQUE specification creates a unique index in the respective attribute.
Use it to avoid duplicated values in a column.
 The primary key attributes contain both a NOT NULL and a UNIQUE
specification.
 RDBMS will automatically enforce referential integrity for foreign keys
 The entire table definition is enclosed in parentheses. A comma is used to
separate each table element (attributes, primary key, and foreign key)
definition.
 The command sequence ends with a semicolon
9
 Use one line per column (attribute) definition

 Use spaces to line up attribute characteristics
and constraints
 Table and attribute names are capitalized
SQL data definition commands
10
1. Create table
 used to specify a new relation by giving it a name
 and specifying its attributes and initial constraints. The

attributes are specified first,
 and each attribute is given a name, a data type to
specify its domain of values, and
 any attribute constraints, such as NOT NULL. The key,
entity integrity, and referential
 integrity constraints can be specified within the CREATE
TABLE statement after
 the attributes are declared

11
 CREATE TABLE Syntax:
 Example

Advanced Data Definition Commands
12
2. Alter table
 All changes in table structure are made by using ALTER
command
 Three options:
 ADD adds a column

 MODIFY changes column characteristics
 DROP deletes a column
 Can also be used to:

 Add table constraints
 Remove table constraints

13

Adding a Column
Dropping a Column
14
 Use ALTER to add column

 Do not include the NOT NULL clause for new column
 Use ALTER to drop column
 Some RDBMSs impose restrictions on the deletion of an
attribute
Changing a Column’s Data Type
15
 ALTER can be used to change data type

 Some RDBMSs do not permit changes to data types
unless column is empty

Changing a Column’s Data
16
Characteristics
 Use ALTER to change data characteristics
 Changes in column’s characteristics are permitted if
changes do not alter the existing data type
 For example, if you want to increase the width of
the Test column to nine digits, use the command:
ALTER TABLE STAFF

MODIFY (Test Numeric (9,2));

17
3. Drop table
A table can be deleted from the database using the
DROP TABLE command

 Example

Data Manipulation Commands
18
A. INSERT
B. SELECT
C. ORDER BY
D. GROUP BY
E. HAVING
F. WHERE
G. UPDATE
H. DELETE
I. COMMIT
J. ROLLBACK


Data Manipulation Commands
19
 INSERT
 SELECT
 COMMIT
 UPDATE
 ROLLBACK
 DELETE

INSERT
20
 INSERT
 Used to enter data into table
 Syntax:
 INSERTINTO columnname
VALUES (value1, value2, … , valueN);

21
 When entering values, notice that:

 Row contents are entered between parentheses
 Character and date values are entered between
apostrophes
 Numerical entries are not enclosed in apostrophes
 Attribute entries are separated by commas
 A value is required for each column
 Use NULL for unknown values

22
 Example

SELECT
23
 SELECT
 Syntax:

24
 SELECTING ALL COLUMNS

25
 SELECTING SPECIFIC COLUMNS

26
 USING ALIASES

27
 USING ARITHMETIC OPERATORS (*, / , +, -)

28
 USING PARENTHESES

29
 ELIMINATE DUPLICATE ROWS

ORDER BY
30
 Specifies an order for displaying the result of a

query.
 Syntax:
Original table
 Example
Group By
31
 Specifies the grouping attributes.

 Generally used when you have attribute columns
combined with aggregate functions in the SELECT
statement.
 Syntax:
 The GROUP BY clause is valid only when used in

conjunction with one of the SQL aggregate functions,
such as COUNT, MIN, MAX, AVG, and SUM
32
 Examples
NVL FUNCTION
FORCES GROUP
FUNCTION TO INCLUDE
NULL VALUES
 GROUP BY Column Does Not Have To Be In The Select List

33
 GROUP MULTIPLE COLUMNS

 Example

HAVING
34
 A particularly useful extension of the GROUP BY

feature is the HAVING clause. The HAVING
operates very much
 like the WHERE clause in the SELECT statement.
However, the WHERE clause applies to columns and
expressions for individual rows, while the HAVING
clause is applied to the output of a GROUP BY
operation.

35
 Example:

WHERE
36
 WHERE clause to add conditional restrictions to the

SELECT statement.
 Syntax:
 Example:

Update
37
 Modify data in a table

 Syntax:
 If more than one attribute is to be updated in row,

separate corrections with commas
 Example
Delete
38
 Delete a table row.

 Syntax:
 Example
Commit
39
 Changes made to table contents are not physically

saved on disk until:
 Database is closed
 Program is closed
 COMMIT command is used
 Syntax:
 COMMIT [WORK];
 Will permanently save any changes made to any
table in the database
MySQL:
Autocommit
Rollback
40
 ROLLBACK
 Undoes changes since last COMMIT
 Brings data back to prechange values
 Syntax:
 ROLLBACK;
 COMMIT and ROLLBACK only work with commands

to add, modify, or delete table rows

Rules of Precedence
41

Comparison operators
42
 Comparison operators may even be used to place

restrictions on character-based attributes
 Example:
Arithmetic Operators:
43
The Rule of Precedence
 Perform operations within parentheses
 Perform power operations
 Perform multiplications and divisions
 Perform additions and subtractions

44
 Examples:

Logical Operators: AND, OR, and NOT
45
 Searching data involves multiple conditions

 Logical operators: AND, OR, and NOT
 Can be combined
 Parentheses enforce precedence order
 Conditions in parentheses are always executed first
 Boolean algebra: mathematical field dedicated to
use of logical operators
 NOT negates result of conditional expression

46

Special Operators
47
 BETWEEN: checks whether attribute value is within

a range
 IS NULL: checks whether attribute value is null
 LIKE: checks whether attribute value matches given
string pattern
 IN: checks whether attribute value matches any
value within a value list
 EXISTS: checks if subquery returns any rows

BETWEEN
48

IS NULL
49

LIKE
50

IN
51

EXISTS
52
 Used to check whether a subquery returns any rows.

 Syntax:

53
 Example
54

Aggregate Functions
55

56

4.3 Analyze SQL Server /Open source
57
Software
 Database Open source softwares
 Example

Airtable
58
 Airtable is cloud-based database software that comes with features such as data
tables for capturing and displaying information, user permissions for managing the
database, and file storage and sharing capabilities with document history tracking.
 The tool can also be used to manage and track tasks using its kanban dashboards,
built-in calendars, and spreadsheets.
Pros: Users mention that the tool is
easy to get started with due to its
pre-built database templates for
different business purposes, such as
lead management, bug tracking, and
applicant tracking.
Cons: Users mention that the tool

offers limited relational database
functionality, making it difficult to link
records residing in multiple tables.
GraphDB
59
 GraphDB is a graphical database that comes with both cloud and on-premise
deployment options. It offers features such as data repositories, textual analytics,
and knowledge graphs.
 The tool can be used to tag and analyze textual data semantically based on
keywords and topics or concepts. The tagged data can then be visualized as
knowledge graphs to search and find relationships between disparate data.
Pros: Users mention that

the tool is easy to setup
and has a user-friendly
interface that is simple for
novice users to get started
with.
Cons: Users mention that

the tools slow down when
importing large files.
MariaDB
60
 MariaDB is an open source relational database for data storage, data insertion into
tables, data modifications, and data retrieval. As an open source solution, the tool is
free to use and you can get started by downloading the software on your desktop
or laptop.

MariaDB’s open source
community consist of
active members who roll
out patches and updates
regularly.

the tool lacks a graphical
user interface and users
can operate the tool only
by using the command
line.
PostgreSQL
61
 PostgreSQL is an open source database that comes with features such as data
indexing, user configuration settings, data import/export, and version control.
 While PostgreSQL is a relational database, it also allows creating NoSQL
databases with programming languages such as Python and JSON.

the tool has a large open
source community that has
built several plugins for the
tool, improving its
functionality.
Cons: Users mention that it

takes a long time to install
and configure the solution.
QuintaDB
62
 QuintaDB is a cloud-based relational database that comes with features such as a

form builder, user permission settings, data import/export, team calendars, and
email/SMS notifications.
 QuintaDB’s free version allows for creating forms (up to 5) and records in the
database (up to 1,000), and sharing/storing files (up to 500MB).
Pros: Users mention that the tool

offers flexibility in setting up user
permissions, allowing them to
collaboratively use the database
with multiple members with
different levels of access rights.
Cons: Users mention that the tool

offers limited pre-built database
templates and web forms—it takes
them time to custom design tables
using their own CSS.
Sonadier
63
 Sonadier is cloud-based solution for creating databases and web forms. The tool
comes with features such as form generation through a drag-and-drop interface,
file management, user data sharing permissions, data import/export, and data
versioning.
Pros: Users like the clean

interface of the solution,
which makes creating
databases and forms quick
and simple.

the customer support takes
a long time to respond to
requests for bug fixes.
MySQL
64
 This is one of the most popular relational database systems. Originally an open-
source solution, MySQL now is owned by Oracle Corporation. Today, MySQL is a
pillar of LAMP application software. That means it’s a part of Linux, Apache,
MySQL, and Perl/PHP/Python stack. Having C and C++ under the hood, MySQL
works well with such system platforms as Windows, Linux, MacOS, IRIX, and others.
Pros of MySQL
Free installation.
Simple syntax and mild
complexity.
Cloud-compatible.
Cons of MySQL
Scalability challenges.
Partial open source.
Limited compliance with SQL
standards.
Joining Database Tables
65
 Joining tables is the most important distinction

between relational database and other DBs
 Join is performed when data are retrieved from
more than one table at a time
 Equality comparison between foreign key and primary
key of related tables
 Join tables by listing tables in FROM clause of
SELECT statement
 DBMS creates Cartesian product of every table

Joining Tables with an Alias
66
 Alias identifies the source table from which data

are taken
 Alias can be used to identify source table
 Any legal table name can be used as alias
 Add alias after table name in FROM clause
 FROM tablename alias

Recursive Joins
67
Outer Joins
 Alias is especially useful when a table must be
joined to itself
 Recursive query
 Use aliases to differentiate the table from itself
 Two types of outer join

 Leftouter join
 Right outer join

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69

70
 Example:
STAFF

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Chapter 4

Structured Query Language (SQL)

4.1 Structured Query Language (SQL)

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 Ideally, a database language should allow a user to:

 Data manipulation language

 Basic command set has vocabulary of fewer than 100 words

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 Data type selection is usually dictated by nature of

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 A table is a collection of related data held in a table format within

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 Use one line per column (attribute) definition

 and specifying its attributes and initial constraints. The

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 CREATE TABLE Syntax:

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 ADD adds a column

 Can also be used to:

Database Systems, 9th Edition

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 Use ALTER to add column

 ALTER can be used to change data type

Database Systems, 9th Edition

ALTER TABLE STAFF

Database Systems, 9th Edition

Database Systems, 9th Edition

Database Systems, 9th Edition

Database Systems, 9th Edition

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 When entering values, notice that:

 Attribute entries are separated by commas

 A value is required for each column

 Use NULL for unknown values

Database Systems, 9th Edition

Database Systems, 9th Edition

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 SELECTING ALL COLUMNS

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 SELECTING SPECIFIC COLUMNS

Database Systems, 9th Edition

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 USING ARITHMETIC OPERATORS (*, / , +, -)

Database Systems, 9th Edition

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 ELIMINATE DUPLICATE ROWS

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 Specifies an order for displaying the result of a

 Specifies the grouping attributes.

 The GROUP BY clause is valid only when used in

 GROUP BY Column Does Not Have To Be In The Select List

 GROUP MULTIPLE COLUMNS

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 A particularly useful extension of the GROUP BY

Database Systems, 9th Edition

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 WHERE clause to add conditional restrictions to the

Database Systems, 9th Edition

 Modify data in a table

 If more than one attribute is to be updated in row,

 Delete a table row.

 Changes made to table contents are not physically