Scientist

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This article is about the profession. For other uses, see Scientist
(disambiguation).
Scientist
Portrait of W.C. Roentgen Wellcome M0010904.jpg
Wilhelm Röntgen received the first Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of X-
rays.
Occupation
Names Scientist
Occupation type Profession
Activity sectors Laboratory, field research
Description
Competencies Scientific research
Education required Science
Fields of
employment Academia, industry, government, nonprofit
Related jobs Engineers
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A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an
area of interest.[1][2] Scientists are motivated to work in several ways. Many have
a desire to understand why the world is as we see it and how it came to be. They
exhibit a strong curiosity about reality.

In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist.

Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophical study of nature called natural
philosophy, a precursor of natural science.[3] Though Thales (circa 624-545 BC) was
arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as
natural, not necessarily caused by gods,[4][5][6][7][8][9] it was not until the
19th century that the term scientist came into regular use after it was coined by
the theologian, philosopher, and historian of science William Whewell in 1833.[10]
[11]

In modern times, many scientists have advanced degrees[12] in an area of science

and pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry,
government, and nonprofit environments.[13][14][15]

Contents
1 History
1.1 Classical antiquity
1.2 Middle Ages
1.3 Renaissance
1.4 Age of Enlightenment
1.5 19th century
1.6 20th century
2 Profession
2.1 Education
2.2 Career
2.2.1 Research interests
2.3 By specialization
2.3.1 Natural science
2.3.1.1 Physical science
2.3.1.2 Life science
2.3.2 Social science
2.3.3 Formal science
2.3.4 Applied
2.3.5 Interdisciplinary
2.4 By employer
3 Demography
3.1 By country
3.1.1 United States
3.2 By gender
4 See also
5 References
6 External articles
History

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (February 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template
message)
See also: Timeline of the history of the scientific method and Scientific
revolution

"No one in the history of civilization has shaped our understanding of science and
natural philosophy more than the great Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle
(384-322 BC), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two
thousand years" —Gary B. Ferngren[16]

Alessandro Volta, the inventor of the electrical battery and discoverer of methane,
is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists in history.

Francesco Redi, referred to as the "father of modern parasitology", is the founder

of experimental biology.

Mary Somerville, for whom the word "scientist" was coined.

Physicist Albert Einstein developed the general theory of relativity and made many
substantial contributions to physics.

Physicist Enrico Fermi is credited with the creation of the world's first atomic
bomb and nuclear reactor.

Atomic physicist Niels Bohr made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic

structure and quantum theory.

Marine Biologist Rachel Carson launched the 20th century environmental movement.
The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern
scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of
different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural
historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the
development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social
norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and
expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different
historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which
characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential.
Some historians point to the Scientific Revolution that began in 16th century as
the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It wasn't until
the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic changes had occurred for scientists
to emerge as a major profession.[17]

Classical antiquity
Knowledge about nature in classical antiquity was pursued by many kinds of
scholars. Greek contributions to science—including works of geometry and
mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of
plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning—were produced by
philosophers and physicians, as well as practitioners of various trades. These
roles, and their associations with scientific knowledge, spread with the Roman
Empire and, with the spread of Christianity, became closely linked to religious
institutions in most of European countries. Astrology and astronomy became an
important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with
the support of political and religious patronage. By the time of the medieval
university system, knowledge was divided into the trivium—philosophy, including
natural philosophy—and the quadrivium—mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the
medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians.
Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians.

Middle Ages
Science in medieval Islam generated some new modes of developing natural knowledge,
although still within the bounds of existing social roles such as philosopher and
mathematician. Many proto-scientists from the Islamic Golden Age are considered
polymaths, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern
scientific disciplines. Many of these early polymaths were also religious priests
and theologians: for example, Alhazen and al-Biruni were mutakallimiin; the
physician Avicenna was a hafiz; the physician Ibn al-Nafis was a hafiz, muhaddith
and ulema; the botanist Otto Brunfels was a theologian and historian of
Protestantism; the astronomer and physician Nicolaus Copernicus was a priest.
During the Italian Renaissance scientists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo,
Galileo Galilei and Gerolamo Cardano have been considered as the most recognizable
polymaths.

Renaissance
During the Renaissance, Italians made substantial contributions in science.
Leonardo da Vinci made significant discoveries in paleontology and anatomy. The
Father of modern Science,[18][19] Galileo Galilei, made key improvements on the
thermometer and telescope which allowed him to observe and clearly describe the
solar system. Descartes was not only a pioneer of analytic geometry but formulated
a theory of mechanics[20] and advanced ideas about the origins of animal movement
and perception. Vision interested the physicists Young and Helmholtz, who also
studied optics, hearing and music. Newton extended Descartes's mathematics by
inventing calculus (at the same time as Leibniz). He provided a comprehensive
formulation of classical mechanics and investigated light and optics. Fourier
founded a new branch of mathematics — infinite, periodic series — studied heat flow
and infrared radiation, and discovered the greenhouse effect. Girolamo Cardano,
Blaise Pascal Pierre de Fermat, Von Neumann, Turing, Khinchin, Markov and Wiener,
all mathematicians, made major contributions to science and probability theory,
including the ideas behind computers, and some of the foundations of statistical
mechanics and quantum mechanics. Many mathematically inclined scientists, including
Galileo, were also musicians.

There are many compelling stories in medicine and biology, such as the development
of ideas about the circulation of blood from Galen to Harvey. Some scholars and
historians attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the
Scientific Revolution.[21][22][23][24][25]
Age of Enlightenment
During the age of Enlightenment, Luigi Galvani, the pioneer of the
bioelectromagnetics, discovered the animal electricity. He discovered that a charge
applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its
body. Charges could make frog legs jump even if the legs were no longer attached to
a frog. While cutting a frog leg, Galvani's steel scalpel touched a brass hook that
was holding the leg in place. The leg twitched. Further experiments confirmed this
effect, and Galvani was convinced that he was seeing the effects of what he called
animal electricity, the life force within the muscles of the frog. At the
University of Pavia, Galvani's colleague Alessandro Volta was able to reproduce the
results, but was sceptical of Galvani's explanation.[26]

Lazzaro Spallanzani is one of the most influential figures in experimental

physiology and the natural sciences. His investigations have exerted a lasting
influence on the medical sciences. He made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions and animal reproduction.[27]

Francesco Redi discovered that microorganisms can cause disease.

19th century
Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were still referred to as
"natural philosophers" or "men of science".[28][29][30][31]

English philosopher and historian of science William Whewell coined the term
scientist in 1833, and it first appeared in print in Whewell's anonymous 1834
review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences published in
the Quarterly Review.[32] Whewell wrote of "an increasing proclivity of separation
and dismemberment" in the sciences; while highly specific terms proliferated—
chemist, mathematician, naturalist—the broad term "philosopher" was no longer
satisfactory to group together those who pursued science, without the caveats of
"natural" or "experimental" philosopher. Whewell compared these increasing
divisions with Somerville's aim of "[rendering] a most important service to
science" "by showing how detached branches have, in the history of science, united
by the discovery of general principles."[33] Whewell reported in his review that
members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science had been
complaining at recent meetings about the lack of a good term for "students of the
knowledge of the material world collectively." Alluding to himself, he noted that
"some ingenious gentleman proposed that, by analogy with artist, they might form
[the word] scientist, and added that there could be no scruple in making free with
this term since we already have such words as economist, and atheist—but this was
not generally palatable".[34]

Whewell proposed the word again more seriously (and not anonymously) in his
1840[35] The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences:

The terminations ize (rather than ise), ism, and ist, are applied to words of all
origins: thus we have to pulverize, to colonize, Witticism, Heathenism, Journalist,
Tobacconist. Hence we may make such words when they are wanted. As we cannot use
physician for a cultivator of physics, I have called him a Physicist. We need very
much a name to describe a cultivator of science in general. I should incline to
call him a Scientist. Thus we might say, that as an Artist is a Musician, Painter,
or Poet, a Scientist is a Mathematician, Physicist, or Naturalist.

He also proposed the term physicist at the same time, as a counterpart to the
French word physicien. Neither term gained wide acceptance until decades later;
scientist became a common term in the late 19th century in the United States and
around the turn of the 20th century in Great Britain.[32][36][37] By the twentieth
century, the modern notion of science as a special brand of information about the
world, practiced by a distinct group and pursued through a unique method, was
essentially in place.

20th century
Marie Curie became the first female to win the Nobel Prize and the first person to
win it twice. Her efforts led to the development of nuclear energy and Radiotherapy
for the treatment of cancer. In 1922, she was appointed a member of the
International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the League
of Nations. She campaigned for scientist's right to patent their discoveries and
inventions. She also campaigned for free access to international scientific
literature and for internationally recognized scientific symbols.

Profession
As a profession, the scientist of today is widely recognized[citation needed].
However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not
a scientist. Anyone can be a scientist in some sense. Some professions have legal
requirements for their practice (e.g. licensure) and some scientists are
independent scientists meaning that they practice science on their own, but to
practice science there are no known licensure requirements.[38]

Education
In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting
(e.g., universities and research institutes), mostly at the level of graduate
schools. Upon completion, they would normally attain an academic degree, with the
highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).[12] Although
graduate education for scientists varies among institutions and countries, some
common training requirements include specializing in an area of interest,[39]
publishing research findings in peer-reviewed scientific journals[40] and
presenting them at scientific conferences,[41] giving lectures or teaching,[41] and
defending a thesis (or dissertation) during an oral examination.[12] To aid them in
this endeavor, graduate students often work under the guidance of a mentor, usually
a senior scientist, which may continue after the completion of their doctorates
whereby they work as postdoctoral researchers.[42]

Career
After the completion of their training, many scientists pursue careers in a variety
of work settings and conditions.[13] In 2017, the British scientific journal Nature
published the results of a large-scale survey of more than 5,700 doctoral students
worldwide, asking them which sectors of the economy they would like to work in. A
little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with
smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit
environments.[14][15]

Other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige. The Nobel Prize, a
widely regarded prestigious award,[43] is awarded annually to those who have
achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry.

Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of
people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist
and industrial scientist). Scientists tend to be less motivated by direct financial
reward for their work than other careers. As a result, scientific researchers often
accept lower average salaries when compared with many other professions which
require a similar amount of training and qualification.[citation needed]

Research interests
Scientists include experimentalists who mainly perform experiments to test
hypotheses, and theoreticians who mainly develop models to explain existing data
and predict new results. There is a continuum between two activities and the
division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks.
Those considering science as a career often look to the frontiers. These include
cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project.
Other areas of active research include the exploration of matter at the scale of
elementary particles as described by high-energy physics, and materials science,
which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study brain
function and neurotransmitters, which is considered by many to be the "final
frontier".[44][45][46] There are many important discoveries to make regarding the
nature of the mind and human thought as much still remains unknown.

By specialization
Natural science
Physical science
Chemist
Agrochemist
Analytical chemist
Astrochemist
Atmospheric chemist
Biophysical chemist
Clinical chemist
Computational chemist
Electrochemist
Femtochemist
Geochemist
Green chemist
Chemical laboratory technician
Inorganic chemist
Medicinal chemist
Nuclear chemist
Organic chemist
Organometallic chemist
Pharmacologist
Physical chemist
Quantum chemist
Solid-state chemist
Stereochemist
Structural chemist
Supramolecular chemist
Theoretical chemist
Thermochemist
Earth scientist
Astrogeologist
Biogeochemist
Climatologist
Dendroarchaeologist
Dendrologist
Edaphologist
Gemologist
Geoarchaeologist
Geobiologist
Geographer
Geologist
Geomicrobiologist
Geomorphologist
Geophysicist
Glaciologist
Hydrogeologist
Hydrologist
Hydrometeorologist
Limnologist
Meteorologist
Mineralogist
Oceanographer
Paleoclimatologist
Paleoecologist
Paleogeologist
Paleoseismologist
Palynologist
Petrologist
Sedimentologist
Seismologist
Speleologist
Volcanologist
Physicist
Agrophysicist
Astrophysicist
Atmospheric physicist
Atomic physicist
Biological physicist
Chemical physicist
Computational physicist
Cosmologist
Condensed-matter physicist
Engineering physicist
Material physicist
Molecular physicist
Nuclear physicist
Particle physicist
Plasma physicist
Polymer physicist
Psychophysicist
Quantum physicist
Theoretical physicist
Astronomer
Planetary science
Space science
Cosmology
Life science
Main article: List of life sciences
Biologist
Acarologist
Aerobiologist
Anatomist
Arachnologist
Bacteriologist
Bioclimatologist
Biogeographer
Bioinformatician
Biotechnologist
Bioarcheologist
Biochemist
Biolinguist
Biophysicist
Biostatistician
Botanist
Cell biologist
Chronobiologist
Cognitive biologist
Computational biologist
Conservation biologist
Dendrochronologist
Developmental biologist
Ecologist
Electrophysiologist
Embryologist
Endocrinologist
Entomologist
Epidemiologist
Ethologist
Evolutionary biologist
Geneticist
Hematologist
Herbchronologist
Herpetologist
Histologist
Human behavioral ecologist
Human biologist
Ichnologist
Ichthyologist
Immunologist
Integrative biologist
Lepidopterist
Mammalogist
Marine biologist
Medical biologist
Microbiologist
Molecular biologist
Mycologist
Neuroendocrinologist
Neuroscientist
Ornithologist
Osteologist
Paleoanthropologist
Paleobotanist
Paleobiologist
Paleontologist
Paleopathologist
Parasitologist
Pathologist
Physiologist
Phytopathologist
Population biologist
Primatologist
Quantum biologist
Radiobiologist
Sclerochronologist
Sociobiologist
Structural biologist
Theoretical biologist
Toxicologist
Virologist
Wildlife biologist
Zoologist
Social science
Anthropologist
Archaeologist
Biological anthropologist
Cultural anthropologist
Communication scientist
Criminologist
Demographer
Economist
Linguist
Management scientist
Political economist
Political scientist
Psychologist
Abnormal psychologist
Behavioral psychologist
Biopsychologist
Clinical psychologist
Cognitive psychologist
Comparative psychologist
Developmental psychologist
Educational psychologist
Evolutionary psychologist
Experimental psychologist
Forensic psychologist
Health psychologist
Industrial and organizational psychologist
Medical psychologist
Neuropsychologist
Psychopharmacologist
Psychophysicist
Social psychologist
Sport psychologist
Sociologist
Formal science
Computer scientist
Computational scientist
Data scientist
Mathematician[35]
Algebraist
Analyst
Geometer
Logician
Probabilist
Statistician
Topologist
Systems scientist
Applied
Agriculturist
Applied physics
Health physicist
Medical physicist
Biomedical scientist
Engineering scientist
Environmental scientist
Food scientist
Kinesiologist
Nutritionist
Operations research and management analysts
Physician scientist
Interdisciplinary
Materials scientist
Mathematical biologist
Mathematical chemist
Mathematical economist
Mathematical physicist
Mathematical sociologist
By employer
Academic
Independent scientist
Industrial/applied scientist
Citizen scientist
Government scientist
Demography
By country
The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country. For instance,
there are only four full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India, while this
number is 79 for the United Kingdom, and 85 for the United States.[47]

Scientists per 10,000 workers for selected countries[47]

Nigeria: 1
Indonesia: 1
Malaysia: 2
Thailand: 2
Bangladesh: 2
Pakistan: 3
India: 4
Kenya: 6
Chile: 7
Brazil: 14
Egypt: 14
United Arab Emirates: 15
Saudi Arabia: 15
China: 18
South Africa: 20
New Zealand: 35
Spain: 54
Russia: 58
France: 68
Australia: 69
Germany: 70
Italy: 70
Canada: 73
United Kingdom: 79
Japan: 83
United States: 85
Israel: 140
United States
According to the National Science Foundation, 4.7 million people with science
degrees worked in the United States in 2015, across all disciplines and employment
sectors. The figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked
in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, and men held
53% of those positions. 5% of scientists worked for the federal government, and
about 3.5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men. 59%
of scientists in the United States were employed in industry or business, and
another 6% worked in non-profit positions.[48]

By gender
See also: Women in science
Scientist and engineering statistics are usually intertwined, but they indicate
that women enter the field far less than men, though this gap is narrowing. The
number of science and engineering doctorates awarded to women rose from a mere 7
percent in 1970 to 34 percent in 1985 and in engineering alone the numbers of
bachelor's degrees awarded to women rose from only 385 in 1975 to more than 11000
in 1985.[49][clarification needed]

See also
Engineers
Inventor
Researcher
Fields Medal
Hippocratic Oath for Scientists
History of science
Intellectual
Independent scientist
Licensure
Mad scientist
Natural science
Nobel Prize
Protoscience
Normative science
Pseudoscience
Scholar
Science
Social science
Related lists
List of engineers
List of mathematicians
List of Nobel laureates in Physics
List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry
List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
List of Russian scientists
List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists
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"The Last Frontier - Carnegie Mellon University | CMU".
van Noorden, Richard (2015). "India by the numbers". Nature. 521 (7551): 142–143.
Bibcode:2015Natur.521..142V. doi:10.1038/521142a. PMID 25971491.
"Employment: Male majority". Nature. 542 (7642): 509. 2017-02-22.
doi:10.1038/nj7642-509b.
Margaret A. Eisenhart, Elizabeth Finkel (1998). Women's Science: Learning and
Succeeding from the Margins. University of Chicago Press. p. 18.
External articles
Further reading
Alison Gopnik, "Finding Our Inner Scientist", Daedalus, Winter 2004.
Charles George Herbermann, The Catholic Encyclopedia. Science and the Church. The
Encyclopedia press, 1913. v.13. Page 598.
Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962.
Arthur Jack Meadows. The Victorian Scientist: The Growth of a Profession, 2004.
ISBN 0-7123-0894-6.
Science, The Relation of Pure Science to Industrial Research. American Association
for the Advancement of Science. Page 511 onwards.
Websites
For best results, add a little inspiration - The Telegraph about What Inspired
You?, a survey of key thinkers in science, technology and medicine
Peer Review Journal Science on amateur scientists
The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history (1847) -
Complete Text
Audio-Visual
"The Scientist", BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Gribbin, Patricia Fara and Hugh
Pennington (In Our Time, Oct. 24, 2002)
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Scientist
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the profession. For other uses, see Scientist
(disambiguation).
Scientist
Portrait of W.C. Roentgen Wellcome M0010904.jpg
Wilhelm Röntgen received the first Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of X-
rays.
Occupation
Names Scientist
Occupation type Profession
Activity sectors Laboratory, field research
Description
Competencies Scientific research
Education required Science
Fields of
employment Academia, industry, government, nonprofit
Related jobs Engineers
Part of a series on
Science
A representation of the evolution of the universe over 13.77 billion years
Overview
HistoryLiteraturePhilosophyScientific methodScientist
Branches
Society
Outlineicon Science portal Category
vte
A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an
area of interest.[1][2] Scientists are motivated to work in several ways. Many have
a desire to understand why the world is as we see it and how it came to be. They
exhibit a strong curiosity about reality.

In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist.

Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophical study of nature called natural
philosophy, a precursor of natural science.[3] Though Thales (circa 624-545 BC) was
arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as
natural, not necessarily caused by gods,[4][5][6][7][8][9] it was not until the
19th century that the term scientist came into regular use after it was coined by
the theologian, philosopher, and historian of science William Whewell in 1833.[10]
[11]

In modern times, many scientists have advanced degrees[12] in an area of science

and pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry,
government, and nonprofit environments.[13][14][15]

Contents
1 History
1.1 Classical antiquity
1.2 Middle Ages
1.3 Renaissance
1.4 Age of Enlightenment
1.5 19th century
1.6 20th century
2 Profession
2.1 Education
2.2 Career
2.2.1 Research interests
2.3 By specialization
2.3.1 Natural science
2.3.1.1 Physical science
2.3.1.2 Life science
2.3.2 Social science
2.3.3 Formal science
2.3.4 Applied
2.3.5 Interdisciplinary
2.4 By employer
3 Demography
3.1 By country
3.1.1 United States
3.2 By gender
4 See also
5 References
6 External articles
History

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (February 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template
message)
See also: Timeline of the history of the scientific method and Scientific
revolution

"No one in the history of civilization has shaped our understanding of science and
natural philosophy more than the great Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle
(384-322 BC), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two
thousand years" —Gary B. Ferngren[16]

Alessandro Volta, the inventor of the electrical battery and discoverer of methane,
is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists in history.

Francesco Redi, referred to as the "father of modern parasitology", is the founder

of experimental biology.

Mary Somerville, for whom the word "scientist" was coined.

Physicist Albert Einstein developed the general theory of relativity and made many
substantial contributions to physics.

Physicist Enrico Fermi is credited with the creation of the world's first atomic
bomb and nuclear reactor.

Atomic physicist Niels Bohr made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic

structure and quantum theory.

Marine Biologist Rachel Carson launched the 20th century environmental movement.
The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern
scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of
different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural
historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the
development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social
norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and
expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different
historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which
characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential.

Some historians point to the Scientific Revolution that began in 16th century as
the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It wasn't until
the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic changes had occurred for scientists
to emerge as a major profession.[17]
Classical antiquity
Knowledge about nature in classical antiquity was pursued by many kinds of
scholars. Greek contributions to science—including works of geometry and
mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of
plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning—were produced by
philosophers and physicians, as well as practitioners of various trades. These
roles, and their associations with scientific knowledge, spread with the Roman
Empire and, with the spread of Christianity, became closely linked to religious
institutions in most of European countries. Astrology and astronomy became an
important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with
the support of political and religious patronage. By the time of the medieval
university system, knowledge was divided into the trivium—philosophy, including
natural philosophy—and the quadrivium—mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the
medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians.
Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians.

Middle Ages
Science in medieval Islam generated some new modes of developing natural knowledge,
although still within the bounds of existing social roles such as philosopher and
mathematician. Many proto-scientists from the Islamic Golden Age are considered
polymaths, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern
scientific disciplines. Many of these early polymaths were also religious priests
and theologians: for example, Alhazen and al-Biruni were mutakallimiin; the
physician Avicenna was a hafiz; the physician Ibn al-Nafis was a hafiz, muhaddith
and ulema; the botanist Otto Brunfels was a theologian and historian of
Protestantism; the astronomer and physician Nicolaus Copernicus was a priest.
During the Italian Renaissance scientists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo,
Galileo Galilei and Gerolamo Cardano have been considered as the most recognizable
polymaths.

Renaissance
During the Renaissance, Italians made substantial contributions in science.
Leonardo da Vinci made significant discoveries in paleontology and anatomy. The
Father of modern Science,[18][19] Galileo Galilei, made key improvements on the
thermometer and telescope which allowed him to observe and clearly describe the
solar system. Descartes was not only a pioneer of analytic geometry but formulated
a theory of mechanics[20] and advanced ideas about the origins of animal movement
and perception. Vision interested the physicists Young and Helmholtz, who also
studied optics, hearing and music. Newton extended Descartes's mathematics by
inventing calculus (at the same time as Leibniz). He provided a comprehensive
formulation of classical mechanics and investigated light and optics. Fourier
founded a new branch of mathematics — infinite, periodic series — studied heat flow
and infrared radiation, and discovered the greenhouse effect. Girolamo Cardano,
Blaise Pascal Pierre de Fermat, Von Neumann, Turing, Khinchin, Markov and Wiener,
all mathematicians, made major contributions to science and probability theory,
including the ideas behind computers, and some of the foundations of statistical
mechanics and quantum mechanics. Many mathematically inclined scientists, including
Galileo, were also musicians.

There are many compelling stories in medicine and biology, such as the development
of ideas about the circulation of blood from Galen to Harvey. Some scholars and
historians attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the
Scientific Revolution.[21][22][23][24][25]

Age of Enlightenment
During the age of Enlightenment, Luigi Galvani, the pioneer of the
bioelectromagnetics, discovered the animal electricity. He discovered that a charge
applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its
body. Charges could make frog legs jump even if the legs were no longer attached to
a frog. While cutting a frog leg, Galvani's steel scalpel touched a brass hook that
was holding the leg in place. The leg twitched. Further experiments confirmed this
effect, and Galvani was convinced that he was seeing the effects of what he called
animal electricity, the life force within the muscles of the frog. At the
University of Pavia, Galvani's colleague Alessandro Volta was able to reproduce the
results, but was sceptical of Galvani's explanation.[26]

Lazzaro Spallanzani is one of the most influential figures in experimental

physiology and the natural sciences. His investigations have exerted a lasting
influence on the medical sciences. He made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions and animal reproduction.[27]

Francesco Redi discovered that microorganisms can cause disease.

19th century
Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were still referred to as
"natural philosophers" or "men of science".[28][29][30][31]

English philosopher and historian of science William Whewell coined the term
scientist in 1833, and it first appeared in print in Whewell's anonymous 1834
review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences published in
the Quarterly Review.[32] Whewell wrote of "an increasing proclivity of separation
and dismemberment" in the sciences; while highly specific terms proliferated—
chemist, mathematician, naturalist—the broad term "philosopher" was no longer
satisfactory to group together those who pursued science, without the caveats of
"natural" or "experimental" philosopher. Whewell compared these increasing
divisions with Somerville's aim of "[rendering] a most important service to
science" "by showing how detached branches have, in the history of science, united
by the discovery of general principles."[33] Whewell reported in his review that
members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science had been
complaining at recent meetings about the lack of a good term for "students of the
knowledge of the material world collectively." Alluding to himself, he noted that
"some ingenious gentleman proposed that, by analogy with artist, they might form
[the word] scientist, and added that there could be no scruple in making free with
this term since we already have such words as economist, and atheist—but this was
not generally palatable".[34]

Whewell proposed the word again more seriously (and not anonymously) in his
1840[35] The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences:

The terminations ize (rather than ise), ism, and ist, are applied to words of all
origins: thus we have to pulverize, to colonize, Witticism, Heathenism, Journalist,
Tobacconist. Hence we may make such words when they are wanted. As we cannot use
physician for a cultivator of physics, I have called him a Physicist. We need very
much a name to describe a cultivator of science in general. I should incline to
call him a Scientist. Thus we might say, that as an Artist is a Musician, Painter,
or Poet, a Scientist is a Mathematician, Physicist, or Naturalist.

He also proposed the term physicist at the same time, as a counterpart to the
French word physicien. Neither term gained wide acceptance until decades later;
scientist became a common term in the late 19th century in the United States and
around the turn of the 20th century in Great Britain.[32][36][37] By the twentieth
century, the modern notion of science as a special brand of information about the
world, practiced by a distinct group and pursued through a unique method, was
essentially in place.

20th century
Marie Curie became the first female to win the Nobel Prize and the first person to
win it twice. Her efforts led to the development of nuclear energy and Radiotherapy
for the treatment of cancer. In 1922, she was appointed a member of the
International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the League
of Nations. She campaigned for scientist's right to patent their discoveries and
inventions. She also campaigned for free access to international scientific
literature and for internationally recognized scientific symbols.

Profession
As a profession, the scientist of today is widely recognized[citation needed].
However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not
a scientist. Anyone can be a scientist in some sense. Some professions have legal
requirements for their practice (e.g. licensure) and some scientists are
independent scientists meaning that they practice science on their own, but to
practice science there are no known licensure requirements.[38]

Education
In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting
(e.g., universities and research institutes), mostly at the level of graduate
schools. Upon completion, they would normally attain an academic degree, with the
highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).[12] Although
graduate education for scientists varies among institutions and countries, some
common training requirements include specializing in an area of interest,[39]
publishing research findings in peer-reviewed scientific journals[40] and
presenting them at scientific conferences,[41] giving lectures or teaching,[41] and
defending a thesis (or dissertation) during an oral examination.[12] To aid them in
this endeavor, graduate students often work under the guidance of a mentor, usually
a senior scientist, which may continue after the completion of their doctorates
whereby they work as postdoctoral researchers.[42]

Career
After the completion of their training, many scientists pursue careers in a variety
of work settings and conditions.[13] In 2017, the British scientific journal Nature
published the results of a large-scale survey of more than 5,700 doctoral students
worldwide, asking them which sectors of the economy they would like to work in. A
little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with
smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit
environments.[14][15]

Other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige. The Nobel Prize, a
widely regarded prestigious award,[43] is awarded annually to those who have
achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry.

Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of
people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist
and industrial scientist). Scientists tend to be less motivated by direct financial
reward for their work than other careers. As a result, scientific researchers often
accept lower average salaries when compared with many other professions which
require a similar amount of training and qualification.[citation needed]

Research interests
Scientists include experimentalists who mainly perform experiments to test
hypotheses, and theoreticians who mainly develop models to explain existing data
and predict new results. There is a continuum between two activities and the
division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks.

Those considering science as a career often look to the frontiers. These include
cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project.
Other areas of active research include the exploration of matter at the scale of
elementary particles as described by high-energy physics, and materials science,
which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study brain
function and neurotransmitters, which is considered by many to be the "final
frontier".[44][45][46] There are many important discoveries to make regarding the
nature of the mind and human thought as much still remains unknown.

By specialization
Natural science
Physical science
Chemist
Agrochemist
Analytical chemist
Astrochemist
Atmospheric chemist
Biophysical chemist
Clinical chemist
Computational chemist
Electrochemist
Femtochemist
Geochemist
Green chemist
Chemical laboratory technician
Inorganic chemist
Medicinal chemist
Nuclear chemist
Organic chemist
Organometallic chemist
Pharmacologist
Physical chemist
Quantum chemist
Solid-state chemist
Stereochemist
Structural chemist
Supramolecular chemist
Theoretical chemist
Thermochemist
Earth scientist
Astrogeologist
Biogeochemist
Climatologist
Dendroarchaeologist
Dendrologist
Edaphologist
Gemologist
Geoarchaeologist
Geobiologist
Geographer
Geologist
Geomicrobiologist
Geomorphologist
Geophysicist
Glaciologist
Hydrogeologist
Hydrologist
Hydrometeorologist
Limnologist
Meteorologist
Mineralogist
Oceanographer
Paleoclimatologist
Paleoecologist
Paleogeologist
Paleoseismologist
Palynologist
Petrologist
Sedimentologist
Seismologist
Speleologist
Volcanologist
Physicist
Agrophysicist
Astrophysicist
Atmospheric physicist
Atomic physicist
Biological physicist
Chemical physicist
Computational physicist
Cosmologist
Condensed-matter physicist
Engineering physicist
Material physicist
Molecular physicist
Nuclear physicist
Particle physicist
Plasma physicist
Polymer physicist
Psychophysicist
Quantum physicist
Theoretical physicist
Astronomer
Planetary science
Space science
Cosmology
Life science
Main article: List of life sciences
Biologist
Acarologist
Aerobiologist
Anatomist
Arachnologist
Bacteriologist
Bioclimatologist
Biogeographer
Bioinformatician
Biotechnologist
Bioarcheologist
Biochemist
Biolinguist
Biophysicist
Biostatistician
Botanist
Cell biologist
Chronobiologist
Cognitive biologist
Computational biologist
Conservation biologist
Dendrochronologist
Developmental biologist
Ecologist
Electrophysiologist
Embryologist
Endocrinologist
Entomologist
Epidemiologist
Ethologist
Evolutionary biologist
Geneticist
Hematologist
Herbchronologist
Herpetologist
Histologist
Human behavioral ecologist
Human biologist
Ichnologist
Ichthyologist
Immunologist
Integrative biologist
Lepidopterist
Mammalogist
Marine biologist
Medical biologist
Microbiologist
Molecular biologist
Mycologist
Neuroendocrinologist
Neuroscientist
Ornithologist
Osteologist
Paleoanthropologist
Paleobotanist
Paleobiologist
Paleontologist
Paleopathologist
Parasitologist
Pathologist
Physiologist
Phytopathologist
Population biologist
Primatologist
Quantum biologist
Radiobiologist
Sclerochronologist
Sociobiologist
Structural biologist
Theoretical biologist
Toxicologist
Virologist
Wildlife biologist
Zoologist
Social science
Anthropologist
Archaeologist
Biological anthropologist
Cultural anthropologist
Communication scientist
Criminologist
Demographer
Economist
Linguist
Management scientist
Political economist
Political scientist
Psychologist
Abnormal psychologist
Behavioral psychologist
Biopsychologist
Clinical psychologist
Cognitive psychologist
Comparative psychologist
Developmental psychologist
Educational psychologist
Evolutionary psychologist
Experimental psychologist
Forensic psychologist
Health psychologist
Industrial and organizational psychologist
Medical psychologist
Neuropsychologist
Psychopharmacologist
Psychophysicist
Social psychologist
Sport psychologist
Sociologist
Formal science
Computer scientist
Computational scientist
Data scientist
Mathematician[35]
Algebraist
Analyst
Geometer
Logician
Probabilist
Statistician
Topologist
Systems scientist
Applied
Agriculturist
Applied physics
Health physicist
Medical physicist
Biomedical scientist
Engineering scientist
Environmental scientist
Food scientist
Kinesiologist
Nutritionist
Operations research and management analysts
Physician scientist
Interdisciplinary
Materials scientist
Mathematical biologist
Mathematical chemist
Mathematical economist
Mathematical physicist
Mathematical sociologist
By employer
Academic
Independent scientist
Industrial/applied scientist
Citizen scientist
Government scientist
Demography
By country
The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country. For instance,
there are only four full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India, while this
number is 79 for the United Kingdom, and 85 for the United States.[47]

Scientists per 10,000 workers for selected countries[47]

Nigeria: 1
Indonesia: 1
Malaysia: 2
Thailand: 2
Bangladesh: 2
Pakistan: 3
India: 4
Kenya: 6
Chile: 7
Brazil: 14
Egypt: 14
United Arab Emirates: 15
Saudi Arabia: 15
China: 18
South Africa: 20
New Zealand: 35
Spain: 54
Russia: 58
France: 68
Australia: 69
Germany: 70
Italy: 70
Canada: 73
United Kingdom: 79
Japan: 83
United States: 85
Israel: 140
United States
According to the National Science Foundation, 4.7 million people with science
degrees worked in the United States in 2015, across all disciplines and employment
sectors. The figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked
in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, and men held
53% of those positions. 5% of scientists worked for the federal government, and
about 3.5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men. 59%
of scientists in the United States were employed in industry or business, and
another 6% worked in non-profit positions.[48]

By gender
See also: Women in science
Scientist and engineering statistics are usually intertwined, but they indicate
that women enter the field far less than men, though this gap is narrowing. The
number of science and engineering doctorates awarded to women rose from a mere 7
percent in 1970 to 34 percent in 1985 and in engineering alone the numbers of
bachelor's degrees awarded to women rose from only 385 in 1975 to more than 11000
in 1985.[49][clarification needed]

See also
Engineers
Inventor
Researcher
Fields Medal
Hippocratic Oath for Scientists
History of science
Intellectual
Independent scientist
Licensure
Mad scientist
Natural science
Nobel Prize
Protoscience
Normative science
Pseudoscience
Scholar
Science
Social science
Related lists
List of engineers
List of mathematicians
List of Nobel laureates in Physics
List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry
List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
List of Russian scientists
List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists
References
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he’s not a scientist, he’s never done scientific research. My definition of a
scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: ‘he or she has shown
that...’,” Wilson says.
"Our definition of a scientist". Science Council. Retrieved 7 September 2018. A
scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence,
making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge.
Lehoux, Daryn (2011). "2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World". In Shank,
Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature : From
Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago, U.S.A. Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-
0226317830.
Aristotle, Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18.
Public Domain Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Thales". Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Biography and Mythology. p. 1016.
Michael Fowler, Early Greek Science: Thales to Plato, University of Virginia
[Retrieved 2016-06-16]
Frank N. Magill, The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1,
Routledge, 2003 ISBN 1135457395
Singer, C. (2008). A Short History of Science to the 19th century. Streeter Press.
p. 35.
Needham, C. W. (1978). Cerebral Logic: Solving the Problem of Mind and Brain.
Loose Leaf. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-398-03754-3.
Cahan, David, ed. (2003). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the
History of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago
Press. ISBN 0-226-08928-2.
Lightman, Bernard (2011). "Science and the Public". In Shank, Michael; Numbers,
Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367. ISBN 978-0226317830.
Cyranoski, David; Gilbert, Natasha; Ledford, Heidi; Nayar, Anjali; Yahia, Mohammed
(2011). "Education: The PhD factory". Nature. 472 (7343): 276–279.
Bibcode:2011Natur.472..276C. doi:10.1038/472276a. PMID 21512548.
Kwok, Roberta (2017). "Flexible working: Science in the gig economy". Nature. 550:
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particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of
modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether."
Stephen Hawking, Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science Archived 2012-03-24 at
the Wayback Machine, American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol.
24, No. 1, p. 36
Peter Damerow (2004). "Introduction". Exploring the Limits of Preclassical
Mechanics: A Study of Conceptual Development in Early Modern Science: Free Fall and
Compounded Motion in the Work of Descartes, Galileo and Beeckman. Springer Science
& Business Media. p. 6.
Harrison, Peter (8 May 2012). "Christianity and the rise of western science".
Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
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Between Science and Theology" (PDF), The Biologos Foundation, p. 4, archived from
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External articles
Further reading
Alison Gopnik, "Finding Our Inner Scientist", Daedalus, Winter 2004.
Charles George Herbermann, The Catholic Encyclopedia. Science and the Church. The
Encyclopedia press, 1913. v.13. Page 598.
Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962.
Arthur Jack Meadows. The Victorian Scientist: The Growth of a Profession, 2004.
ISBN 0-7123-0894-6.
Science, The Relation of Pure Science to Industrial Research. American Association
for the Advancement of Science. Page 511 onwards.
Websites
For best results, add a little inspiration - The Telegraph about What Inspired
You?, a survey of key thinkers in science, technology and medicine
Peer Review Journal Science on amateur scientists
The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history (1847) -
Complete Text
Audio-Visual
"The Scientist", BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Gribbin, Patricia Fara and Hugh
Pennington (In Our Time, Oct. 24, 2002)
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