a ScienceDirect Recirculating Aquaculture Systems RAS conserve water and allow control ofall the environmental factors that might affect the stocked organism. From: Genomics and Biotechnological Advances in Veterinary, Poultry and, Fisheries, 2020 Related terms: Aquacullure System, Nitifiation,Bioiter Aquaculture, Bioreactor, Biflm, Sludge, Sewage, Health management in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) Astrid Buran Holan, .. Mark D. Powell, in Aquaculture Health Management, 2020 Abstract Recculting quacubure antes (RAS) have become more numerous and eel sophisticated as land-based aquacuure production has increased The complexity ofthe sytem ges rise toa umber of heal management issues whereby the water quaty ofthe production system diel impacts the hath of the fish Adctionlly, the challenges of sing RAS in seater envionment pose unique issues of water chery, sh production biology, and health, ish heath management in RAS depends gly upon the quality ofthe intake water for (Crocker and Cech, 2002) Presumably hiss driven in par by an increase inthe cost of ventilation (Gilmour and Perry, 1994; Perry and Gilmour, 1996, As hypeia progresses, venous PO» decreases, which increase the solubility of CO, (Permentir et, 2017, he so-aled Haldane ee, which further reduces the affinity of hemoglobin fr O> Gensen tal, 1993) The effects of combined hypoxia and hypercapnia on hypoxia telerance has been demonstrated in the European eel (Crur-Neto and Steffensen, 1997) Here it was shown thatthe critcl oxygen tension, below which fsh are no longer able to maintain ther SMR, increases from 3.4 kPa under narmecapnic concitions, to {64 ka Op ata PCO, of 4 KPa, With a simultaneous decrease in MO2 with increasing CO, levels this shows that both hypoxia telerance and metabolic scope are compromised when hypoxia and hypercapnia cooceut. This may not necessaily be the universal response of fshes; in white sturgeon, MO increases almost ‘wofold when hypoxia (PO, = 12 kPa) and hypercapnia (PCO, =2.7 kPa) occur simultaneously (Crocker nd Cech, 2002). Presumably, the experimental conditions ang acclimation history ofthe animals havea lage infuence an the outcome of ‘experiments examining the effets of hyposia-hypercapnia. The different responses, ‘observed inthe studies above may alo bes resul ofthe different PCOz and POlevels investigated. While fish exposed to long-term hypercapnia show an ability to ‘compensate for respiratory acidosis by ae and Jensen, 1997), this, inal ikelinoed, not the case for Fish that experience large uctuations in PCO; ona dally basis. The effects of concurrent hypoxia and hypercapnia under such conditions warrant further attention, specifeally directed towards how it affects fsh health, welfare and productivity under extensive culture. CConcuerently, CO; may aso influence the tolerance offish to hypoxia, whichis the topic of Lefevre (2019: Chapter 6, Vol 37). imulation of plasma bicarbonate Larsen Read fll chapter URL hitmen com eens S46SRaL 920044 Housing and maintenance of zebrafish, new technologies in laboratory aquatic systems and considerations for facility design Bruce Newel, Marco Broce, in Laboratory Fish in Biomedical Research, 2022 Gas supersaturation ‘Thete ate situations where atmospheric gases willbe present in the water at levels, higher than would naturally occur, Supersturation events can rapidly cause lethal damage o your animals asthe oversaturated gases come out of solution within the fh’ tissues forming emboli that black capris and damage tissue. This is ‘commonly known as Gas Bubble Syndrome (Fig. 23). babies ibe nfs if ime note Figure 2.3. Fish exhibiting gross clinical signs of @ gas supersaturation event. Note the visible emboli in the fin tissue and the inflammation around the opercla hoa Gian Lawrence, Univer of Queensland ‘Total gos pressure (TGP) monitoring devices are available and included inthe most advanced and professionally built devices can be programmed to automaticaly shut dawn systems a2 response to clevated total dissolved gas pressure level RAS to constantly monitor gas saturations, TGP curation event is suspected, isto immediately stop water circulation by shutting down system pumps. Examine water levels Within the sumps to ensue that ai isnot being drawn into the intake of pumps. Provide agitation to the housing tanks to assist in of- gassing the excess dissolved gases, Carefully examine the plumbing on the intake side of pumps with particular stention o alignment offitings and presence and condition of O-rings and security of batrel unions. Signs of gas supersaturation may inlude small bubbles forming on tank surfaces, micelles visible in the water flow from the tank inlets, nd the appearance of emboli within tissues of deceased animals. Nitrogenous wastes [As seen in biological filtration, nitrogenous compounds are normally found in RAS in three forms: ammonia TAN (NHs/NHQ) ritrites (NO;), and nitrates (NOs)It is suggested to test nitrogenous wast levels at least once per week and more Fequently if problems are experienced, bifitration is being established, or when large increases in stocking densities occur. Ammo! isthe principal source of waste fom teleost metabolism and is primarily ‘excreted across the gill epithelium by passive diffusion (Schreier eta, 2010; Shih tal, 2008; Wilkie, 2002), Ammonia is also formed from the breakdown of erganic materials suchas animal tissue, foods, and fecal materia. [Ammonia s found in solution both a ionized ammonium (NHi) and unionized ammonia (NH), in an equilibrium influenced predominantly by temperature and pH. The combined summary of both the jonized and unionized forms i referred to 25 TAN (Total Ammonia Nitrogen) or ammonis-N. Mos tes is will provide results in TAN and this figure must be readin conjunction with conversion chars such as Table 2.2. Table 2.2. Ammonia equilibrium factors at various temperatures and pH. PH Temperature Celsius wD 7.90 0.0029 0.0034 0.0039 0.0086 0.0052 10060 0.0069 0.0080 0.0083 7.20 0.0046 0.0054 0.0062 0.0072 0.0083 0.00% 0.0110 0.0126 00150 740 0.0073 0.0085 0.0098 0.0114 0.0151 00150 00173 0.0198 00236 7.60 0.0016 0.0134 00155 0.0179 0.0206 0.0236 00771 0.0310 00369 7.80 0.0182 0.0211 0.0244 0.0281 0.0322 00370 0.0123 0.0482 90572 8.00 0.2860 0.0330 0.0361 0.0438 0.0502 00574 0854 0.0743 00877 8.20 0.0445 0.0514 00580 0.0676 0.0772 00880 0.0998 0.1129 0.1322 840 0.0688 0.0790 0.0904 0.1031 0.1171 0.1326 0.495 0.1678 0.1948, 860 0.1048 0.1197 0.1361 0.1561 0.1757 0.1950 02178 0.2472 02768, 880 0.1566 0.1773 0.1998 0.2241 0.2500 02774 03062 0.3362 03776 9.00 0.2973 02546 02836 03140 0.3456 03783 04116 0.4453 04902 From information in Emerson, K, Russo, R, Lund, R, Thurston, R, 1975 ‘Aqueous ammonia equilibrium caleulations: elects of pH: Fish. Res. Board Can, 3212), 2379-2383. (Table by Bruce Newell, Deakin Univesity). lonized ammonium i relatively harmless to fish life below certain concentrations (Gshchara et al, 2006). Unionized ammonia is fr mare toi to fish and must be removed from the culture media. Levels exceeding 0.05 mg/L are generally considered problematic fr aquatic animals. To use Table 2.2 to caleulate the unionized ammania content in a sample of water with TAN 1.2 mail, pH 7.2, temperature 26°C, mukiply the TAN value by the conversion factor 0.0096. This results in @ NH concentration of 0.0015 mg. The same eample ata pH of 4 results in a NH concentration of 0.159 mall, which is far more problematic. TAN should be maintained as low as possible. Unionized ammonia should not be allowed to exceed 0.05 mgjl. and averall TAN should not be allowed to exceed 1 mg/L (Timmons and Ebeling, 2007). IfTAN readings exceed (0.25 mg/L on a reguler basis, investigate possible causes, and cross-check the testing equipment you ate using. ea fll chapter ‘URL poms comentFeeding equipment lb Lehang in Feed and Feeding races in Aquaculture, 2015 14,10.2 Centrally placed control rooms and remotely operated feeding \With regard to near-shore cage operations and to some extent other production technologies suchas recirculating aquaculture systems, we have seen 2 transition from controlling feed inputs at the cage, thats, standing on the cage and hand feeding, to 2 video monitoring control room situated on the feed barge toland- based centralized contol centers using witeless communications. In such control rooms, 2 number of feed operators are monitoring electronic feedback and ‘managing the feeding on several sea cage plants, meaning greater numer of cages per person. The cages are equipped with subsurface video cameras and environmental monitoring devies providing information on water temperature, ‘oxygen concentration, water curent, and light conditions, Signals from the cameras and devices ae trnsfered tothe lan ‘operators are sting, an al information is shown on monitors, These operations now lok ike control rooms in an advanced process industry. Is also possible for the feeding operstors ta remotely contal the video cameras and the feeding. system. In this way, farms with advanced feeding systems are moving toward 3 standardized process industy. The feed contral center can ala be operated on ‘24h basis, to ensure optimal feeding, growth, and feed utilization based control room, where the ead full chapter JR psn scence com/cencaielep Rotifers, Artemia and copepods as live feeds for fish larvae in aquaculture J. Dhont,. P,Sorgeloos in Advances in Aquaculture Hatchery Technology, 2013 Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) Because the ratfer production decreases due to low water quality in batch cultures, the use of RAS to culture rtiers has been studied (Suantika et a, 2000), These culture systems allow ors higher ratifer density and higher reproduction rate. The rater culture can be maintained fr a longer period (e.g several weeks) As 2 consequence, hatcheries can run smaller scale systems and produce rotifers at a cheaper cost compared lo batch cultures (Suantika eta, 2003). Most ofthe time, these culture systems are operated in a semicontinuous manner, As soon as the rotifer density surpasses a given density, part of the culture is harvested and part of the wateris replaced (Suantks eta, 2003), This typeof culture has enabled the running ofsuper-intensivecutures where rotifer densities reach over 10 000 rotifersmL (Yoshimura etal, 1996; Suantia et 21, 2001) In arder to maintain the dissolves oxygen levels above gpm (Fulks and Main, 1991), pure oxygen (Yoshimura eta, 1996) or ozone (Suantika et al, 2001) hos tobe applied, The maintenance of superintenive rtifer culures is, however, very complicated and may invalve computerised setups (Yoshimura eta, 2003). Read fll chapter ro scenes coment iki 7808570919250005% Biofilms in fish processing (CT Rajkowsi in Blof inthe Food and Beverage Indus, 2009 Recirculating systems ‘Another area of pre-harvest seafood processing in which biofilms containing. hhuman pathogens and spoilage microbes can occur sin recirulatng aquacultureks shown in Fig. 19.3. Aquaculture frming in these tanks can be done using either fresh or sak water. Bll formation can accur onthe surfaces of ll materials used: buna-N rubber, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorinated PVC, glass, ‘Sbesplass, and stainless steel. Notice in Fig. 19.3, the bioflm an the tank surface in contact withthe water, which is a reseraie for bacterial recontamination, Water {quality fea major concern, and tis recrculates through a fikration and disfection system (Fig, 19.4 ~ catch tank of system) to remove uneaten food and the animal waste, Notice the biofilm formed on the pipe wat photograph. In some systems the water is passed through a sand fikration apparatus (Fig 19.5) o remove particulate matter, but the bacteria are not alays ‘rapped in the sand ier and further disinfection steps ae applied. The mast ‘commonly used intervention is ultraviolet ight (UY), When the bacteria attached to particulate matter (excess food particles or fish waste) and are not removed by fikration, UY light was not 10036 effective to inactivate the bacteria (Sharcer etal, 2008), The eectiveness of dissolved ozone on water borne micro -sir interface indicated in the been ‘examined (Bullock e al, 2997; Summer eta, 1997), and there is concern that the residual dissolved ozone would be toxic tothe finfish Summerfelt ta. (2004) showed that dissolved ozone can be inactivated by using UV light. Further studies showed tat using ozone followed by UV light was an effective process to inactive the bactera(Summeret, 2003; Sharrer and Sumvmerfel, 2007), Fig 19.3. Recirculating tank, A) Fier where the water is removed from the recirculating tan, arrow indicates where bioflms frm on the filter; 8) Ai water interface, arrow indiates where biofilms form on tank surfaceFig. 19.4. Water exiting the sand filtration system. A) Water pumped to top of sand ‘ier; 8) Water exiting sand filter, C) Water overflowing the eatch tank for reintroduction into recirulation fish tank. i Fig 19.5, Water holding tank of filtered water before re-entry into growth tank. rows indicate places where biofilms form, Pipes ate used in recirculation systems. The flow characteristics ofthe liquid in these pipes infuence biofilm development. Stoodley eal (1998) studied bioflm formation under laminae ang turbulent flow and after increasing the liqud’s nutrient content. They reported thatthe structure of the biofilms was different based on the typeof flow. Under laminar fow, the bioflms were patchy and consisted of ercuar ell luster, whereas under turbulent flow, the biofilms were patchy and consisted of ripples and streamer type formation. When the nutrient content ofthe fluid was increased under both laminar and turbulent flow, the cel cluster grew rapidly laminar and the biofilm thickened and the ripples disappeared (turbulent) In addition to the water flow characteristics, the pipe material fects biofilm Formation. Ker etal. (1999) reported thst medium density plyetnvlene and Lnplasticised polyvinyl chloride supported the lowest numbers of bacteria ina steady state biotin, Further research is needed inthis area to determine which Piping material would inhibit the formation of bioflms, [After the seafood is harvested, the recireulatng system is cleaned and sanitized king eal. (2004) showed that proper cleaning and sanitizing with sodium hypochlorite or peroxacetic acid i effective in remaving biofilms fom the surfaces ‘of material. Proper deaning/sanitizin ofthe recirculating system before start-upand maintaining the filtering! disinfection of the water would reduce the bacterial populations involved in biofilm formation, ead fullchapler URL haps scence coment 978184569477500195 Aquaculture Coli J Brauner, Jeffrey G. Richards, n Fish Physiology, 2020, Abstract Incommeria fh a5 iis eel to ensure that environmental arog condition re adequate, no optimal fr sh growth, welfare snd pray In rechealstng ssuacuture stam (AS), where enironmentl canons canbe tightly controled targeting thee optima maybe important in ofseting high cons. However ly aptimaleancition or growth ae rarely dened inthe iteratur. In etpen aquaculture, st selection perms some contol over the ros relevant parameters; however, itis cer that changesin environmental Condition, such as sub-optimal empeatres,hypxi and algal blooms, re increasing in frequency and duration, fen unpredktably Ths, an understanding oF how changes in relevant environmental parameters ae growth and physiological performances val forthe selection of strains that may be more retro these wel ether unpredictable changes. in thi chapter we provide a physiological framework based upon the “Fry paradigm’ fr defining optimal talus of temperature, salty and water vel for sh growth and performance, fan the impact of ypora and il damage. We consider hese parametersin isolation, bt ao in combination a they often cowry inthe cle environment Furthermore, we prome the use of stress tolerance tess to predict the aity of fshto withstand changes in their environment that may arse de io unforeseen circumstances. Fil we review the varius say tht can be ued to cuantiy physiological performance during changes in these environmental parameter Read fll chapter Jape scence comfencfariepls154s0982000078 Pesticide contamination in farmed fish: assessing risks and reducing contamination iC. Lite, C. Price in Improving Farmed Fish Quality and Safety, 2008 3.5.1 Technical and management approaches Various mitigation measures ean and have been adopted, with various degrees of success, in reducing the need for and risks posed by pesticide interactions within aguaculluce, Within partly or completely recirculating aquaculture systems, ‘various mechanical, biological, chemical and radioactive water purification ‘combined with good husbandry has been successful in reducing the entry and propagation of pathogens that would otherwise only been treatable with pesticides (Sarkar etal, 2007), However where aquaculture systems are more open to the wider environment, suchas in cages arin some cases in pond based culture, the control of pathogens can be more diffcu. In some instances, natural predators of external parasites such as cleaner fsh eg, wrasse) canbe used in conjunction with salmon farmed in cages as 2 means of biological pest control Pillay, 1994). Als the recent pressure on the development of less harmful compounds has lead to decreased environmental and health cost associated withthe control of pests and pathogens in aquaculture systems, akhough issues such a toxicity of mistures, metabolites and synergistic effects needs to be more fully understood before any of| theze compounds can be considered ae safe ‘These risks ave all the greater in Asia because ofthe tendency for high value horticulture and aquaculture to co-locate in high potential rigated areas, lowercontrols of pesticide use and broader range of older more toxic compounds in use ‘The dynamism and wide diversity of cultured aquatic species, including many ‘exotic, inthis region also encourages movement and introductions, bath of which increase cick from pests and pathogens. However, the efficacy of pesticide use is ‘often relatively poor in aquati ystems and, compared to terrestrial agriculture {quarantine treatments and protocols, are relatively underdeveloped, Trends toward best practice and organic management elsewhere In food production typically contro, reduce or eliminate pesticide use in food production. This may be practically dffeul given the open nature of many aquaculture systems. Hence producers of arganic Atlantic salmon in net cages are regulaly given derogations tose chemical anti-helminthe such as cypermethrin against salmon lie on the grounds of animal welfare. In contrast, pest problems are relatively less problematic in aquaculture than terrestrial agrcuure systems but this probably elects a more recent history of intensive aquaculture in most contests, The potential for breaking the cyl of pests ‘through simple drainage and drying of aquatic systems —the equivalent of fallow in conventional farming, is also an important advantage of managing pests in aquatic farming, Read fll chapter Introduction Gramil D.Treece n Sustainable Biofloe Systems for Marine Shrimp, 2018 1.4.4 Economics of RAS and Biofloc Systems ‘The economics of the bifie system described in this manual is discussed in detail in Chapter 13. A broader comparison with ther systems is briely summarized here. Table 1.3 compares production costs in earthen ponds and RAS using data fiom the USDAsunded US Marine Shrimp Farming Program. Pond data are from an intensive farm in Aroyo City, Texas while data fr the RAS systems was obtained fiom trials conducted atthe Oceanic institute, Hawai over 4 years (2005 to 2007, 200). Table 1.3. Grow-Out Trial Comparison Texas Hypothetical USMSFP _USMSEP_USMSEP_USMSEP Farm 1959 2005 2006-2007 2009 2001 22002 Stocking 50 40 0s Ol B50 (shrimpjen?) System size 20234 ofa sa S30 (w) Survval(%6) 50.0 80.0 03 6619863, Harvest 180-280 vs 0183 BBA weight) Growth 1.00150 178 (alt) Production 04S 2.60 a9 760 ©1030 9.75, (ban?) Cost(sfkg) 672 13.05 496 48S 366 SSLNote cst diference in farm and indoor RAS in bold (USMSFP at USDA review panel, Shaun Moss, personal communication.) Production costs per unit shrimp were less in RAS than in earthen ponds. Even at higher stocking densities, survival and growth in the RAS trials were better. At harvest, shrimp produced in RAS were jus as large and, in some cases, even larger than those from ponds. Closed, indoor super-intensve RAS can be operated for less than earthen ponds (Moss and Leung, 2006). See cost comparison in Table 1.3 between a farm and a closed, indoor supersintensive RAS system. The cumulative distribution of total cost for ponds and RAS (Fig. 1.12) indicates that RAS has 2 lower cost per unit weight than ponds Fig. 1.12. Cumulative distribution of total cos (Sag) for earthen ponds ws. RAS. (from Mas, SM, Leung, PS, 2005. Compaatie cost of hemp producon earthen ponds a eoreutingaquecature systems I: Leung, PS, Engle, C4) Shomp Culture: anor, ark, and Tae, lst Pabihing Anes, lows USA, pp. 291-300) ‘The Texas AM-ARMIL has reduced indoor biafloc operating costs fom $11.00/ke, the US average for super-intensve systems, to about $453/kg. That work also suggests the feasibilty of extending the numberof annual crops from 2.5 to 5. Eeonomic projections sugges that these systems can be profitable when targeting niche markets for live or fresh (neve frozen shrimp (Hanson and Posada, 2006; Hanson et al, 2013), ea fullchapler URL tpi sired dp 89780.281840200010 Recommended publications Aquaculture JournalAquacultural Engineering, Journal ‘Aquaculture Reports Journal Fish & Shellfish Immunology Journal D Ea a) | Coprigh © 02 Enver Bors Kenora. RELX™ SeieceDre 8 ies egseres tademark eee 8, Ba att HisEvinR