Lecture 1

1.Language Levels
2.Differences and similarities in grammars
Language levels
Language (Speech) is divided to certain strata or levels. The linguists distinguish basic
and nonbasic (sometimes they term them differently: primary and secondary) levels.
This distinction depends on whether a level has got its own unit or not. If a level has
its own unit then this level is qualified as basic or primary. If a level doesn't have a
unit of its own then it is a non-basic or secondary level. Thus, the number of levels
entirely depend on how many language (or speech) units in language.

The most wide-spread opinion is that there are five language (speech) units and
respectively there are five language (speech) levels, they are:
1. phonological/phonetical level: phoneme/phone
2. morphological level: morpheme/morph
3. lexicological level: lexeme/lex
4. Syntax - minor: sentence
5. Syntax - major: text

When talking about the levels one has to mention about the distinction between
language and speech because the linguistics differentiates language units and speech
units.
The main distinction between language and speech is in the following:
1) language is abstract and speech is concrete;
2) language is common, general for all the bearers while speech is individual;
3) language is stable, less changeable while speech tends to changes;
4) language is a closed system, its units are limited while speech tend to be openness
and endless.

The lowest level in the hierarchy of levels has two special terms: phonology and
phonetics.
Phonology is the level that deals with language units and
phonetics is the level that deals with speech units.
The lowest level deals with language and speech units which are the smallest and
meaningless. So, the smallest meaningless unit of language is called phoneme; the
smallest meaningless unit of speech is called phone.
If we compare the pronunciation of ‘low’ and ‘battle’, we’ll hear the difference in [l].
The alternants in pronunciation are called allophones (variants, options or
alternants) of one phoneme.

The second level in the hierarchy of strata is called morphological. There's only one
term for both language and speech but the units have different terms: morpheme
for language and morph for speech. This level deals with units that are also smallest
but in this case they are meaningful. So the smallest meaningful unit of language is
called a morpheme and the smallest meaningful unit of speech is called a morph.
The morphs that have different forms, but identical (similar) meanings are united
into one morpheme and called "allomorphs". The morpheme of the past tense has
at least three allomorphs, they are /t/, /d/, /id/. Examples: worked, phoned and
wanted.

The third level is lexicological which deals with words. Word may be a common term
for language and speech units. Some linguists offer specific terms for language and
speech: lexeme for language and lex for speech. “Lexeme” is a language unit of the
lexicological level which has a nominative function. "Lex" is a speech unit of the
lexicological level which has a nominative function. Both lexeme and lex nominate
something or name things, actions phenomena, quality, quantity and so on, e.g.,
tree, pen, sky, red, worker, friendship, ungentlemanly. An abstract lexeme "table" of
language is used in speech as lex with concrete meaning of "writing table", "dinner
table", "round table", "square table".
Allolexes are lexes that have identical or similar meanings but different forms: start,
commence, begin

The next level is syntax - minor which deals with sentences. The term "Syntax -
minor" is common one for both language and speech levels and their unit "sentence"
is also one common term for language and speech units.
The abstract notion "sentence" of language can have concrete its representation in
speech which is also called "Sentence". Example: "An idea of writing a letter” on the
abstract language level can have its concrete representation in speech: John writes a
letter. A letter is written by John.
Since one and the same idea is expressed in two different forms they are called "allo
- sentences". Some authors call them grammatical synonyms. Thus, sentence is
language and speech units on the syntax - minor level, which has a communicative
function.

In the same way the level syntax - major can be explained. The unit of this level is
text – the highest level of language and speech. "Syntax- major" represents both
language and speech levels due to the absence of separate term as well as "text" is
used homogeneously for both language and speech units.

The language and speech units are interconnected and interdependent. This can
easily be proved by the fact that the units of lower level are used to make up or to
build the units of the next higher level: YOUR EXAMPLE

2.Differences and similarities in grammars

One of the most fundamental claims of modern linguistic analysis is that all
languages have a grammar. It could not be any other way. If a language is spoken, it
must have a phonetic and phonological system; since it has words and sentences, it
must also have a morphology and a syntax; and since these words and sentences
have systematic meanings, there must obviously be semantic principles as well.
These are the very things that make up a grammar.
Unfamiliar languages sometimes appear to have no grammar simply because their
grammatical systems are different from those of better-known languages. In Walbiri
(an indigenous language of Australia), for example, the relative ordering of words is
so free that the English sentence “The two dogs now see several kangaroos” could
be translated by the equivalent of any of the following sentences.
Dogs two now see kangaroos several.
See now dogs two kangaroos several.
See now kangaroos several dogs two.
Kangaroos several now dogs two see.
Kangaroos several now see dogs two.
Rather than showing that Walbiri has no grammar, such differences simply
demonstrate that it has a grammar that is unlike the grammar of English in certain
respects. This point holds across the board: although no two languages have exactly
the same grammar, there are no languages without a grammar.
Moreover, there is no such thing as a 'good grammar' or a 'bad grammar'. In fact, all
grammars do essentially the same thing: they tell speakers how to form and
interpret the words and sentences of their language. The form and meaning of those
words and sentences vary from language to language and even from community to
community.
Universality in grammar
In considering how grammars can differ from each other, it is easy to lose sight of
something even more intriguing and important—the existence of principles and
properties shared by all human languages.
For example, all languages use a small set of contrastive sounds that help distinguish
words from each other (like the [t] and [d] sounds that allow us to recognize ‘to’ and
‘do’ as different words. All languages have more consonant sounds (p, t, d, etc.) than
vowel sounds (a, e, i); any language that has a [b] sound also has a [p] sound.
Some languages (like English) place question words at the beginning of the sentence.
e.g.Mary sees a book. What do you see?
Other languages, like Mandarin, make no such changes.
But no language uniformly places question words at the end of the sentence.
Word-order: take three-word sentences such as “Canadians like hockey”, for
instance. There are six logically possible orders for such sentences.
Canadians like hockey.
Canadians hockey like.
Like Canadians hockey.
Like hockey Canadians.
Hockey like Canadians.
Hockey Canadians like.
More than 95 percent of the world's languages adopt one of the first three orders as
basic statements. Only a handful of languages use any of the last three orders as
basic.

Grammars change over time

The grammars of all languages are constantly changing. Some of these changes are
relatively minor and occur very quickly (e.g., Internet, e-mail, cyberspace). Other
changes have a more dramatic effect on the overall form of the language and
typically take place over a long period of time.
One such change involves the manner in which we negate sentences in English. Prior
to 1200, English formed negative constructions by placing ‘ne’ before the verb and a
variant of ‘not’ after it.
a)Ic ne seye not. ('I don't say.')
b)He ne speketh nawt. (He does not speak.')

By 1400 or thereabouts, ‘ne’ was used infrequently and ‘not’ (or ‘nawt’) typically
occurred by itself after the verb.
I seye not the wordes.
We saw nawt the knyghtes.
It was not until several centuries later that English adopted its current practice of
allowing ‘not’ to occur after only certain types of verbs (such as do, have, will, and so
on).
I will not say the words. (versus I will say not the words.)
He did not see the knights. (versus He saw not the knights.)
These changes illustrate the extent to which grammars can be modified over time.

Lecture 2
1.Definition and structure of grammar
2.The lexical and grammatical in language
3. Grammatical categories and grammatical forms

1. Definition and structure of grammar

There are two shades of meaning of the word "grammar“: objective grammar and
subjective grammar. When we speak of grammar as part of language it will be
objective grammar. When we speak of a course in grammar or a book in grammar, it
is subjective grammar.
How many grammars can a certain language have? If we mean objective grammar,
the answer will be one. But when we mean courses or books in grammar, the answer
will be many.

There are different kinds of books and courses in grammar:

-primary, practical and normative grammars for beginners,
-advanced practical normative grammars for students,
-comparative or typological grammars which study grammatical facts of kindred or
non-kindred languages on a comparative basis,
-historical grammar as a part of the history of a certain language ,
-general grammar as a part of theoretical linguistics,
-theoretical grammar of a certain language.
Nowadays modern approaches to grammatical studies include: descriptive grammar,
transformational, generative grammar and contrastive grammar or typology.
 Inner division of grammar
Grammar consists of two parts: morphology and syntax which cannot be mixed up.
Reasons:
1) they belong to different structural levels of language: morphology deals with
words and their grammatical categories which belong to the conceptual level of
language; while syntax is concerned with higher units (phases and sentences) which
belong to the communicative level of language.
2) Morphology and syntax are different methods in dealing with linguistic units.
Syntax regards language facts in linear aspect, that is, it studies the ways of
combining words into utterances (phrases and sentences); while morphology studies
grammatical properties of words and their grammatical categories.
3) Morphology and syntax have different tasks. The former studies all properties of
parts of speech; while the latter studies methods of making sentences and different
types of sentences.
Note! Phraseology partly belongs to lexicology and partly to syntax

Relation between morphology and syntax

We subdivide grammar into morphology and syntax for scientific and methodological
purposes. In actual speech they work together. However, not all morphological
phenomena are equally related to syntax. Some of them are syntactic by their nature
and by their function, e.g., case forms are morphological by their forms but they
exist to express certain syntactic functions. The same can be said about other
grammatical categories: person, number, gender which are always reflected in
syntax, though actually these facts are not syntactic by their nature.

2. The lexical and grammatical in language

a)books b)My father works at a factory
pens His mother teaches at a school
trees Her sister goes to school
forks Our teacher explains us the rules
common features: ___________
different features:____________
Preliminary conclusion: what is individual in language units is not grammar, and what
is common in these units belongs to grammar

Another very important feature of the grammatical in language is that grammatical

meanings are based on strict correlation: we distinguish the plural number because
there is the singular number, we distinguish the present tense because there are
other non-present tenses (future and past). In lexis correlation makes separate
couples of antonyms. This correlation is limited: day-night, white-black, good-evil. At
this stage we can make a comprehensive conclusion: the principal feature of the
grammatical in language is that it includes common traits of language units (words
and sentences) and that the common is based on a strict correlation.
There other distinctive features of the grammatical in language:
-grammar organizes lexis enabling us to make communicative units (sentences)
-grammar is a closed system (not easily admitting of the new elements) while lexis is
an open system easily admitting of new words
-grammar facts are compulsory, therefore the use of them is but little influenced by
the content of actual speech (unlike the choice of lexis)
-while lexis is expressed in language mostly by roots, grammatical phenomena are
usually expressed by inflections, intonations and word-order.
Grammar is a part of language that organizes lexis and constitutes the structure of
language. Grammar is based on common features of language units and on strict
correlation.

3. Grammatical categories and grammatical forms

Grammatical meanings are strictly correlated. This means that there cannot exist a
grammatical meaning in language without its counterpart. Such kindred meanings
are correlated on some wider grammatical conception. E.g., the singular number and
the plural number both mean number; the present tense, the past tense and the
future tense are correlated on the conception of tense common to all of them.

Correlation itself can be defined as opposition of meanings of the same order, that is
belonging to the same wider conception, e.g., the present tense can be correlated
only with some other tense, but not with number or degree of comparison. In the
basis of any grammatical correlation lies some wider grammatical conception, e.g.
number, tense, aspect, comparison. This wider conception is a grammatical
category.

The grammatical category is a more or less wide grammatical conception that lies
in the basis of grammatical correlation. Grammatically correlated meanings make
the smallest grammatical system of meanings and forms which is called a
grammatical paradigm. A paradigm is the smallest grammatical system of
correlated meanings and forms based on only one grammatical category.
Therefore, we can define a grammatical category as a system of meanings and forms
based on one paradigm.

The example of a grammatical paradigm:

NUMBER
(a grammatical conception: category)
SINGULAR PLURAL
(gram.meaning) (gram.meaning)
Table Ø (zero inflection) Tables (inflection –s)
(gram.form) (gram.form)
Any grammatical meaning must have its own specific form for its expression, without
which a grammatical meaning cannot be detected and identified.
Any material means of expressing a grammatical meaning is grammatical form.
There are different kinds of grammatical forms:
1)inflections (work-worked);
2)self-gradation – (begin-began, begun);
3) suppletive forms, that are forms derived form different roots (good-better, the
best, go went , gone; many, much, more, most);
4)formal words – auxiliaries (be, do, have, shall, will);
5)word order (“father killed a bear”, or “a bear killed a father”)
6)intonation and stress.

Zero forms. The absence of a positive indicator of a certain grammatical meaning

included in a paradigm is a zero form.
E.g., Ask - Asked – will ask
the form "ask" in comparison with "asked" has a zero termination, and in
comparison with "will ask" has a zero auxiliary.

The analytical forms. When one grammatical meaning is expressed by more than
one word of which at least one must be purely formal, that grammatical form is an
analytical one, e.g. am writing, was broken, will come, has arrived, don’t like.

Such forms are included into a paradigm along with synthetic forms (likes, liked), e.g.
the grammatical category of aspect: continuous (analytical: was sleeping) – indefinite
(synthetical: sleeps); the degrees of comparison with –er, –est (synthetical- bigger,
the biggest) can go along with “more, the most” (analytical - more important, the
most important).

Lecture 3
1. Analytic and synthetic languages
2. History of parts of speech distinction
3.Parts of speech in modern English

1. Analytic and Synthetic languages

Among various classifications of languages (genealogical, typological, structural, etc)

we distinguish synthetic and analytic languages. The synthetic languages are such in
the grammar of which synthetic techniques prevails, i.e. in which grammatical and
lexical meanings are united in one word. Such languages abound in inflections and
rarely resort to form-words. The analytic languages are such in the grammar of
which analytic technique prevail, i.e. in which grammatical and lexical meanings are
expressed in separate words. These languages have but few inflections, and usually
express grammatical meanings by auxiliary words.
From this point of view, the English language is considered highly analytic one,
however we should not underestimate its rather numerous synthetic forms. e.g. The
category of number of nouns is expressed only synthetically (table-tables); the basic
forms of the verb as well as the main finite forms of the verbs ( the present and the
past indefinite) are synthetic (he plays, he played).

Of course, analytic forms in English are prevailing: alongside with the synthetic forms
of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs we widely use analytical forms of
comparison; in the verb we have analytical continuous and perfect, as well as
analytic forms of passive voice; even in the indefinite tenses we form the
interrogative and negative forms analytically; all future and future-in-the-past forms
are analytical.

Historically, some European languages (English, French especially) have come over
from synthesis to analysis. There were two reasons of the appearance of analytic
forms:
1) inner development of a certain language may demand creation of a new
grammatical category. In this case a language tries to find its inner resources for the
expression of a new meaning and often finds the means among the existing lexical
phrases. This actually occurred with the development of the English continuous and
perfect forms and the auxiliaries of the future tenses or the passive voice and
analytic forms of degrees of comparison.

As is known, modern Perfect Tenses are formed by means of the auxiliary verb to
have followed by the past participle of the notional verb. In Old English the past
participle was not an intrinsic part of the tense but was regarded as an adjective in
apposition to the object governed by the verb have; the participle agreed in case
(accusative) with the object: I have written my letter meant I have my letter written.
It was quite natural that these forms were at first used with transitive verbs; the
corresponding forms of intransitive verbs were generally formed with the verb be. In
such constructions the participle always agreed with the subject. He is come meant
He is in the state of being come. But when the origin of the have-forms had been
forgotten, they were gradually extended to intransitive verbs as well: He has gone;
He has come; He had gone; He had come.

2) the development of the language is also determined by the history of the people
speaking that language. We see that analysis developed mostly in the language
whose people had undergone historic admixtures of nations speaking different
languages. What happens in such a case? Inflections (synthetic elements)
deteriorate, fall off and instead phraseological substitutes develop which take the
place of the old synthetic forms. In English, for instance, the whole system of
substantival cases had deteriorated and now is substituted by prepositional of-
phrase.

It's interesting to mention that most of the synthetic forms have developed from
analytic ones. Inflections were separate words. What is the reason for that?
Language is one of human activities and it conforms with the universal law of
economy effort. Languages which have no reason to develop new analytic forms not
only retain their synthetic forms, but make new synthetic forms out of analytic ones
as these are more economic, e.g. the suffix –ed of the English verb developed from
the past form of the verb DO (work did - worked). In the Ukrainian reflexive –cя\сь
we usually trace the separate word СЕБЕ –дивитися, вчитись.

2. History of parts of speech distinction.

The history of linguistic categorization of parts of speech in Europe begins with Plato
who considered some language-related philosophical questions: why a dog is called
a dog and not a cat. Some attention is devoted to dividing a sentence into two major
components - the nominal one (onoma) and the verbal one (rheme). Thus, Plato
approached the problem of "noun-verb" distinction in terms of "subject" versus
"predicate". Since Plato's focus was purely syntactic (i.e. based on sentential
analysis), Platonic "nouns" and "verbs" do not exactly correspond to nouns and
verbs

Aristotle added a further distinct class of "conjunctions" (covering conjunctions,

pronouns and the article) to the Platonic system. This class included all those words
which were neither nouns nor verbs but which served to combine nouns and verbs.
Aristotle included adjectives among the "verbs". The inflectional criterion was not
yet at play. Both for Plato and Aristotle, parts of speech were parts of sentences:
words became nouns or verbs only when they were put into sentences, outside of
a sentence they had no categorical affiliations.

The inflectional criterion to establish word classes was brought into play by the
Stoic grammarians. Their major theoretical achievement was distinguishing case
which was the fundamental distinction between nouns and verbs. They drew the
borderline between the group of case inflected pronouns and articles, on the one
hand, and the group of invariant prepositions and conjunctions, on the other hand.
The Stoics made another very important contribution – recognition of the temporal
and aspectual meanings inherent in the tense forms.

A turning point in the history of linguistic classification was the appearance in the
late 2nd century BC of the Greek grammar by Dionysius Thrax. He was a
representative of the Alexandrian school which built further on what was achieved
by the Stoics. Dionysius Thrax suggested organizing words into eight classes.
1. NOUN; 2. VERB; 3.PARTICIPLE; 4.ARTICLE; 5.PRONOUN; 6.PREPOSITION;
7.ADVERB; 8.CONJUNCTION.

The Alexandrians recognized such noun categories as gender (masculine, feminine,

neuter), form (simple, compound), number (singular, dual, plural), case (nominative,
vocative, accusative, genitive, dative).
During the Middle ages scholars tried to adjust the patterns adopted for Latin and
Greek vocabulary to all European languages. This give rise to so-called universalist
grammars (prescriptive grammars). These grammars pursued the goal to follow Latin
grammar rules in other languages and literary to establish norms for languages.
One of the first scientific English grammars was composed by Henry Sweet,
published in 1898. Sweet suggested the division based on three criteria:
morphological, syntactic and semantic. The first division of English vocabulary was
drawn along declinable and indeclinable words.
Declinables were further divided into
noun-words that include proper names, noun numerals (cardinals), noun-pronoun
(person, indefinite), infinitives and gerund.
The second group is composed of adjective-words: adjectives, adjective-pronoun
(possessive), adjective-numerals (ordinal) and participles.
Verbs – finite and infinite forms– made up the third group.
As to indeclinables they presented the so-called “dustbin class” and included
conjunctions, prepositions, modal verbs.

The Danish representative of classical scientific grammar of the 20th century, Otto
Jespersen, in The Philosophy of Grammar (1924) proposes a dual system: together
with the description of the traditional parts of speech with their morphological
peculiarities and lexical meaning, the linguist analyzes these word classes from the
point of view of their functions in syntactic combinations (word combinations and
sentences). Certain words may be primary, i.e. they may be the core of a word
combination or the subject of a sentence. A word may also be secondary, i.e. it may
modify primary words. Jespersen also distinguishes tertiary words, i.e. words
subordinated to secondary ones.
As a result, Jespersen distinguishes the
following parts of speech:
NOUN;
ADJECTIVE;
PRONOUN;
VERB.

Emilia Morokhovskaya suggests dividing words (or parts of speech) into lexical and
functional.
Lexical parts of speech are linguistic signs that possess denotative ability. They are
names of extralingual objects and phenomena: a door, a state, to create, bright,
directly, etc. Their nominative character enables them to perform various syntactic
functions in a sentence – they may function as a sentence part and represent the
nucleus of the word combination. Functional parts of speech do not denote any
object, concept, quality or action. Function-words are used to mark certain types of
relation between lexical words, word combinations and sentences: the bend in the
road, villages and cities, a village, a city – articles, prepositions, conjunctions,
particles.

3.Parts of speech in modern English

Parts of speech are groups of words with common properties. They are not classes in
the strict sense of the word, because grouping into parts of speech involves a
number of criteria. These criteria are:
1)the general semantics of a part of speech
2)morphological properties (grammatical categories of a part of speech)
3)syntactic functions in which a given part of speech can be used
4)a degree of specific shape (affixes, word-building)

Parts of speech are grouped into notional and functional. The notional parts of
speech in English are: noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral, verb, adverb. Many
notionals in English are variable, i. e. they may change their nature depending on the
contextual environment and their functional significance: "blue" may be noun (the
blue of the sky), adjective (the blue sky), or verb (to blue smth.).
As to the functional parts of speech they are: conjunctions, prepositions, particles,
exclamations, articles. The present-day English has the article which is missing in
Ukrainian.
Generally speaking we can say that all nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs are
capable of making direct reference and are the main units which carry the burden of
referential information, and that all other words provide functional information.

Lecture 4
1. Nouns in English:
the category of number, case, gender, the category of definiteness/indefiniteness
2.Numerals in English

The category of number

The only morphological category of the noun which is almost always marked in
present-day English is that of number. It is mostly realized synthetically, i.e. through
zero and marked inflexions respectively,e.g: child - children, ox - oxen, and baths,
cargos, jubilees, bushes.

Traditionally the category of number is defined as the one that shows whether we
speak of one subject or more than one. But because some single objects are used
only in the plural form (scissors, trousers), a better definition of the category of
number can be suggested. Number shows whether the inner segmentation of a
conception is expressed or not. If such a segmentation is expressed then this
conception can have two numbers. If such a segmentation is not expressed then we
can speak about a noun as having a singular number or plural number.

In the English language there is also the formation of plural number by way of sound
interchange: foot -feet, tooth - teeth, goose - geese; man - men, woman - women;
louse - lice, mouse-mice.

A few simple life nouns have in English one and the same form for singular and plural
(grouse, sheep, deer, swine, plaice). Usually, these nouns also have the zero marked
plural form: carp, pike, trout, deer, salmon. Apart from the genuinely English there
are some borrowed noun inflexions: stimulus - stimuli, curriculum – curricula,
criterion-criteria, basis-bases.
In English we recognize classes of singularia tantum (only singular) and pluralia
tantum (only plural).

The singularia tantum include some semantic groups of mainly common nouns like:

1. Nouns denoting parts of the world: the North, the South, the East, the West,
the North-West.

2. Names of materials: gold, silver, iron, copper, milk, butter, snow, dirt, sand,
water, hay, straw, bread, coffee, sugar, wood, etc.

3. Collective nouns: brushwood, foliage, leafage, furniture, shrubbery, rubbish,

peasantry, hair, professorate, womankind, etc.

4. Abstract notions: courage, knowledge, advice, recognition, friendship, kindness,

news, information, business, love, peace, patriotism, weather, etc.

Pluralia Tantum Nouns

 Summations nouns: trousers, shorts, tongs, scissors, scales, spectacles, eye-

glasses, opera-glasses, leggings, strachies, pincers, etc.

 Names of remnants: scraps, slops, sweepings, sittings, leavings, remnants, etc.

 Names of some games: drafts, cards, darts, skittles, billiards, etc.

 Some abstract and concrete notions: outskirts, tidings, (inverted) commas,

goings-on, contents, etc.

 Some geographical names: Athens, the Netherlands, the Alps, the Urals, the
Carpathians, the Azores, the Bermudas, the Philippines, etc.

The category of case

Unlike the category of number, the category of case in present-day English has
always been disputable. Some grammarians found in present-day English two cases
(O. Jespersen, V. Yartseva), others found in English four cases (G. Curme, M.
Deutschbein), and still other grammarians were inclined to see in English five, six and
more cases. R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum and co-authors speak of common and genitive
cases (-'s genitive and of-genitive).

In modern linguistics a case is defined as a morphological category of the noun

manifested in the forms of noun declension and showing the relations of the nounal
referent to other objects and phenomena. This category is expressed in English by
the opposition of the form –'s, usually called the possessive case or genitive case, to
the unfeatured form of the noun, usually called the common case. The common
form is absolutely indefinite from the semantic point of view, whereas the
possessive form has a parallel prepositional construction: my father's house, the
house of my father.

Speaking of the possessive case, it is necessary to mention some restrictions on its

use in English. Nouns in the possessive case perform only one function in a sentence
– that of an attribute. In other words, possessive case may appear in a ‘noun+noun’
phrase, e.g., a teacher’s book. However, the common case may also be used in this
function, e.g., a stone wall. Semantic difference between these syntactically identical
forms is quiet obvious: the possessive case expresses an individual characteristic,
whereas the common case denotes the result of generalization.
Discuss two examples:
Shakespeare's sonnets
the Shakespeare National Theater

Consequently names of living beings usually appear in the possessive case (Plato’s
classification of words);
names of inanimate entities may be used in the possessive case quite rarely
(exceptions are: the names of seasons, distance and price – week's notice, at a mile's
distance, a dollar's worth coffee).

Group possessive.

In English the 's sign may be related to more than one word – to a whole group of
words. E.g. Mary and Ann's room, the man over there's dog. Such practice in English
is called group possessive. The scholars suppose that this possessive case has
undergone the process of syntaxicalization: the 's sign separated form the stem and
modifies word combinations has turned into a syntactic marker.

The category of gender

In a language the category of gender must be strictly oppositional. The classical

gender opposition contains 3 members: masculine gender, feminine and neuter
gender.
The morphological category of gender in Ukrainian is identified either through
separate inflexions of the adjunct or through the inflexion of the finite form of the
verb that conjugates with a noun. For example:каштан цвів, вода замерзла, жито
цвіло.

The majority of scientists believe that the grammatical category of gender

disappeared from the English language by the end of the Middle English period.
What has survived the time is the possibility of lexical indication of the biological sex.
Means that provide this indication are purely lexical or derivational: boy-girl, cock-
hen, bull-cow, he-goat - she-goat; English suffixes -er/-or, -ess, -o, -ine express the
morphological gender, e.g.,
emperor, widower, actress, goddess, heroine.
All lifeless things in English are generally associated with the pronoun it (the neuter
gender), e.g., The tree and its leaves; the desire and its realization; the stone and its
age.
When personified, English life and lifeless nouns may be referred to different
genders. In spoken English all strong or fearful animals, birds and natural
phenomena or celestial objects are usually referred to masculine gender. Thus, the
wolf, the dog, the buffalo, like the tiger, the lion, the elephant or the eagle are
referred to masculine gender. All weaker, timid or sly animals and birds are referred
to the feminine gender. Hence, the cat, the fox or the hare, the nightingale, or tomtit
are each referred to feminine gender (she).

The names of vessels (boat, ship, steamer, cruiser) and vehicles (coach, car, carriage)
are usually associated with feminine gender. So are the names of hotels and inns.
The names of celestial bodies may be feminine, masculine and neuter. The sun which
is strong and powerful is, naturally, he, whereas the moon, the Paradise and the
Earth are associated with the pronoun she (feminine gender).
The current tendency to avoid gender suffixes (-ess,
-ette, -woman, -man,-lady, -lord) should be emphasized. Such words are replaced by
neologisms with no sex indication: stewardess - flight attendant, cameraman –
videographer, policeman - police officer, chairman- chair.

The Category of Definiteness and Indefiniteness

When a noun is taken out of its context its meaning may not be definitely
understood, i.e. identified.
The main means of making the noun definite in English is to use the definite or
indefinite article or any other determiner. For example: Bristiol (zero arcticle) means
the town of Bristol, whereas the Bristol is the name of a hotel or an inn, ship.
The category of definiteness may be also indicated by syntactic means. Namely, by a
noun or a substantivized numeral, an adjective or any other adjunct: e.g., the Tory
government, King Henry V, the first Summit meeting.

The category of indefiniteness apart from being indicated in English by the indefinite
article a/an, may also be made explicit by the indefinite pronouns any, some, etc.,
and by the numeral one. E.g: There is some boy, who wants to see you.

Numerals in English
The numeral has at lexico-grammatical meaning expressing quantity (two, ten,
twenty-one,). It may denote a part of an object (one-third) or order of some objects
(the first, the tenth).
The numerals can combine:
a) with nouns (four days);
b) with pronouns (all three);
с) with numerals (two from ten);
d) with adverbs (the two below/ahead);
e) with the infinitive (the first to сотe), etc.
In the sentence the numeral performs the same function as the noun (cardinal
numerals) and the adjective (the ordinal numerals), i.e. it can be:
a subject (Four are present),
an object (I like the second),
an attribute (It is my second trip),
a simple nominal predicate (cthe two there), an adverbial modifier (they marched
three and three).

All numerals fall into subclasses:

1) cardinal; 2) ordinal and 3)fractionals. Cardinal numerals denote number: three,
five, ten. Ordinal numerals denote order of persons or objects and are used in
English speech with the definite article: the third, the fifth., etc.

Fractions in English are divided into:

common fractions, e.g., 4/10 or 7/100: four over ten and seven over one hundred; 2
1/3: two and one third;
decimal fractions, e.g., 0.4 and 0.07. point four and point zero seven or nought
point four and nought point zero seven; 2.35: two point three five; 25.01: two five
point nought one or twenty-five point nought one.
 Lecture 5
Adjectives and their grammatical properties;
Pronouns and their grammatical properties
Verbs in English
Adjectives and their grammatical properties

Being a notional part of speech the adjective is characterized by several criteria.

Semantically the adjective denotes properties of things, sometimes qualities of things and
their characteristic features.

Morphologically it is characterized by the possibility of a certain property to have different

degrees – the degrees of comparison. The English adjectives have not got such categories as
number, gender, case.

Syntactically the adjective is used in the function of an attribute and predicative (that is the
second element of the compound nominal predicate, e.g., she is beautiful). The adjectives
have some specific adjective-forming suffixes: -less, ous, -ful, -y, -ite and some more.

Adjectives are usually divided into qualitative (expressing a property directly, e.g., red,
clever, brilliant) and relative (expressing the property through substance, e.g., golden,
wooden). This division of adjectives is not absolute as one and the same adjective can
belong to either of these in different contexts.

As it has been said above morphological characteristics of English adjectives are restricted to
only one grammatical category – that's the degrees of comparison. The semantic foundation
of this category is different intensity of a property of a quality. Adjectives have three forms
of the degrees of comparison: the positive (basic, initial), the comparative and the
superlative.

The way of grading in the English language may be synthetic or analytical. The employment
of the synthetic way of grading is restricted in English mostly to base adjectives, e.g: big,
bigger, the biggest.

The analytical forms of grading are more often employed in English than in Ukrainian, e.g:
important, more/less important, the most/the least important; interesting, more/less
interesting, the most/the least interesting.

Some groups of adjectives in English have no grading. They are:

a) adjectives denoting a constant feature of the noun referent (blind - сліпий, deaf- глухий,
barefooted - босий, nude -голий);
b) adjectives expressing the similarity of colour (lilac -бузковий, lemon - лимонний, cream
— кремовий, ruby - яскраво-червоний, chestnut - темно-коричневий);
с) adjectives denoting colour of hair or eyes (dun - буланий, raven-black - вороний, bay -
карий);
d) adjectives expressing the intensive property with the help of suffixes or prefixes (bluish,
reddish, yellowish).
In English we recognize four classes of adjectives

As to the structure of adjectives they fall into three groups:

Base (simple) adjectives, which are regular root words: e.g., big,bold, clean, high, old etc. )
2. Derivative adjectives which are in English regular stems: boyish, capable, despotic,
etc. Derivative adjectives are formed in English with the help of the following suffixes: -al/-ial
; -able; -ary; -ful (annual, capable, contrary, eastern etc.)
3. Compound adjectives consist of two roots: the English compound adjectives are ice-cold,
upright, ever-green, dark-red.

The process of substantivization of adjectives in English is being distinguished:

a) wholly substantivized adjectives (a native, a relative, a black/white,the Brown).

b) partially substantivized adjectives in English have no plural or singular and gender or case
distinctions, usually they are cases of collective adjectives, e.g: the poor, the rich, the young;
the English/French (nation).

Pronouns and their grammatical properties.

Grammatical categories. Morphologically, pronouns represent quite a diverse group.
1)Thus, the category of case is a property of the personal pronouns, in which one may
observe the distinct opposition "nominative case - objective case“ (e.g., I- me, he – him). The
indefinite-personal pronoun one and derivatives with the components -body and -one are
also marked for the case category, since they demonstrate the opposition of the common
and the possessive cases (e.g., someone’s car, somebody’s mistake).

2) The category of number marks the demonstrative pronouns (e.g., this-these, that-those),
the indefinite-personal pronoun one (e.g., one – ones) and the defining pronoun other (e.g.,
other-others) and the reflexive pronoun yourself (e.g., yourself –yourselves).
The pronoun as a part of speech correlates in English with the following parts of speech as
their substitutes:

a) with nouns: he/Pete, she/Ann, etc.;

b) Some classes of pronouns may also correlate (attributive function) with adjectives (his,
her, your, etc. book; the first/ second, etc. look;
c) Several pronouns also correlate in English with numerals when they denote generalizing
quantity: (some, few/a few).

Syntactic functions of pronouns are also diverse. The personal pronouns, several
interrogative pronouns, derivatives of some, any, no and every perform functions peculiar to
the noun, whereas the possessive pronouns, some indefinite pronouns take syntactic
positions typical of the adjective.

This diversity of morphological categories and syntactic functions leads to controversial

views on pronouns as such and also on linguistic units that should be treated as pronouns.
As a result, some scholars deny the very existence of this part of speech. According to this
point of view, the words that are usually treated as pronouns should be referred, depending
on their morphological and syntactic properties, to specific subgroups of adjectives or nouns.

Indeed, it is impossible to deny similarities between the pronoun, the noun and the adjective
but, on the other hand, it is impossible to overlook the lexical meaning, i.e. absence of a
permanent reference, that makes pronouns different from either of the two parts of speech.
It is this lexical meaning that unites pronouns of different types into a part of speech, though
they may share the rest of their properties with other word classes.

English pronouns can be presented in the following eight classes:

1.Personal : I, he, she, it, we, you, they;
2.Possessive : my, his, her, its, our, your, their, mine, hers;
3.Reflexive :myself, itself, himself, herself, yourself, yourselves, ourselves;
4.Demonstrative :this/these, that/those, such a, the same;
5.Relative : who, what, which, whose;
6.Interrogative : who, whose, what, which, how much;
7.Indefinite and Negative :any, anybody, somebody, nobody, none, nothing ;
8.Reciprocal : each other, one another.

Each of the eight classes of pronouns have characteristics that follows:

1. Personal Pronouns (seven in English: /, he, she, it, we, you,they) and eight in Ukrainian
(because of the existence of ти which was substituted in English by you). All English personal
pronouns, except it and you, take their explicit objective case forms (me, him, her, us, them).
2.English possessive pronouns may be of two types:
a) possessive conjoint (my, his, her, etc.) and
b) possessive absolute (mine, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs.). The latter are used as attributes
(the friend of mine) or as predicatives (that book is mine). English possessive conjoint
pronouns very often function as determiners, eg: He has his hands in his pockets.

3.Reflexive pronouns (self-pronouns) in English have singular and plural forms (myself,
himself, ourselves, themselves, etc.). They correspond to the Ukrainian себе pronoun
4.English demonstrative pronouns have attributive function in speech. These pronouns are
this/that, these/those, this same/that same, such a, such. These English demonstrative
pronouns agree in number with the head noun: this day - these days, such a book - such
books.

5.Interrogative pronouns are used as noun-pronouns (who, what, how many/how much;
хто, що, скільки) and as adjective pronouns (which, whose; який, котрий, чий). They may
correlate with numerals (how much/how many? — скільки?). English interrogative
pronouns have no number, case or gender distinctions (except "whom" and "whose")
expressing respectively the objective and genitive case form.
6. Relative pronouns in English coincide in their form (structure) with the interrogative
pronouns. They perform the function of connectors (e.g., I know what to do. He asked who
did it. )

7. Reciprocal pronouns (взаємні займенники) are two in English (each other and one
another) and one in Ukrainian, where it exists in three gender forms used in singular and
plural as noun pronouns: один одного, одна одну, одне одного, одні одних.

8. Indefinite pronouns (неозначені займенники) constitute, as was already pointed out, a

rather controversial class. Some grammarians (R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartvik)
speak of "universal pronouns" (each, all, every, the very) and of "partitive pronouns" (some
thing, anything, nothing, either, neither, any, no, none, etc.). Hence, as indefinite can be
identified such pronouns as some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, something, anything.
They have for their Ukrainian equivalents дехто, дещо, хтось, щось, хто-небудь, що-
небудь, який-небудь, будь-хто, будь-що, казна-хто, казна-що.

As to their structure, English pronouns may be:

1) simple (/, he, she, you, some, which, what; etc.);
2) compound (myself, ourselves, someone, somebody, nobody, nothing;);
3) composite (І myself, this same, somebody else, neither he nor she).

The verb is a part of speech that conveys a grammatical meaning of an action. The verb can
be called the most complicated unit of a language, the keystone of the utterance and the
keystone of communication in general.
The grammatical form of the English verb finds its expression in synthetic and analytical
forms. The formative elements expressing these categories are grammatical affixes, inner
inflection and auxiliaries.
Some categories have only synthetic forms (person, number), others – only analytical (voice
distinctions). There are also categories expressed by both analytical and synthetic forms
(mood, time, aspect).

Traditionally verbs are classified on two principles: morphological (formal) and semantical-
syntactic. Morphologically verbs are divided into regular, irregular and a small group of
defective verbs (modals). In semantical-syntactic respect verbs are divided, first of all, into
notional, auxiliary, linking and modal verbs.
This part of speech in English serves to convey different kinds of activity (go, read, skate),
various processes (boil, grow, obtain), the inner state of a person (feel, bother, worry),
possession (have, possess).
Due to these lexico-grammatical properties the verb generally functions in the sentence as
predicate going into some combinations:
a) with the nominal parts of speech performing the functions of the subject (or the object)
of the sentence, for example: The sun shines.The trees grow.The student passed his
examinations.
b) The verb goes into combination with verbs (to want to know, to want to read;) or with
adverbs (to read well);
с) with prepositions (to depend on smb/smth. залежати від когось) and also with
conjunctions (neither read nor write, to work and rest).

The main classes of verbs as to their functional significance: a) notional verbs (go, ask, write)
and b) auxiliary verbs. The latter split into primary (be, do, have), modal (can, may, must,
could, should, need, etc.) and linking verbs (appear, look, become, turn, grow).
English lexical/nominal verbs split into two subclasses.
These are regular verbs forming their past stem and the past participle with the help of the
ending, -ed, -d or -t (dressed/worked, paid/said, learnt/sent);
2) irregular verbs having their past stems and the past participle formed by way of alteration
of their base vowel (bind - bound - bound, take - took - taken, begin -began - begun).
Some irregular verbs also have vowel mutation + the past indefinite/past participle -d or -t
ending (tell - told - told, keep -kept - kept, think - thought - thought).
There are also some mixed-type verbs in English (show - showed- shown, crow - crew -
crowed).
A separate subclass of irregular verbs form the so-called invariables, which have the same
form for the present and past stem/past participle, eg: cast — cast - cast, cost - cost - cost,
let - let - let, put - put - put, etc.
They are suppletive verbs are common, however ( be - was - were, go – went).

The finite verb has six morphological categories which are realized partly with the help of
synthetic means (inflexions) and partly through different analytical means.
The categories of person and number are realized synthetically (e.g., I read. He reads),
whereas the category of tense is realized both synthetically and analytically (e.g. I worked. I
have been working); the category of aspect is realized in English synthetically or analytically
(indefinite, continuous, perfect aspects:He speaks. He is speaking. He has said it); the
category of voice is realized only analytically in English (active voice and passive voice: He
builds a house. The house is being built).The category of mood (indicative, imperative,
subjunctive) is realized synthetically and analytically (I understand you. Close the door. If I
had more time, I would come).
 Lecture 6
1. The problem of the category of tense in English
2. A short historic outline of the view on the category of aspect
3. Absolute, relative and absolute-relative tenses.

Adjectives and their grammatical properties

The idea of locating situations in time is a purely conceptual notion. All the events are
referred to one of the three time dimensions – the present, the past or the future. All human
languages have ways of locating in time but they do differ in lexicon and grammar in
establishing location in time. The Ukrainian language has the three mentioned above
dimensions. English offers much more forms for the expression. The three temporal
dimensions can be expressed by means of different English verb forms: Indefinite (Present,
Past, Future), Continuous (Present, Past, Future), Perfect (Present, Past, Future), Perfect
Continuous (Present, Past, Future).

When we speak about the category of tense in English several problems arise. One of them
is even connected with a number of tense-aspect form. The matter is that the category of
tense in English is inseparably connected with the category of aspect (indefinite,
continuous, perfect). Thus, speaking about the problem of the category of tense in English
we cannot but mention the problem of polysemy of the English grammatical form. E.g. the
form "speak" expresses 6 different grammatical categories.

It is not an easy question to answer how many tenses are there in English. Some scientists
say that English has 16 tenses if one takes into account that tense is expressed by the form
which points to the category of aspect. At this we must add that they are in the active voice.
But if to take into account the fact that we don't disregard the category of aspect, then we
should not disregard the passive voice. If to take into account the polysemy and the
possibility for English to have active and passive for transitive verbs then the statistics count
about 26 tense-aspect-voice forms of which 16 are in the active and only 10 are in the
passive forms.

Speaking about the problem of the category of tense and the category of aspect we must
solve the question of what they belong to. The category of tense answers the question
"when", that's it relates to the time of the action. The category of aspect usually answers the
question "how", it doesn't relate to the time of the action, but rather to the manner of that
action. So, this category is not a temporal category.

2. A short historic outline of the view on the category of aspect.

All theoretical works on the category of aspect in Germanic languages may be divided into
two types. The first shows a purely semantic approach that describes action without paying
any attention to the way they are expressed. That is, aspectual characteristics are attributed
to the lexical meaning of the verb. The first attempt brought the grammarians into the
sphere of lexicology. The Germanic aspect forms were compared with aspect forms of the
Slavonic languages (писати-написати, читати- прочитати).

The assumptions failed as there were no special forms in English to express these aspect
distinctions – in Germanic languages such opposition does not exist, that's why
grammarians began to look for specially English aspects, but they found them in the wrong
corner. The studies of aspect were restricted to the analysis of the lexical groups, not verbal
forms, as in Slavic languages. They classified the verbs having different lexical meanings into
terminative (to come, to arrive, to die, to kill), non-terminative or durative (to live, to read,
to travel, to see) and mixed verbs – that are those verbs which are terminative by their
nature but in some context are used as durative and visa versa.

Gradually, linguists come to realize that the criterion of aspectual meaning could hardly be
seen as belonging to lexical sphere. These considerations gave rise to the second approaches
– called grammatical. According to the grammatical point of view, aspect is a grammatical
not lexical category. They tried to interpret grammatical phenomenon as a system in a new
way. According to the scholars, the English language has three aspects: 1)Perfect expressing
completion, 2)Durative (Continuous) conveying the incomplete actions 3)Indefinite – the
neutral element.

By now a definite understanding of aspect has been worked out. As a result aspect is seen as
a grammatical category, that is the unity of grammatical meaning and grammatical form.
Aspectual meaning is a meaning of an inherent limit of an action. The inherent limit is a
moment when the action is completed because it is exhausted or cannot develop any longer.
For example, the verb "to arrive" has a moment of arrival as a limit, so in the sentence "He is
arriving" the limit is not achieved, whereas it is clearly achieved in the sentence "He arrived
in the evening". The further elaboration of this question may differ from author to author.

Absolute, relative and absolute-relative tenses.

Some traditional grammars distinguish between the so called absolute and relative tenses.
Absolute tenses are those which express the time of the action without any preconditions.
They are eight in number – four indefinite and four continuous. Relative tenses are those
which point to the time of the action in a relative way. That is the choice of these tenses is
stipulated by another action (e.g., when I returned she had already written her letter), or by
some adverbial modifier of time, usually introduced by the proposition "by' (e.g. she will
have written it by 7 o'clock), or by the situation implying the results or completion of the
action or both (e.g. I have written it). These tenses usually include perfect tenses, and
perfect continuous tenses.

To catch the difference between absolute and relative tenses it is useful to look at the
distinction with time adverbials. Some time adverbials serve specially to locate a situation
relative to the present moment, e.g. "today, yesterdays, tomorrow". These are all instances
of absolute time reference. In addition, there are adverbials which locate a situation relative
to some point given by the context, such as "on the same day, on the day before, on the
next day". These are all instances of relative time reference. In contrast to absolute tenses,
where a situation is located at, before or after the present moment; and relative tenses,
where a situation is located at, before or after a point given by the context, absolute-relative
tense forms combine these two kinds of time reference.
The notion of absolute-relative tense describes the Past Perfect tense in English. The
meaning of the past perfect is that there is a point in the past and that the situation in
question is located prior to that point: past perfect can be seen as "past in the past". E.g.
When Linda had e-mailed her report, she found some mistakes in it. The past perfect
indicates a time point before some other time point in the past, and it follows that the
situation referred by the past perfect is located in the past.

The Future Perfect has a meaning similar to that of the past perfect, except that here the
point is in the future rather than in the past. Thus, "I will have e-mailed you by 2 p.m."
indicates that there is a point in the future and that my e-mailing is located temporally prior
to that point.

Lecture 8
The Main Sentence Parts
1. The subject and its types
2. The predicate and its type
2.1. The predicative in English
3.The object of the sentence
4. The attribute of the sentence
5. The adverbial modifier of the sentence

Parts of a sentence are commonly divided into main and secondary. The main sentence
elements are the subject and the predicate. The secondary parts of a sentence are the
object, the attribute and the adverbial modifier.
This subdivision is stipulated by the difference in function. While the subject and the
predicate constitute the sentence (without them the sentence wouldn’t exist), the
secondary parts serve to extend it. The secondary parts may or may not be there, and if they
are there, they modify or complement either the subject or the predicate, or each other.

The subject 1) denotes the thing (or person) whose action or characteristics is
represented by the predicate; 2) is not dependent on any other sentence part; 3) may be
expressed in a number of ways, namely:
the noun – The book is on the table.
the pronoun – He is here.
the substantivised adjective – The rich also cry.
the numeral – The two came in.
the infinitive – To live is to love.
the gerund – Swimming helps to relieve backache.
the phrase – For her to become a ballet dancer required years of training.
the clause – What you need is more time to relax.

There are two main types of subject:

1) the definite subject denotes a specific thing, person, process, quality, etc. – Jimmy
entered. To go there was a mistake. Her flexibility is an asset;
2) the indefinite subject denotes a general or undetermined person, thing or situation –
They say ... You reap what you sow. One can’t have everything.
There is also a formal (dummy) subject which fills the subject position in place of the true
subject that follows the predicate. It is expressed by the pronoun ‘it’ ad adverb ‘there’,
which have no lexical meaning and are usually correlated with some words or phrases in the
sentence representing notional subjects – It is sunny. There is no room for another suitcase.

The predicate: 1) denotes the action or property of the thing expressed by the subject;
2) is not dependent on any other part of the sentence; 3) ways of expressing it are varied,
usually it is associated with a finite form of the verb. Predicates may be classified in two
ways:
structurally into simple and compound and
morphologically into verbal and nominal.

The simple verbal predicate is expressed by a finite verb (synthetic or analytical form), a
phrasal verb; an idiom or a phrase denoting a single action (have a look) – John works here.
John has been working here for a year. The plane took off. They pay little heed to the outside
world.

The compound verbal predicate can be divided into:

- the compound verbal modal predicate, which represents the action expressed by the non-
finite form of the verb is considered as obligatory, possible, desirable, etc. – I have to go. We
must stay.
- the compound verbal aspect predicate, which expresses the beginning, end, duration or
repetition of the action denoted by the non-finite form of the verb, e.g.: She never stops
complaining.

The simple nominal predicate consists merely of a noun or an adjective without a linking
verb: He a gentleman! It generally expresses evaluation.

The compound nominal predicate always consists of a linking verb and a predicative. The
linking verb is the structural element of the predicate, which joins the subject and the
predicative complement. Common English linking verbs are as follows:

be ,seem,appear ,feel, look, smell,taste,

sound, become, get, go, grow, make,
turn, end up, remain, keep, stay, prove
She is my next door neighbour
I think it tastes awful
Her health is getting better
The girl will make a good teacher
She kept warm by jumping up and down

The predicative is the notional part of the compound nominal predicate. It characterizes the
person or object expressed by the subject. The characterization may concern the following:
1. The properties of the person or object (the state / quality / quantity of it).
The girl looked pretty.
We are seven.
2. The identity of the person or object.
That boy is my brother.
Old Mr Clare was a clergyman.
My aim is to finally graduate.

The predicative can be expressed by:

1. A noun in the common case or in the possessive case: Miss Porter’s neighbour was a
murderer. The bag was Alice's.
2. An adjective or an adjective phrase: Her eyes grew thoughtful. You are full of surprises.
3. A pronoun: It’s me. She is somebody I will always love.
4. A numeral: He turned forty last year. He is the first.
5. An infinitive (or an infinitive phrase or construction): The next step was to sign the
document. The only thing you can do is kill him.
6. A gerund (or a gerundial phrase or construction): My sister’s hobby is painting.
7. A participle or a participial phrase: He was surprised at the reaction. The moment felt
strangely soothing.
8. A prepositional phrase: She is on our side.
9. A stative: I was wide awake by this time.
10. An adverb: That’s enough!
11. A word-group: It is nine o’clock.
12. A clause: That’s what has happened.

The Secondary Sentence Parts

The object identifies who or what has been affected by the predicate:
the direct object – refers to some person or thing directly affected by the verb – The child
lost her ball;
the indirect object – refers to some person or thing that is the recipient of the action – I told
them my news. The indirect object usually precedes the direct object.
According to their morphological composition, indirect objects are classified into:
- prepositional, e.g.: An idea had occurred to me;
- non-prepositional (or prepositionless), e.g.: Don't forget to buy her a present on her
birthday.

Personal pronoun ‘it’ can function as a formal object when followed by a noun or adjective
modified by an infinitive, participle or a clause – I find it ridiculous that everybody
sympathises with her.

Another type of object is a complex object expressed by an objective with infinitive /

participle construction – It made me cry. I saw her running away.

Означення The attribute is a member of a sentence which expresses the property, quality,
or feature of a thing, person or phenomenon. It can be expressed by:
adjectives, e.g. Sandra was a beautiful girl.
pronouns, e.g. Dan showed me his photos. (possessive pronoun); Give me some apples,
please. (indefinite pronoun); These apples are delicious. (demonstrative pronoun)
numerals, e.g. I’ll come back in three weeks. (cardinal); Wednesday is the third day of the
week. (ordinal)
nouns, in common case, e.g. It was a nice spring day; in possessive case, e.g. Ann’s new flat is
great!
participles, Do you know that laughing girl? (participle I); Can you see those dilapidated
windows on the third floor? (participle II)
gerunds and gerundial phrases, e.g. Is there any chance of seeing you again?
prepositional phrases, e.g. Birds of a feather flock together.

An attribute can either precede or follow the noun it modifies, therefore there can be a
prepositive (a spectacular view) or postpositive attribute (a cat sleeping on the sofa).

ОБСТАВИНА
The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence serving to characterize an action
or a property as to its quality or intensity, or to indicate the way an action is done, the time,
place, cause, purpose, or condition with which the action is connected. They add extra
information about the situation and modify a part of the sentence expressed by a verb, a
verbal noun, an adjective or an adverb.

There are several ways of classifying adverbial modifiers:

(1) according to their meaning;
(2) according to their morphological peculiarities;
Morphologically they can be expressed by:
single adverbs – slowly, frankly
adverb phrases – very slowly
prepositional phrases – in the garden
noun phrases – this morning
infinitive – They stopped to have a look
a single noun – We waited an hour.

Types of adverbial modifiers according to their meaning include:

1)circumstantial adverbial modifiers:
AM of time/duration/frequency: In the evening it still rained.
AM of place/direction: In London they stayed at their friends’.
AM of manner or attendant circumstances: Tessa walked with quick short steps.
AM of reason/cause: He had to retire because of ill health.
AM of purpose: I drove at a steady 50 mph so as to save fuel.
AM of result: The apples are not ripe enough to eat.
AM of condition: I might never have got to university but for you. Without faith there can be
no cure.
AM of concession: Despite all our efforts the authorities decided to close the school.

2) qualitative adverbial modifiers:

AM of comparison: Jason is much taller than his father. His hands were as black as soot. She
behaves as if she were a child. He speaks German like a native speaker.
3) quantitative adverbial modifiers:
AM of degree/measure: The girl was very excited. It is pretty much the same story I’ve
heard. It is rather problematic.

Lecture 8
(syntax)
1. Sentence definition
2. Classifications of sentences
2.1. Communicative Types of Sentences in English
2.2. Structural Types of Sentences in English

1. Sentence definition

The classical logical definition of a sentence “a group of words expressing a complete

thought” dates from the first Western paper on grammar by Dionysius Thrax.

The formal definition indicates that a sentence is a word or group of words standing
between the initial capital letter and a mark of end punctuation or between two marks of
end punctuation.
The structural definition suggests that a sentence is an oral or written communication
made up of one or more units, each of which contains a complete utterance formed
according to a definite pattern.
The essential features of the sentence as a linguistic unit are:
its structural characteristics – subject-predicate relations (primary predication), and
its semantic characteristics – it refers to some fact in the objective reality, is characterized by
its own purpose of utterance (a statement, a question or a command);

2. Classifications of sentences
Typically there are two generally accepted ways of their classification based on the
sentences structure and their communicative meaning.
2.1. Communicative Types of Sentences in English
According to the role in communication and the intention expressed, all sentences fall into
the following four common semantic types:
1) declarative sentences (statements); стверджувальне
2) 2) interrogative sentences; заперечувальне
3) 3) imperative sentences; наказове
4) 4) exclamatory sentences. Знак оклику

Declarative sentences (the affirmative and the negative statements) may be of real, wishful
or conditional modality: The door opened. He didn't start the fire. I want to meet William.

Their primary purpose is to convey information.

Interrogative sentences are sentences which seek information and are characterized by a
special word order. They include: general questions (“yes-no” questions: Did you do it?) and
special questions (“pronominal” or “wh”-questions: What is it?), tag-questions (disjunctive
questions: You're not afraid, are you?), rhetorical questions: Can the leopard change his
spots? and alternative questions: Is he married or single?
Imperative sentences are sentences in which the main meaning constitutes a demand which
is expressed through the imperative mood forms of verbs denoting order, command,
request, warning, prohibition, persuasion, etc. Stop talking! Vanish the idle fears! They
convey the desire of the speaker to make someone, generally the listener, perform an
action. Formally commands are marked by the verb in the imperative mood (positive or
negative), the reference to the second person, lack of subject, and the use of the auxiliary
“do” in negative or emphatic sentences:
The basic pattern – e.g. Sit down! Help me! Help yourself.
Other patterns – e.g. Do come in. Nobody move! Let me see. Let’s go.

The exclamatory sentence expresses feelings and emotions and often begins with the
pronoun what or the adverb how. What refers to a noun, how to an adjective or adverb.
Exclamatory sentences always have direct word order, a falling tone in speaking and an
exclamation mark in writing: What a slow train it is! How wonderful! Exclamatory sentences
may have the form of:
affirmative or interrogative sentences: “He took no notice of Mariam!”, “Isn't it
marvellous?!”
b) They may also have the form/structure of nominal sentences: “The sky, the flowers, the
songs of birds!”

Structurally a sentence may be viewed as a clause complex, in which the parts are clauses
linked to each other by coordination and subordination. A simple sentence consists of only
one clause.
A compound sentence involves the coordination of two or more main clauses (each of which
could constitute a simple sentence), linked by coordination. Clauses may be connected
syndetically (by means of conjunctions – and, or, else, but or conjunctive adverbs – however,
nevertheless, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, etc.) or asyndetically (without conjunctions).
e.g. Mary was reading, I was writing.
A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses,
which may be connected syndetically (by means of conjunctions – that, if, whether, which,
till, when, how, as soon as, in order that, etc.) or asyndetically: This is the house Jack built.
A compound-complex sentence has more than one main clause, but in addition one or more
of the main clauses contains one or more subordinate clauses: A police officer said that the
prison authorities could not confirm that there were bodies inside the prison, but he
believed that there had been some deaths.

2.2.Structural Types of Sentences in English

According to their structure there are two main types of sentences: simple and composite
(compound and complex).

Simple sentences consist of just one independent clause containing a single subject and/or
predicate. It describes only one thing, idea or question. The subject and predicate are often
described as a topic and a comment, what is being talked about (the subject) and what is
being said about it (the predicate).
Simple sentences may be two-member (which have the subject and the predicate) and one-
member (with only one main part – e.g. Fire! Come on!).
The basic structure of two-member sentences constitutes the binary S — P (Subject —
Predicate) model which can be extended through complementation to S — P — O (object), S
— P — O — M (modifier): They do homework every day. Two-member sentences may be of
two kinds: 1) conventionally complete and 2) properly complete.
The former are elliptical sentences in which any part/some parts of the sentence is/are
omitted: Hope you don’t mind. See?

One-member sentences can be:

1) Nominal sentences consist of one or two nominal components which may be nouns or
other parts of speech: The French King's tent. The welcome rain. Silence! The handcuffs!
2) Imperative sentences containing a verb and having a V or VP pattern structures: Keep
aside, keep aside! Pass on, pass on! Open the door!
3) Infinitival sentences. Eg: To be or not to be? To be alive! To have youth and the world
before one!
4) Exclamatory sentences may often structurally coincide with nominal and infinitival
sentences, eg: Thieves! Fire! How funny! To think of it! Damn your money!

One-word or quasi-sentences are devoid of the binary S — P structure. They may consist of a
single word or a functionally equivalent phrase expressing affirmation, negation, an address
or some emotive/incentive meanings:
1. Affirmative: All right. Indeed. Excellent! Of course. Yes.
2. Negative: Oh, nо, nо, nо. Not at all. No, no, of course, not.
3. Interrogative: Why? Well? Yes?
4. Emotional and exclamatory one-word/quasi-sentences may be expressed by interjections
and other functional words: Honk! Honk! Alas! O, God! Goodness sakes!
5. Evaluative quasi-sentences are also formed from interjections or from their functional
equivalents: Bosh! Pooh! Ssh! Good Lord, ma'am!
6. Vocative quasi-sentences/one-word sentences express direct address: Tom! Tom! Hullo
Pyle.

Composite sentences contain several clauses. There are two main types of composite
sentences: compound sentences and complex sentences.
Compound sentences are made by joining at least two independent clauses either with
punctuation marks (a comma, colon, semicolon) or co-ordinate conjunctions: and, but, or,
so, for, yet: e.g.,The train was late, so he lost time. Equally common are various connectives
that join coordinate clauses: therefore, consequently, accordingly, then, as well as.

Complex sentences are made when we combine an independent clause with a dependent
clause: As the train was late, he lost time. Dependent clauses in complex sentences can be
classified into subject, predicative, object, attributive and adverbial clauses:
A subject clause is a dependent clause that serves as subject to the predicate of the main
clause: That he was still abroad was no surprise for us. Subject clause can be to the end of
the sentence and the introductory it takes the initial subject position: It was no surprise for
us that he was still abroad. A sentence may contain emphatic what-clause: What we need is
love.
A predicative clause is a dependent clause that serves as predicative, complementing a link
verb in the main clause. Link verbs include be, feel, look, seem, taste, sound, become and
remain: e.g.,The point is that I don’t believe you. And that’s why we lied. She looks as if she
is going to faint.
An object clause is a dependent clause that serves as object to a finite or not finite verb in
the main clause: e.g., I knew that he was guilty. Don’t you listen to what the teacher is
saying? She said she had seen my glasses somewhere. Object clauses are often found after
predicative adjectives and participles: afraid, angry, certain, pleased proud: e.g.,She was
anxious that they should talk. Object clauses can be preceded by a formal object it: e.g.,I
hate it when people lie to me.
An attributive clause is a dependent clause that serves as attribute to a noun or pronoun in
the main clause: e.g., I can't stand people who are cruel to animals. He returned to the town
where he had been born.

An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that serves as adverbial modifier to the predicate
or another member of the main clause: I couldn't read any more as my eyes were tired.
Adverbial clauses can be joined syndetically, i. e. by means of subordinating conjunctions, or
asyndetically (in which case a sentence could always be paraphrased so as to include a
conjunction). An adverbial clause can precede, interrupt or follow the main clause. The
general rule is to punctuate adverbial clauses placed in initial or medial position: An
Englishman, even if he is alone, forms an orderly queue of one. According to their meaning
we distinguish the following types of adverbial clauses:

-Adverbial clauses of time : when, before, by the time (that), the first/last/next time (that),
wherever, since, directly, during the time (that), after, until, immediately, no sooner…than,
as, till, once, hardly / scarcely / barely... when, as/ so long as, while, every / each time, the
moment/minute, etc. (that): e.g., I can't pay my bills until my paycheque comes.

Adverbial clauses of place: where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere: e.g.,Where buildings

were destroyed by the earthquake, rescue parties are now at work.
Adverbial clauses of condition : if, so/as long as, on (the) condition (that), if…then, assuming
(that), in the event that, unless, given that, suppose / supposing (that), what if, in case (that),
provided/providing (that), say, once, on the understanding that.

-Adverbial clauses of reason (or cause) : because, now that seeing (that), as, in that
considering (that), since, for the reason that, insofar as (formal), due / owing to the fact that,
so / as long as, in view of the fact that, inasmuch as (formal), on the ground(s) that. E.g., As
she was exhausted, I didn't want to disturb her.
-Adverbial clauses of purpose : so that, in order that, lest (formal), in case, for fear (that):
e.g.,He should drive carefully so that he doesn't get fined.
- Adverbial clauses of result :(so)... that, (such)... that, so that, with the result that, e.h., We
arrived ahead of time, so that we got the best seats.

-Adverbial clauses of manner : as, in a way, much as, (in) the way (that), as if, as though,
e.g., He walks as if he had hurt his foot.
Adverbial clauses of comparison: as and than, with an adverb (as, more, less) or a
morpheme (-er), modifying a comparative element: She grew up more beautiful than I could
imagine.
-Adverbial clauses of concession:although, though, even though, even if, while, whereas,
granted that, whatever, wherever, whichever, whoever, not that, considering, whether... or,
in spite of the fact that, despite the fact that, whenever, much as, however (good), no
matter (what), e.g., Even though he is a native speaker, he cannot explain the difference.