POWER ELECTRONICS PC SenTata McGraw-Hill © 1987, by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited 30th reprint 2008 RZXYCRBXRBZXC No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-462400-5 ISBN-10: 0-07-462400-8 Published by the Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, and printed at Rashtriya Pustak Bandanalya, Delhi 110 032 Teele ae Reed 2CONTENTS Preface vii |_Characteristics of Semiconductor Devices 1 Ll Silicon di 1.2 Fast recovery diode 13 13 Schottky diode _/4 14 Thermal characteristics of diode lak — Siler miueolek Rae en) at UT Gate trigger and commutation circuits 8. Tay Serlecand parallel sonnsttions of SCR £3 Tigi anger or sical SCR 112 ‘The wiac 133 113 Latching transistor 240 114 Light activated semiconductors _/ 42 2 Cooling and Protection of Power Semiconductor Devices 156 22 Mounting arrangement and effective cooling of press T4 Vapour phase cooling 165 2.7 Overvoltage protection 192 3_Singie-Phase Rectifiers 219 31 Half-wave rectifier with resistive load 220 33 Rectifier with resistive-capacitive x ectifier with resistive-inductive lo: i ‘ull-wave rectifier with large inductive Copyrighted materialXN CONTENTS 4 Three-Phase Rectifier and Filters 246 4.1 __Half-wave rectifier with resistiv Z. 4.2 Three-phase full-wave or six-phase half-wave rectifier 255 4.3 Double Y type rectifier with interphase transformer 258 44 Bridge rectifier with resistive load 265 4.5. Single-phase rectifier circuits with L-C filter 267 4.6 Cascaded L-C filter 272 47 Bleeder resistance with critical input inductance 274 48 Three-phase rectifier circuits with L-C filter 277 49 Design of filter reactor for rectifiers 280 4.10 Swinging reactors 285 4.11 Design of power transformers for rectifiers 285 412 Rectifier circuit ratios and values 3/0 5 Single-Phase-Controlled Rectifier 312 wave col d rectifier wi istive | 312 5.2 f-wave lied _rectil ith Ro dd 316 5.3 Half-wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and flywheel diode 327 : 54 Half-wave controlled rectifier with R-L and battery load 323 ; battery load _325 a2 Full-wave controlled rectifier with R-£ load 329 53 Full-wave controlled rectifier with transformer _leak- age resistance and R-L load 336 59 Full-wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and fly- wheel diode 339 5.410 Full-wave controlled rectifier with R-L and battery load 344 SL __ Full-wave controlled rectifier with resistive and bat- tery load 352 : : : : 5.12 Half-controlied bridge rectifier with resistive load 334 5.13 Half-controlled bridge rectifier with R-Z load 358 5.14 Half-controlled bridge rectifier with RL load and flywheel diode 367 5.15 Fully-controlled bridge rectifier with RZ load 369 4 od Rectine 6.1__hialf-wave controlled rectifier with resistive load 379 6.2 Six-phase half-wave or double-star_controlled_recti- “63 Half-controlled bridge with resistive load 387 Copyrighted maCONTENTS xt 64 Fully-controlied bridge with resistive load 392 65 __Double-star_with interphase reactor and_resistive load 392 6.6 __Half-wave controlled rectifier with R-L load 404 6.7 Six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with R-Eload 43 6.8 Three-phase double-Y type controlled rectifier with interphase reactor and inductive load 454 6.9 Double-¥Y type controlled rectifier with flywheel diode 466 le 6.10 __ Controlled bridge rectifier with R-Z load 470 11 Half controlled bridge with R-L load 470 5.12 Fully controlled bridge rectifier with R-L load 487 613 Summary 5/6 7 Triggering Circuits for Phase-Controlled Rectifier 533 7A Inverse-cosine_ method 2 FR Magnetic firing circuit 535 7. Solid state firing circuit 543 74 Unijunction transistor firing circuit (constant-« firin scheme) 548 ® Transistorised firing circuit (constant-2 control scheme) 558 1.6 Firing circuits using logic gates 563 17 Three-phase firing circuit 565 19 Transistorised three-phase firing circuit $76 2.10 Integral control__577 circuit 580 7.12 End-stop control 583 8 Ac and Dec Voltage Regulator $88 81 Manually controlled voltage regulator 588 8.2 Automatic voltage regulators 595 83 Solid state tap changer using antiparallel SCRs 599 84 Automatic voltage regulator using servo system 6// &5 Phase controlled ac regulator 6/2 8.6 Three-phase ac regulator 654 8.7 Firing circuits for ac regulator 687 88 Ferro;resonant ac stabiliser 689 89 De voltage regulator 7/0 810 Control schemes and problems 7/2 B.1t SCR controlled de voltage regulator 7/5 812 Transductor controlled de voltage regulator 720xtv CONTENTS 9 Inverter, Chopper and Cycloconverter 726 9.1____ The voltage-driven inverter_727 9.2 The current-driven inverter 736 93 Transistor inverter 739 94 Inverter starting circuits 749 9.5 Two-transformer inverter 751 9.6 __ Inverter with R-C timing circuit 754 9.7 Bridge inverter 756 9.9 Selection of transistor 76/ 9.10 Reduction of storage time 764 9.11 Delay of turn-on of transistor 765 9.12 Digital delay circuit 766 9413 Collector voltage spikes and second breakdown 767 9.14 Driven-bridge and half-bridge inverter 769 9.15 Inverter circuits using SCRs 771 9.16 Single phase inverter with resistive load 774 9.17 Inverter with inductive load and use of feedback diodes 784 9.18 Parallel inverter with feedback diodes 785 9.19 Centre-tapped circuit with feedback diodes (Mc Murray-Bedford commutation) 787 9.20 Bridge circuit with feedback diodes 789 9.21 Inverters with resistive load and feedback diodes 794 9.22 Bridge circuit using McMurray-Bedford commu- tation 799 9.23 The auxiliary SCR commutated inverter (Mc- Murray commutation) 802 * 9.24 Auxiliary SCR commutated single phase bridge inverter (Mc Murray commutation) 806 9.25 Current-fed inverters 808 9.26 Current-fed inverter with parallel resonant load 811 9.27 ___ Current-fed inverter in series--parailel compensated load 8/4 9.28 Series capacitor inverter $17 229 Unilateral series inverter circuit 817 9.30 Bilaterat series inverters 8/8 9.31 Three-phase inverters 823 9.32 Three-phase inverter withinterphase commutation 823 9.33 Three-phase bridge inverter with series commutation 826 9.34 Input circuit commutation with auxiliary supply 830 9.35 _ Control of inverter output voltage _83/ 9.36 Single pulse-width modulation 833 9.37 Multiplé pulse modulation 837CONTENTS xv 9.38 Sinusoidal pulse modulation 838 9.39 Reduction of harmonics of the inverter output 839 9.40 Chopper 849 9.41 Cycloconverter 871 10 De and Ac Motor Control DC Motor Control 10.1 __Introduction 843 10:2 De motor 886 10.3 Single-phase SCR drive 893 10.4 Three-phase SCR drives 914 10.5 Power factor in SCR motor devices 916 10.6 Reversible SCR drives 927 10.7 Starting and dynamic braking of separately excited dc motor 928 10.8 Closed loop control system 933 10.9 Speed control of de series motor 938 10.10 Chopper controlled de drives 944 10.11 Phase locked Joop control of de motor 953 10.12 Microprocessor-controlled dc drives 955 AC Motor Control 10.13 Introduction 957 10.14 — Induction motor characteristics 960 10.15 Speed control methods of induction motor 962 10.16 Closed loop control—voltage fed inverter control 978 10.17 The controlled-slip system 990 10.18 Slip power recovery system 966 10.19 Closed-loop control 1003 10.20 Braking of induction motor 1004 10.21 Synchronous motor control _/006 10.22. Commutatorless dc motor and electronic commu- tation 1009 References and Bibliography 1019 Index 1027ONE CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES The ratings, specifications and characteristics of a device are of utmost importance to the designer for designing equipment which will render lasting troublefree service. Choice of components for a particular service require- ment and design of their safety devices would be easier if detailed charac- teristics and ratings are available. Detailed specifications and ratings are available only in manufacturers’ data sheets and designers have to depend on them. In this chapter, some of the important characteristics of parameters of the devices are discussed. These may be considered a first-hand guide for the designers. 1.1 Silicon Diode Diodes are important devices in electrical technology. Their field of appli- cations is very wide. They are used in ac to de conversion for various pur- poses and also in high speed applications in computers. Silicon diodes of various ratings are available. The forward current of diodes varies from a few milliamperes to 800A. A reverse voltage of 100 V to 2500 V is common. Diodes are simple p-n junctions and have a number of advantages such as high mechanical and thermal reliability, high peak inverse voltage combined with low reverse current, low forward voltage drop, high effici- ency and extreme compactness. 1.1.1 Forward Characteristics of Silicon Diode As silicon diodes are essentially cells containing simple p-n junctions, they have low resistance to current flow in one direction (anode to cathode), and — high resistance to current flow in the opposite direction (cathode to anode). The forward characteristics of diodes follow the e*”/*T law at low voltage. This is modified to become e**/*T at higher voltages and finally becomes2 OWER ELECTRONICS linear at very high voltages and currents. In the latter region, the conducti- vity-modulated bulk semiconductor resistance usually dominates the charac- teristics. 1.1.2 Reverse Characteristics of Silicon Diode In the reverse direction, the current is usually very small. The reverse cur- Tent increases slightly with increases of the reverse voltage, but tends to remain constant over a substantial increase. Ata specific reverse voltage, the current increases very sharply. This is called the breakdown voltage. The reverse current increases substantially with temperature. If the reverse voltage is increased beyond the breakdown voltage or the temperature is raised sufficiently, this reverse current increases to a very large extent and the diode may be destroyed by thermal ‘runaway’. Typical volt-ampere characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.1. todty tie] | tze Fig. 1.1 V-I characteristics of diode 1.1.3 Forward Voltage Drop A silicon rectifier usually requires a forward voltage drop of 0.4 to 0.8 V before significant current flow occurs. This voltage depends on the temper- ature and the impurity concentration in p-type and n-type materials. An increase in voltage in the forward direction increases the current very sharp ly and, if not properly controlled, may exceed the specified dissipation capacity and seriously damage the device. The instantaneous forward vol- tage curve against instantaneous forward current for a particular diode is shown in Fig. 1.2. The curve shows the temperature dependence of for- ward voltage drop at certain current levels.CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 3 al 3 Ty «140°C Ty * 25°C INSTANTANEOUS FORWARD CURRENT eo 12 34 5 6 MAX INST FORWARD-VOLTAGE DROP(v) Fig. 1.2 Instantaneous forward voltage v. forward current curves al different temperatures 1.1.4 Peak Reverse Voltage One of the most important ratings is the maximum peak reverse voltage (PIV). This is the highest amount of reverse voltage that can be applied to a diode before avalanche breakdown occurs. PIV ratings range from about 100 V to as high as 2500 V fora single junction. For higher voltage require- ment, several diodes may be connected in series. 1.1.5 Power Rating The power rating of a diode is determined by the electrical conditions under which the heat dissipated in the device is equal to that removed by the heat sink at a certain maximum steady temperature. The heat removed by the heat sink due to convection, conduction and radiation is almost a linear function of temperature. The maximum junction temperature permitted is about 200 °C. The power consumed bya diode and the heat generated within it are proportional to the squate of the current. Therefore, along with the average and peak current ratings of diodes, the rms current ratings are equally important. The ratios of rms to average and peak to average currents are different for different rectifier circuit configurations. Therefore, selection of proper diodes is mostly based on temperature rise, i.e. the ambient temperature, conduction angle, type of circuits, type of duty, method of cooling, altitude, etc. Published data for diodes usually include maximum ratings.4 POWER ELECTRONICS 1.1.6 Maximum Average Forward Current This is the maximum average valuc of the current allowed to flow in the forward direction during a full ac‘cycle at a specified ambient or case tem- perature. The average current rating of a diode decreases with reduction in conduction angle because of the increased value of the current form factor. A typical curve of average current rating is shown in Fig. 1.3. Typical aver- age current outputs range from 0.5 to 800 A. = = 3 [pres ZB 1soF Dc 2 => 3S 5 2% 100) 190 ge 138 BY a 60" os 23 sot s 2 $s $ z 1090 200 MAX ALLOWABLE CASE TEMPERATURE(C) Fig. 1.3. Average forward current v. maximum case temperature curves at different conduction angles 1.1.7 Peak Recurrent Forward Current This is the maximum repetitive instantaneous forward current permitted under stated conditions. This data is important when the rectifier is used to supply power to a condenser load where ratio of peak to average current is high. & & € @- OVERLOAD OCCURRING UNDER zB 3 NO-LOAD CONDITION $ b- OVERLOAD OCCURRING DURING =z 2000 OPERATION AT RATED AV.CURRENT 8 x 1000} = PULSE DURATION (s) Fig. 1.4 Recurrent overload y. time curveCHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES $ Recurrent overloads are usually applied for comparatively long durations and are caused by some form of increased load demand. A typicat curve of permissible recurrent overload current against time is shown in Fig. 1.4. If the surge is repetitive, adequate cooling time must be allowed, so that recti- fier junction temperature does not exceed the safe limit. 1.1.8 Surge or Fault Current In rectifier applications, there may arise conditions which cause momentary currents that are considerably higher than the normal operating current. These increases may occur from time to time during normal circuit opera- tion as a result of normal load variation or they may be caused by abnormal condition or faults in the circuits. Although a diode can usually absorb a limited amount of additional heat with just a momentary rise in junction temperature, a sufficiently high surge can drive the junction temperature high enough to destroy the diode. Surge ratings indicate the amount of current overload or surge that the diode can withstand without detrimental effects. The maximum peak one-cycle, nonrecurrent surge current rating of a silicon rectifier is defined as the current the device can carry for one half- cycle, following operation at a maximum average forward current rating at maximum allowable case temperature and with rated maximum repetitive peak inverse voltage applied, in a single-phase half-wave circuit. If the diode has a transient voltage rating, the operating conditions for the rating include applying one half-cycle of voltage equal to the maximum nonrepe~ titive peak reverse voltage rating immediately after the half-cycle of surge current Following this, the device must be able to continue to operate at its maximum rated conditions without trouble. A typical curve of nonrecur- rent surge current against time duration is shown in Fig. 1.5. MAX RATED LOAD CONDITIONS: PEAK HALF-SIMEWAVE FORWARD 1 10 100 NO.OF CYCLES AT 50 Hz Fig. 1.5 Nonrecurrent surge current v. time curve6 POWER ELECTRONICS 1.1.9 Average Forward Power Loss The electrical power loss of a diode in the forward direction of conduction is the product of instantaneous forward voltage drop and the instantaneous current. This electrical energy is converted into heat and is responsible for the temperature rise of the junction. The forward power loss is an important parameter in designing the cooling arrangement. The average power loss for a particular diode is different for different conduction angles for the same average current. A typical curve is shown in Fig. 1.6. 200; a S FULL CYCLE(W) Ss 3 AVERAGE FORWARD POWER LOSS OVER ° 50 100 150 200 AVERAGE FORWARD CURRENT OVER FULL CYCLE ta) Fig. 1.6 Average forward power loss v. average current curves at different conduction angles 1.1.10 /?: and Nonrecurrent Surge Current Rating Pt is the maximum allowable nonrecurring values of the square of the ins- tantaneous current integrated with respect to time (Ji2dt). This value pro- vides a basis for the design of the protective circuits. The value of /*r for the diode is generally given for a current pulse lasting for 5 to 10 ms, For shorter current pulse, 127 is less. Due to the thermal capacity of the junction, the device can withstand large overloads under abnormal conditions or short-circuit, The nature of overload is nonrecurrent and the rated junction temperature can be cxceeded for a very small time duration. A curve of maximum nonrecurring surge current versus surge duration in terms of cycle of supply frequency is shown. in Fig. 1.7. The curve shows the nonrecurrent surge current at rated load conditions and at the maximum rated junction temperature. Generally, currents areCHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 7 specified in peak half sinusoidal waveforms at supply frequency for 50 Hz supply. ‘One cycle’ means a time of 10 ms. For one cycle, the allowable surge current is maximum. However, fora large number of cycles, the allowable surge current is less and its nature is half sinusoidal current pul- ses separated by an equal number of OFF. periods of equal duration. MAX SURGE CURRENT (PEAK A) Ty Sy MAX(RATED) ° 10 20 30 SURGE DURATION (CYCLES AT 50 Hz) Fig. 1.7 Nonrecurrent surge current y. surge duration curve 71 ratings apply for surge current less than one cycle (10 m s) for supply frequency of 50 Hz. For such short durations, the device behaves almost like a resistance having a fixed value of transient thermal resistance and negligible heat dissipating capacity. Jf represents the current carrying capa- bility of the device. J is the rms value of the surge current for an interval of t. /7t of the device must be larger than the /?r of the protecting fuse. 1.1.11 Recovery Characteristics At low frequency and low current, the diode may be assumed to act as a perfect switch, and the dynamic characteristics are not very important. But at high frequency and high current, the recovery transient plays an important role because it increases the power loss and gives rise to large voltage spikes which may damage the device if proper precautions are not taken. 1.1.12 Forward Recovery Transient The forward recovery transient occurs when a diode is switched from zero bias condition to a forward conducting condition. This transient is normally of ashort duration and is considerably less than the reverse recovery time. But in millimicrosecond switching diodes, the forward recovery time may be longer than the reverse recovery$ POWER ELECTRONICS The forward voltage transient is made up of two parts, viz. the junction voltage transient and the diode resistance transient. The junction voltage transient exhibits the characteristic of increasing with time, while the ohmic drop shows a tendency to decrease with time. The total transient is a com- bination of the two. For very large current, the ohmic drop is predomi- nant and behaves like an RL circuit as the voltage across the diode rises sharply to a high level spike, then decays to normal forward drop for the device. For low current pulses, the junction voltage transieut is predominant and the diode behaves like an RC circuit with a voltage building up to the steady state value. For intermediate current values, the transient may be oscillatory. Typical voltage waveforms are shown in Fig 1.8. y “ e TIME TIME TIME HIGH FORWARD INTERMEDIATE Low FORWARD CURRENT CURRENT Current Fig. 18 Diede forward recovery characteristic The magnitude and duration of forward voltage transient decreases if the diode is slightly forward biased. For better performance, the diode lead wire should be short. 1.1.13 Reverse Transient In power diodes, the reverse recovery characteristi much more important than the forward transient characteristics, because it adds recovery losses to the forward loss. Fast recovery diodes can be used in high frequency circuits and rectification efficiency is improved. Furthermore, they can handle a large forward current without overheating. Reverse transient occurs when a diode is switched from a forward con- ducting state to a reverse biased condition. The diode has a low impedance in the forward direction and very high impedance in the reverse direction. This high impedance condition, however, does not appear instantancously when the diode is reverse biased. A typical reverse recovery waveform is shown in Fig. 1.9. The delay in attaining the steady state high reverse impedance is duc to minority carriers storage (holes storage) and junction capacitance.CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 9 Approximately, it can be assumed that the linear flat portion is duc to the minority carrier storage and the decaying portion to the junction capacitance. tf TIME Ir Fig. 1.9 Diode reverse recovery characteristic When the junction is forward biased, an excess of minority carriers is built up on either side of the junction region. In most diodes, the p-region is more heavily doped than the n-region, and consequently, the mino- rity carriers are predominantly holes. Accordingly, the density of holes in the n-region in the vicinity of the junction is given by Px o= Pret” IT (uy) From the definition of excess density Poxcoss== Px 0— Pn= Pn(eev/kT — 1) (1.2) Thus, the excess density is a function of the voltage across the junction of the device. For the forward bias condition, e*”/*7 is much greater than I, since e/kT at room temperature is about 40, When the voltage across the device drops to zero, the excess carriers are swept from the junction. This action is shown in Fig. 1.10. The holes storage delay terminates at time Y as shown in the diagram. This portion is approximately equal to the flat portion of the current reco- very curve (Fig. 1.9). At this point, if there were no junction capacitance, the current would have instantaneously dropped to reverse leakage value, provided the diode is reverse biased. However, the junction capacitance prevents this sudden change. Again, a voltage across a p-n junction is always associated with the pre. sence of a space charge on-either side of tne junction. As the voltage is increased in the forward direction, the depletion region is narrowed corres- ponding to the replacement of the charge layers in the transition region. Electrons are built up on the #-side and holes on the p-side. Small changes in the voltage add a proportionate amount of charge corresponding to the action of the condenser with a cross-sectional area and a plate separation equal to that of the junction and having a permittivity equal to that of the10 POWER ELECTRONICS +Py EXCESS! DENSITY: TIME -Pa + CURRENT TIME DIODE VOLTAGE t 1 FORWARD ~~ MINORITY BIAS CARRIER- STORAGE TIME JUNCTION CAPACITANCE CHARGING Fig. 1.10 Hole storage and junction capacitance charging delay curve semiconductor material. If the applied voltage is reduced, the depletion Jayer widens. The junction capacitance can be shown to bea nonlinear func- tion of the junction voltage. It increases with forward bias and decreases with the increasing reverse voltage. The capacitance is given by _ K Cher (13) where XK is a constant and depends on doping V is the applied voltage Yo is the built-in potential n is the constant determined by the doping The value of n for a graded junction is 1/3, while for an abrupt junction, it is approximately, 1/2. A typical curve of junction capacitance versus vol- tage is shown in Fig. 1.11. = vouracet Fig. 1.11 Junction capacitance v. junction voltage curveCHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES IL This junction capacitance in conjunction with the series circuit resistance is responsible for the delay portion of the recovery curve. The magnitude of the transient is primarily controlled by the external circuit in which the diode is used. The magnitude is given by the reverse voltage divided by the load resistance. The duration of a pulse depends upon the forward current (magnitude and duration), the reverse current, the junction capacitance and the series resistance Rz. It also depends on temperature. There are generally four types of reverse recovery characteristics of a diode as shown in Fig. 1.12. They are ‘normal’ recovery, ‘snap-off” recovery, ‘soft’ recovery and “fast” recovery. 1 L t \ 7 t (ay (b) I I t t (c) (d) Fig. 1.12 Diode recovery characteristics: (a) normal, (b) snap off, (c) soft, (d) fast When the decay time of the reverse current is smail, the sudden decrease of current generates a rather high apparent dijdt in the distributed induct- ance of the circuit and the resultant voltage L di/dt, generated by the snap- off characteristic, may sometimes attain a peak value several times the circuit voltage. This may punch through the junction. It is, therefore, neces- sary to use diodes of limited stored charge anda controlled decay rate so that the transient voltage is not excessive. Moreover, it is advisable to use R-C snubber circuits in parallel with each diode to limit the peak transient voltage across the junction.12 POWEK ELECTRONICS 1.1.14 Losses Due to Reverse Recovery Characteristics The reverse recovery characteristic of a diode can be divided into two parts, one owing to the holes storage’and the other because of the junction capa- citance. The characteristics as shown in Fig. 1.10 are not exactly reproduced in practical diodes, The characteristic attributed by the holes storage may not be as flatas shown in Fig. 1.10. For simplification of calculation of losses, the characteristic may be approximated as a triangle as shown in Fig. 1.13. 1 TIME i — yt Fig. 1.13 Approximate nature of diode recovery characteristic The recovery time 11 is due to holes storage and 2 to junction capacitance. The total recovery time érr is t1-+42. The average losses during recovery can be calculated from the following formula. _{Yett. | Vatn\ 1 Wae( 2 +2 ae (4) where Wr=power loss during recovery Vp=forward voltage drop of diode 1=forward diode current Vr=peak reverse voltage applied to the diode during operation The average power loss for the full-cycle period of operation Wa Wr tre =f Wrtr (1.5) where W=average power loss '=time period of the supply ‘f=freauency of supply From Eq. 1.5, it is clear that the average power losses increase with the supply frequency as the recovery time frr for a particular diode is more or less constant. Therefore, for higher operation frequencies, fast-recovery diodes should be used to reduce losses and to improve rectification effici- ency.CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 13 1.2 Fast Recovery Diode Rectifier diodes with fast recovery characteristics are becoming increasingly important in the design of power semiconductor equipment. The major field of their application is in the electrical power conversion, ic. the free- wheeling or bypassing application and high frequency rectification and in- versions. Proper use of fast recovery diodes reduces di/dt and accompanying stress level on SCRs. The main advantage of the fast recovery diodes is that the junction heating caused by recovery action is minimised and thereby power levels may be increased, reducing the losses, In high frequency rectification, the upper limit of operating frequency is around 1 kHz with conventional alloy or diffused junctions, whereas with fast recovery diodes, itis around 10 kHz, At any operating frequency. the fast recovery characteristics reduce the power dissipation in the diode during recoyery. Thus more power can be dissipated in the forward conduction without overheating the junction, thereby increasing rectification efficiency. The use of flywheel diodes becomes essential in the case of a phase con- trolled rectifier with either single or three-phase supply, particularly with inductive loads A flywheel diode is connected at the output of the rectifier, the operation of which is discussed in detail in later chapters. With induc- tive loads, the rectifier conduction may be either continuous or disconti- nuous, depending upon the firing angle and load power factor. The sudden change in the operating mode of the rectifier without flywheel diode may cause a serious instability in the closed loop regulating system. This instabi- lity is eliminated by the use of the flywheel diode. The flywheel diode redu- ces the current rating of the SCR in the phase controlled rectifiers at reduced output. The use of flywheel diodes also prevents SCRs from losing control ina half controlled rectifier circuit, with highly inductive load. Any diode may be used as a flywheel diode, but fast recovery diodes are preferable because of their low recovery losses, lower junction temperature and reduced di/dt imposed on SCR in the rectifier unit during recovery. Moreover, the flywheel diode should recover to its nonconducting state before an SCR in the recti- fier unit begins to turn on. Otherwise, a high inrush of current will flow during the recovery period of the flywheel diode, which would virtually short-circuit the SCRs and induce a very high di/dt on them. Asa result, both the SCRs and the flywheel diode may be damaged. In addition, the conventional diode may induce high voltage transient due to the holes stor- age and recovery characteristics in conjunction with the circuit inductance. This high voltage transient sometimes becomes fatal to other components. This effect is reduced by the use of the fast recovery diode. Though fast recovery diodes are superior to conventional diodes in many high frequency power conversion applications, they are difficult to manufac- ture for the following reasons. It ig known that ina diode, the forward voltage drop is directly proportional to the thickness of the silicon and in- versely to the carrier lifetime, but is more or less independent of the14 poweR ELECTRONICS resistivity of the material, whereas the peak inverse voltage varies directly with the resistivity of the silicon. Reverse recovery time also varies with the silicon thickness and the carrier lifetime. So when recovery time is reduced, the forward voltage drop increases. The resistivity and thickness of the sili- con are chosen to make a compromise between the recovery time and for- ward voltage drop. When recovery time is reduced by reducing the carrier lifetime, the reverse leakage current is increased, increasing the reverse power dissipation. Therefore, fast recovery diodes should be used at lower junction temperatures. The recovery time of the fast recovery dio- des is about one-fifth of that of alloy p-n junction diodes and the recovered charge is about one-tenth of that of alloy junction diodes. 1.3 Schottky Diode For high frequency applications, Schottky diodes are superior to conven- tional p-n diodes and fast recovery p-n junction diodes. Power Schottky diodes are available up to a forward current rating of about 100 A. The main limitation of Schottky diodes is their low reverse voltage which is of the order of 30 to 100 V. Therefore, their applications are limited to low voltage high frequency conversions. Naturally, power Schottky diodes have large-area metal contacts. In Schottky diodes, there isa large barrier for electron flow from the metal to the semiconductor. When the device is forward biased, the energy level of the conduction band in the semiconductor is raised so that electrons can flow into the metal. In a Schottky diode, only electrons participate in the conduction mechanism unlike in p-n junction diodes because there are no holes in the metal. As a result, there is no minority carrier storage decreasing the recovery time as in a junction diode. The reverse voltage of a Schottky diode is limited by its structure. It is designed to minimise the forward voltage drop necessitating extremely low contact resistance. The high resistivity epitaxial layer is sufficiently thin to reduce the series resist- ance. The metal overlapping the insulator at the edge of the barrier region helps reduce the surface electric field and improves the reverse characteristics of the device. A sketch of the structure is shown in Fig. 1.14. yp ANODE-BARRIER METAL SILICON DIOXIDE n-TYPE EPITAXIAL LAYER CWE] berm nee sere ee J. nt +CATHODE LAYER \CATHODE-CONTACT METAL Fig. 1.14 Structure of Schottky diodeCHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 1S 1.3.1 Characteristics of Schottky Diode The voltage-current characteristic of a Schottky diode is shown in Fig. 1.15 The power Schottky diode is superior to a conventional p-n junction diode in the forward voltage drop and the reverse recovery losses. The for- ward voltage drop is about 0.6 V at 150 the rated current, whereas in a p-n junction diode it is about! V. A Schottky diode is a majority carrier device and does not have the relative- ly slow reverse recovery characteristics as conventional p-n junction diodes. Both the reverse recovery current and the reverse recovery time are extremely less than those of a p-n diode—the reverse recovery current is about 25 to 50 times less and the recovery time is about 10 to 50 times less in comparison to those of a p-n diode. Consequently, the recovery loss in this device is about 250 to 2500 times less than that of a conventional p-n diode. Since the recovery loss is a function of reverse recovery current, time and the operating frequency, this device is suitable for high frequency applications. The operating frequen- cy may be as high as 100 kHz. A Schottky diode is basically a low voltage device, the reverse voltage is typically about 20 V. Up to about 10 V, the reverse current is negligibly small, beyond which it exhibits resistance charac- teristics as shown in Fig. 1.15. CURRENT (A) JOomA Fig. 1.15 V-/ characteristic of Schottky diode Comparative data for recovery characteristics of different types of diodes are given below. Diodes rated at about 50 A Test conditions: Forward current=100 A peak, half sine-wave negative di/dt of forward current=25 A/us. Device Recovery Peak reverse Recovered time Tecovery current charges Schottky diode 150 ps 1A 75 we Alloyed p-n junction Sus SOA 125 po Diffused p-a junction 3 as 40a 60 uc Fast recovery p-n junction lps 2A 12.5 ne16 POWER ELECTRONICS 1.4 Thermal Characteristics of Diode The following parameters are important because they relate the maximum capacity of the diode and its safe operation under various stringent condi- tions. 1.4.1 Junction Temperature (7)) It is the temperature within the semiconductor crystal which is used to estab- lish the internal thermal resistance value of the cell. The highest allowable junction temperature is one of the factors setting the limit to the maximum continuous power dissipation rating of the device. 1.4.2 Case Temperature (Tc) It is the temperature at a particular position on the surface of the diode. 14.3. Temperature of Cooling Medium or Ambient Temperature (7.4) It is the temperature of the cooling medium before it reaches the diode or the heat sink. 1.4.4 Operating Temperature Range It is the range between two cooling-medium temperature limits in which the diodes operate. This range may extend from — 40 °C to 150 °C. However, the current rating should be reduced for higher temperatures. 14. Storage Temperature Range It is the range between two cooling-medium temperature limits in which the diodes are stored. 1.5 Thermal Resistance (4) The thermal resistance of a body is the ratio of the temperature difference across it in the direction of heat flow and the power giving rise to this temperature difference. The unit is degrees Celsius per watt (°C/W). 1.5.1 Thermal Resistance, Junction to Case, (9c) It is the ratio of the difference between the junction temperature Ty and the case temperature Tc to the total or average power losses P. tom BE ecw (1.6)CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 17 1.5.2 Thermal Resistance, Case to Heat Sink, (9s) It is the ratio of difference between the case temperature Tc and the heat sink Ts to the total losses P. Te~ Ts 0cs= P °C/W (.7) 8cs is mainly in the pressure contact interface between the device base and the heat sink. According to contact resistance theory, when two flat surfa- ces are pressed together, contact is initiated at_a number of separate spots which enlarge with pressure. When large pressure is applied on soft metal, contact area is more. If the contact is not proper, i.e. if the number of con- tact points is not large, air space exists inbetween the two surfaces, which is a bad conductor of electricity. Contact between a soft and a hard metal is better than metals of similar hardness. For a better contact, the surfaces should be very smooth and a silicon grease containing zinc oxide is generally used to eliminate the air space between the device and the heat sink. Silicon grease is a dielectric material but has a better thermal conductivity compar- ed to air. The grease layer should not be so thick as to form an insulation between the two surfaces. Sufficient electrical contact is generally achieved by the recommended contact pressure. 1.5.3. Thermal Resistance, Heat Sink to Cooling Medium, (5.1) It is the ratio of difference between the sink temperature 7s and cooling- medium temperature 74 to the total power losses P beam PETE ecw (1.8) The effective thermal resistance of the heat sink depends on various factors, such as material, shape and size of the sink. It also depends on coolant pro- pertics, such as viscosity, density, the temperature difference between the two, flow condition, and the magnitude of heat dissipated. The basic heat transfer equation is Q=h.A4T (1.9) where Q is the rate of heat transfer in watts he is the convective heat transfer coefficient in watts per square feet—degrees Celsius A is the area in square feet 4T isthe temperature difference between the heated surface and the surrounding coolant in degrees Celsius. Heat is also transferred by radiation but the magnitude is extremely small {about 2%) compared to convection and is generally neglected in most cases.18 POWER ELECTRONICS Sometimes thermal resistance @c4 between the case and the ambient is supplied by the manufacturer and comprises the thermal resistance between the cell and heat sink, the thermal resistance of the heat sink itself and the thermal resistance between the he at sink and the surroundings. Various sizes of cells mounted on the same type of heat sink result in different thermal resistances between the cell and heat sink and thus lead to different 8ca Values. 1.5.4 Thermal Resistance, Junction to Cooling Medium, (874) It is the ratio of the temperature difference between the junction tempera- ture 7; and the cooling medium temperature 7, to the total heat losses P —Ts P Heat is generated at the junction from which it is conducted to the case, the external heat sink and finally the atmosphere. In terms of electrical analogue, it can be assumed that power or rate of heat transfer is analogous to current, temperature to voltage, heat capacitance to electrical capacitance and ther- mal resistance to electrical resistance. Therefore, heat transfer can be con- veniently calculated from the electrical analogue circuit as shown in Fig. 1.16. °C/W (1.10) Oy4= T JUNCTION =——— ®t + TCASE 8c5 TSINK Osa TAMBIENT e,] 8 Pp (Hear) TS Fig. 1.16 Equivalent electrical schematic of thermal circuit of diode The thermal resistance 9c between the junction and the case comprises 62, &, and 8., where 9 is the thermal resistance of the diode device, 6» the thermal resistance of internal interface with package and 6. the thermal resistance of package. 9cs is the thermal resistance between case to sink, @s4 is the thermal resistance between the heat sink and atmosphere coolant. C to Cs are thermal capacitances and can be omitted for steady state condi- tions. The thermal equation corresponding to Ohm’s law is AT=P6 where AT is the resulting temperature drop between two heat transfer sur- faces. For conventional cooling Tsunction= Te: P= ecee = Stink 3c Ges — Tink Tamy age (11)CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 19 Also, Tyanction— Tamv | a nl (1.12) where 93a=93c+8cst Osa ; The thermal resistance 9s4 is not a property of the device but of the external heat sink and is not aconstant quantity—it varies with the material, the size, the surface treatment of the sink and the temperature difference between the heat sink and the atmosphere. 9s4 is provided by the manufacturer of the heat sink. The current rating of a diode is limited by the maximum operating junc- tion temperature which isin the range 150 to 200 °C as specified by the manufacturer. Owing to the small thermal time constant of the junction, the instantaneous junction temperature varies periodically with the device cur- rent. Therefore, the maximum junction temperature is a function of peak current rather than the average current through the device. As a result, for the same junction or case temperature, the average current rating of the device should be different for different types of cirrent waveform, the maxi- mum being for pure de and minimum for 60° conduction angle, because the peak-to-average ratio of current increases as the conduction angle decrea- ses. 1.5.5 Transient Thermal Impedance In almost every application of power semiconductors, the thermal capacity of the load and the source is larger than that of the semiconductors. As a re- sult, the transient power handling capability of the load is much larger than that of the device. Owing to the low thermal capacity, the junction tempe- rature of the device rises more quickly to a dangerous level. If the load is fluctuating or pulsating, the junction temperature is also fluctuating and the maximum value of it cannot be predicted from the steady state thermal resistance. Though the thermal capacity of the device is small, the junction tempera- ture does not line up with the abrupt change of heat flow. It takes a finite time to reach a steady temperature. So, for very short overloads, this relatively low thermal capacity may be significant in limiting the rapid rise of junction temperature. Moreover, when the diode is mounted on a heat sink of large thermal] capacity, the capability of the device to withstand large overloads for a very short duration is increased. For safe operation under large overloads for shorter duration, more precise information of the thermal impedance must be available. This is termed as transient thermal impedance. This information can be obtained by measuring junction temperature at the end of a well-defined power pulse or after a known steady state load is re- moved This may be clearly understood from the equivalent thermal circuit as shown in Fig. 1.17. In the present case, the ambient temperature20 POWER ELECTRONICS is taken as the reference, whereas sometimes it may be necessary to take the heat sink temperature as reference. TOTAL HEAT suncTion| Ry Rp Ry Rn-t Th SINK PLANE Fig. 1.17 Electrical equivalent of thermal circuit of diode (transient condition) If a step power input in the form of heat is applied, the junction tempe- rature will rise exponentially as prescribed by the circuit parameters. For Jong duration of the input pulse, the junction temperature would reach its steady state value. However, if the pulse is interrupted before the junction temperature reaches its steady state value, the junction cools down and the temperature waveform takes the form shown in Fig. 1.18. POWER TIME UT HEATING CT atisPa(te) | Teooune ! Tame TIME, Fig. 1.18 Junction temperature response to step power input When a step power input is applied at the instant f, the junction tempera- ture begins to rise exponentially over the ambient temperature, Ta. At time tz, the power pulse is terminated when the increase in junction temperature is 47 and after which the junction begins to cool down. The transient ther- mal impedance 9,, is defined as the ratio 47/P for the duration 2-1. A number of 7 may be obtained for various durations and plotted as shown in Fig. 1.19, The curve illustrates the variation of transient thermal impedance of junction to case with time, and as time becomes large, 9rr becomes 9c.CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 21 The transient thermal impedance curve is quite significant in the sense that it provides a safe border line of the rating of the device for variation in repetitive pulse loads or under fault conditions. Qltr) WAX THERMAL RESISTANCE TIME Fig. 1.19 Transient thermal impedance v. time curve 1.6 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) The term ‘Thyristor’ has been adopted by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) fer the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). All devices exhibiting similar characteristics, such as silicon unilateral switch (SUS), the light activated silicon controlled rectifier (LASCR), the gate turn-off switch (GTO), the silicon bilateral switch (SBS) and the triac, are also designated by this term. A silicon controlled rectifier is basically a four layer p-n-p-n device. It has three electrodes—a cathode, an anode and a controlled electrode called the gate. In the forward direction, a high resistance is maintained until breakover occurs, either due to the magnitude of the applied voltage or to a gating signal at the gate, when the device exhibits normal silicon diode forward characteristics. In the reverse direction, the device exhibits the reverse characteristic of a silicon rectifier. 1.6.1 Two-Transistor Analogy of SCR In a simple p-n junction with a reverse bias, only a small current flows due to the minority carriers in the two regions, In the SCR, additional p-n junctions are formed on either side of the main junction giving a p-n-p-n structure as shown in Fig 1.20. In Fig. 1.20, J: and Js are forward biased while Jz is reverse biased, but Jz would pass a greater value of leakage current than a simple p-n junction because J; and J3 would act as sources of minority carriers or emitters. Junctions Ji— Jz and J2—J3 can be considered to constitute a p-n-p22 POWER ELECTRONICS J3 Fig. 1.20 Junctions of SCR and an n-p-n transistor respectively as shown in Fig. 1.21, where J: is the collector base junction common to both component transistors. 1(tedy) nth i n Poe B Tad Y t 1 t t \ 1 152 Wg nn n P n Tay t Tt-a2) Fig. 1.21 Transistor equivalent configuration of SCR Across junction J2 flows the leakage current /.o in addition to a current af due to hole injection and a current %2/ due to electron injection at J3, where a and «2 are the emitter collector current gains of the transistors. Since there are no external connections to the two base regions, the total current at J2 is equal to the external current. Thus P= 4 + 421 + Teo Teo Therefore, I= Itai Fan) Normally, «:+22 is less than unity. Buta slight increase of «’s cause 1—(%1+02) to become extremely small and produce a large current. When the anode voltage is increased, the leakage current at junction J2 increases. This.increases the value of «1 and #2, causing a reduction of the denomi- nator of Eq. 1.13. If the anode voltage is sufficiently large, carrier multipli: cation at Jz causes breakdown and the leakage current increases rapidly. As a result, 1—(«1+%2) reduces to zero. The increase in forward current at J; is accelerated by an increase in current gains % and «2, until avalanche breakdown occurs. The current becomes so large that the component transistors are saturated. The voltage drop across the device falls nearly to that of conventional forward biased diodes and the current is limited by the external circuit resistance. Once the forward breakdown occurs, the device remains in the ON state until («:+-«2) becomes less than unity. Thus, with the anode voltage positive (1.13)CHARACYERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 23 with respect to the cathode, the SCR remains in the OFF state so long as the anode voltage is not sufficiently high to cause an avalanche breakdown of the reverse-biased junction Jo. If, however, a position voltage Vi is applied across Js, it is forward biased and a current flows through it. When a current flows through J;, many electrons appear at J2 and, owing to the electric field caused by V2 at J2, are swept into the n-region between junction J2and J;. When these electrons appear at the forward biased junction Ji, holes are injected across it and recombine with the electrons. When the holes are injected across Ji, a band is broken near the anode and the electrons flow into the anode. The holes thus created flow towards Ji, where they recombine with other electrons across it. Some of the holes crossing Ji, however, do not recombine with the electrons there but drift across the n-region between junctions J; and Jz and appear at Jz, When these holes appear at Jz, they are swept across J2 into the p-region between Ja and J;. They then drift until they appear at Js, where they recombine with electrons crossing J3 from the cathode. Thus, if a current is caused to flow across Js, the current through the entire device is increased. This increase is due to the increasing values of a and «3. If the current going to p-layer between Js and J2, i.e the gat: current, is made greater than zero, the breakover voltage is lowered. The effect of increasing gate current is to increase #2 only, and a is determined by the overall forward current, This means that | —(1-+z2) is controlled both by the gate current as well as the total forward current. As the gate current becomes larger, the forward breakover voltag: becomes smaller and equal to the forward voltage drop of one p-s junction at some value of the gate current. Once the device is ON, the gate no longer has any control over the current through the device. To reduce the device to its OFF state, the anode current must be reduced below the holding current. Since the gate current increases 2, which in turn increases «i, the gate current gain of the device is equivalent to @ ground emitter n-p-n transistor connected to a p-n-p transistor as shown in Fig. 1.22. ANODE As Ic flows into the gate, i.e. the base } of the n-p-n transistor, it is amplified and appears at the collector as B2lo where P2 = @2/(1—2). This current then flows to the base of the p-n-p transistor and appears at its collector as Pif2lc. The current f:P2lc appears at the base of a-p-n transistor creating a regenerative system. Thus, a small gate current turns the device ON. The ON state current through the device may be thousand times greater than the gate current. The Fig. 1.22 Two-transistor analogy of only requirement of the gate current is P-ep-n switch CATHODE24 POWER ELECTRONICS that it should be sufficiently large to cause regencrative action to fire the device Again, for the p-n-p transistor Fo=Bulu + Tevoi (1.14) and for the n-p-n transistor Tor=Balp2+ Icxo2 (1.15) where Jceo is the collector emitter leakage current with base open. Since Ip2=IetIci substituting Ic: from Eq. 1.14 to Eq. 1.15 gives Toa=BiBalar+-B2 Ue Icroi) | teror =lan (1.16) from which 17) Emitter current of p-n-p transistor 1=(1+8)fartlezo1 (1.18) Substituting Je: from Eq. 1.17 to Eq. 1.18, one gets I (1+B2)Iceoi+(1 +81) (iceo2 + B2tc) 1—BiB2 The above equation suggests that when fy 82, i-e. the loop gain, tends to unity, the anode current increases indefinitely until the device is saturated. The function of the gate current /c is to bring about the above condition. (1.19) 1.6.2. SCR Characteristics The SCR has a mode of operation similar to the thyratron. It is the reverse blocking triode thyristor and is a rectifier since it has a forward direction in which it can conduct and a reverse direction in which it has a very high resistance. The V/ characteristic of a typical SCR is shown in Fig. 1.23. At first, it is nonconducting in both the forward and reverse directions. As the voltage is increased in the forward direction, the leakage current does not increase appreciably until a point is reached where avalanche multiplication begins and a slight increase of voltage would cause break- down. The internal loop gain becomes greater than unity and the device is switched into the high conducting stage. After an SCR has been switched to the ON state, a certain minimum value of anode current is required to maintain the thyristor in this low impedance state. If the anode current is reduced below this critical holding current value, the thyristor cannot maintain regeneration and reverts to the OFF state. The holding current isCHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 25 J— rorwaro foustate) , eunceuy ronwat beac WOLOING current ___aShWAR, Er J*— VOLTAGE R yo Vp , rm vy nS. FORWARD Blocking j avatancne | | fore svete) ae BREAKDOWN pevense BLOCKING Ta (a) Fig. 1.23 (a) V-I characteristic of SCR connected for operation in de citcuit, (b) circuit of (a) Sensitive to temperature and decreases with the increase of temperature as shown in Fig. 1.24, HOLDING CURRENT (ma) JUNCTION TEMP(*c) Fig. 1.24 SCR-holding current v, temperature curve The rating of holding current is generally specified at room temperature with the gate open. The latching current of an SCR specifies a value of anode current slightly higher than the holding current, which is the minimum amount required to sustain conduction immediately after the SCR is switched from the OFF state to the ON State and the gate signal removed. Once the latching current is reached, the SCR remains in the ON siate until the anode current is decreased below the holding current value. The latching current rating is an important consideration when the device26 POWER ELECTRONICS is used with an inductive load because the inductance limits the rate of rise of the anode current. Precautions should be taken to ensure that under such conditions the gate signal is present until the anode current rises to the latching value so that the complete turn-on of the SCR is assured. The characteristics of an SCR are strongly dependent upon temperature. Up to the breakover voltage, the OFF state characteristics of an SCR with no gate signal are, therefore, similar to that of a conventional silicon diode and consist of a saturation current region where the current is substantially independent of the applied voltage, but depends strongly on temperature. The avalanche region where the current rises rapidly for a small increase of the applied voltage is also temperature dependent. In the reverse direction, the SCR behaves like a normal silicon diode. The avalanche breakdown is also similar to that ina silicon diode where excessive current can destroy the device. Both the reverse breakdown voltage and the forward breakover voltage are temperature dependent and have more or less the same value. However, in most cases, the reverse breakdown voltage is slightly higher than the forward OFF state breakover voltage, thereby the final rating of the device goes by the value of the OFF state forward breakover voltage. With the application of gate current, both the OFF state and reverse current increase, increasing the power losses. If this loss becomes excessive, the device may be damaged. With a safe value of gate current, the forward breakover voltage is substantially reduced as shown in Fig. 1.25. The break- over voltage reduces with the increase in gate current. To avoid the possi- bility of undesirable triggering-on, a pulse triggering technique is desirable. ‘The triggering pulses should be sufficiently large to ensure positive triggering at all temperatures without damaging the device. ON STATE Le CURRENT VOLTAGE Fig. 1.25 SCR OFF state and ON state voltage showing effect of increasing gate currentCHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 27 1.6.3 Forward Voltage Drop The forward ON state characteristic of an SCR is similar to that of a silicon diode. The average ON state current is independent of gate current, except at very low level. The ON state voltage across the SCR is small and is much dependent on temperature as shown in Fig. 1.26. 3 3 INSTANTANEOUS ON STATE CURRENT(A) S os of t 2 3 4 MAX INSTANTANEOUS ON STATE VOLTAGE |v) Fig. 1.26 Instantaneous ON state current v. ON state voltage curve at different junction temperatures The maximum permissible ON state current is limited by the power loss and current density. On the lower side the limiting value is the holding current. At this zone, the ON state voltage increases with decreasing current and the characteristic becomes unstable, and the device has a tendency to switch-off. This region should be avoided during operation. Otherwise, the ON state voltage is more or less constant with current. When the device current exceeds the rated current, it behaves almost like a resistance, particularly at high temperatures. In this region, the resistances of the semiconductor to metal contacts and internal conductors become important, particularly for devices carrying high surge current for a short period. At these high levels of current, the temperature rise is high, becomes self- sustaining, and is dangerous for the devices. 1.6.4 Voltage Rating The voltage and current ratings are important in selecting SCR’s for a particular application. The voltage ratings of SCR’s are given for both steady state and transient operation and for both forward and reverse blocking conditions.28 POWER ELECTRONICS 1.6.5 Forward OFF State Voltage The repetitive peak forward OFF state voltage, Vorm is the maximum value of OFF state voltage, either transient or steady state, that the SCR should be required to block under the stated conditions of temperature and gate to cathode resistance. If the voltage is exceeded, the SCR may switch to the ON state. For safe operation, the working peak reverse voltage applied by the circuit should never exceed the Vorm rating of the SCR. It is common practice to provide a margin of 1.5 to 2 between the circuit peak reverse voltage and the device Doras. The lower derating factor 1.5 is used where the voltage transients are known to ahigh degree of certainty, e.g. in static inverter systems supplied by a battery. The factor 2 is generally applied in large industrial installations when the SCR’s are fed from high capacity main supply systems where it is extremely difficult to estimate the magnitude of any possible voltage transient. Suitable damping circuits should be incorporated in the design when the magnitude of transient is likely to exceed Vorm. 1.6.6 Reverse Voltage Reverse voltage ratings of SCR’s are given to provide operating guidance in reverse blocking modes. There are two voltage ratings in a reverse blocking mode—repetitive peak reverse voltage, Vrs, and nonrepetitive peak reverse voltage, Vrsa. The repetitive peak reverse voltage is the maximum allowable voltage in the reverse direction, including all repetitive transient voltage. Since the leakage current in the reverse blocking mode is small, the power dissipation in this mode is also small. The temperature rise of the junction is also small and is accounted for in the rating of the SCR. Nonrepetitive reverse voltage is the maximum nonrepetitive transient voltage that can be applied in the reverse direction without inflicting any damage to the device. This voltage may exceed the steady state ratings of the SCR and operate in the avalanche mode, because, though the instantaneous power dissipation may be significant, the duration of the transient voltage should be such that the device is not damaged by thermal runaway. The presence of positive gate current while operating in the reverse direction affects the device adversely. The blocking capacity of the SCR suffers or its maximum allowable rate of rise of applied forward voltage sinks and the reverse losses increase. 1.6.7 ON State Voltage ‘The voltage drop across the SCR in ON state is similar to the voltage drop of a conducting diode. The magnitude of this voltage drop in case of an SCR is slightly higher than that of a diode. The ON state voltage drop characteristic is the major source of power losses in the SCR and the tem- peratures produced become a limiting feature in the rating of the device,CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVicrs 29 1.6.8 Forward Current Rating The ratings of an SCR are based primarily on the amount of heat generat- ed within the device and the ability of the device to transfer the internal heat to the external case. The power generated inside the device junctions depends on the following: 1, turn-on switching 2. forward conduction 3. turn-off or commutation 4, reverse blocking 5. triggering For normal low frequency operation, forward conduction is the main source of heat dissipation. However, for high frequency applications or for large difdt, the ratio of peak to average current is high and turn-on switching losses become the predominant source of heat generation. The forward current rating of an SCR is a function of its maximum junction temperature, the device thermal impedances, the total device losses and the ambient temperature. The ratings of the device would be such that in no case the device maximum junction temperature is exceeded. The device dissipation versus average forward current is determined from the instantaneous V7 ON state characteristics for various conduction angles and is shown in Fig. 1.27. gag FORWARD ON STATE LOSSES 8 8 aN bk e-+ 20 60 100 140 180 270 260 300 coNpUcTION FORWARD AV CURRENT (A) ANGLE Tg (AV) Fig. 1.27 Maximum power dissipation v. average forward current curve for semisinusoidal waveform at various conduction angles The curve for maximum allowable case temperature versus the maximum forward average current is useful to the designer. This is obtained from the power dissipative characteristics (Fig. 1.27) in conjunction with the steady state as well as transient thermal impedances. A typical curve of maximum case temperature versus maximum average forward current for various conduction angles is shown in Fig. 1.28. This is derived from the formula Tr max~ Te max Pav max= Ore a ip j)30 rower ELECTRONICS where ‘av nax= Maximum power dissipated obtained from Fig. 1.27 Tymax= maximum junction temperature Tc max= Maximum case temperature 9sc= junction to case thermal resistance an) Fv 3 g 190 ss 80 3K = 60) = 5 = 40 = 20 50 100 150 200 250 FORWARD AVERAGE CURRENT(IMAX) Tp (ava) (A) Fig. 1.28 Maximum case temperature y. maximum average forward current curve for semisinusoida! waveform at various conduction angles Once Pav max is calculated from Eq. 1.20, the corresponding Jray max is obtained from Fig. 1.27. For the above calculation, the temperature is assumed to be uniform throughout the pallet and the case. The junction temperature, however, increases or decreases: under conditions of transient loading or periodic currents, depending upon the instantaneous power dis- sipated within the SCR. The current rating takes these variations into account. The ON state current ratings for an SCR indicate the maximum average, rms and peak (surge) current that should be allowed to flow through the device under stated ON condition. For heat sink mounting, the rating depends on the case temperature and for load mounting, it is based on ambient temperature. Generally, the average current ratings of an SCR are available only for the case of a single-phase half-wave circuit with resistive load. These ratings are usually given in the form of curves showing the maximum allowable current versus case temperature for various conduction angles, such as 180°, 120°, 90°, 60° and 30° The highest value of average current depends on the maximum rms current rating of the SCR. Very often, it is necessary to determine the average current rating of the device for rectangular current waveform, because, in may applications, the current waveform is rectangular rather than semi-sinusoidal. For example, the current waveforms in rectifier circuits feeding inductive loads are rectangular because the load inductance tends to prevent rapid variation in load current making the current wave flat- topped. Again, the transformer leakage inductance prevents instantaneousCHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 31 commutation of current from one rectifier to the other, resulting in overlap- ping current flow through the rectifying elements that are commutating. In the case of continuous conduction in phase controlled circuits, the duration of current flow is essentially fixed, only the initiation of current flow alters with the variation of firing angle. Again, for the same value of average load current, the current waveform is more rectangular for circuits of low con- duction period than for those of higher conduction period. This means that for the same average current, the waveforms of a six-phase half-wave circuit will be more rectangular than a single-phase full-wave circuit. The duration of current flow is determined by the type of rectifier circuit and not the firing phase angle. This is true for continuous load conduction and not for discontinuous conduction. In many inverter circuits the current waveform is more or less rectangular. For a given‘conduction period and average current value, the heating effect of a rectangular current wave is less than that of a semi-sinusoidal waveform of equal conduction period, because the peak current is less. Thus, the SCR current ratings for rectangular current are greater for any given conduction period. This is of some advantage to the users. Sometimes. the manufacturers supply the current ratings of SCR for rectangular waves in terms of maximum allowable case temperature for various conduction periods. If these are not readily available, they may be easily calculated from the instantaneous ON state power loss versus instantaneous ON state current curve. However, the data of maximum rated junction temperature, transient thermal impedance between | to 10 ms and rated thermal resis- tance, junction to case, should be available. The calculation is based on the maximum temperature rise of the junction above the case due to rectan- gular current flow for a particular duration. The junction temperature rise above the case temperature is calculated by the following equation. Average junction temperature rise above the case temperature is approxi- mately equal to the sum of the average power dissipated multiplied by the thermal resistance and the temperature response of the junction in the final pulse of load current. Thus, t n-re=P{£ ter (1-2) 609] aan where 7j=junction temperature To=case temperature P,=peak ON state power loss at a given peak anode current tp=duration of one rectangular wave of current (conduction period) T=reciprocal of frequency of pulse current 84c=thermal resistance of the SCR junction to case.32 POWER ELECTRONICS 6r,= transient thermal impedance for the time duration of one cur- Tent pulse. The heating effect of the reverse losses and OFF state losses is rather low and may increase the junction temperature additionally by 2 to 3 °C. The peak power loss P. is obtained using Eq. |.21 for the peak junction temperature of the device. From Po, the peak current is obtained from the Pov. Ipeax curve if available or from the instantaneous ON state voltage- current curve (Fig. 1.26). It is sometimes more useful to know the junction temperature rise above the ambient rather than above the device case tem- perature, In the case, there are three thermal drops in series in the heat flow path from junction to the surrounding cooling medium. They are 1. thermal drop from junction to case 2. thermal drop from case to heat sink 3. thermal drop from heat sink to cooling medium Therefore, T)- Ta [?. Bt Pay ] [act Pes+0se | +e] 1-8 ] (1.22) where 17;— 7'«=junction temperature rise above ambient 9cs=thermal resistance, case to ‘heat sink Os4=thermal resistance, sink to cooling medium Pr av=average power loss during reverse and OFF state blocking periods Py is calculated from Eq. 1.22. The peak current can be obtained using the same procedure as discussed in the previous case. The limiting average cur- tent of the SCR for rectangular current waveform is Tay max=Tpoae (1.23) 1.6.9 Rms Current Rating The rms current rating is always used in the rating procedure for a device. In controlled rectifier circuits, the current form factor is considerably high fora high value of firing angle. For a fixed average current, the rms value of the current increases with increasing firing angle. For a direct current, the rms and average values are identical. The rms current rating of the device is useful, because it is essentially independent of the conduction angle, whereas the average cutrent rating decreases with the decrease of conduction angle. Also, the rms current rating of the device is larger than the average current rating. This rms current flows through theCHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 33 conductive part of the lead assembly, the device wiring and internal assem- bly parts and raises the temperature. The rms current rating must be limi- ted to a safe value to prevent excessive heating in the resistive elements of the SCR, such as joints, leads, etc. The rms current rating is also important when SCRs are used.to supply high peak current to a load with low duty cycle. In such cases, the average value of the device current may remain well within the rating whereas the rms current may cross the limit. In such cases, the rms current rating should be the limiting factor and not be exceed- ed. The rms current rating of the device is provided for the worst case combi- nation of lead assembly, forward drop and thermal impedance and for resistive load. Since the current form factor for the resistive load is greatest, and since the load inductances reduce the current form factor, the average current ratings supplied by the manufacturers are conservative for inductive current waveforms. The SCR current form factor varies with various configurations of circuit applications and for different conduction angles supplying resistive load. For inductive load, the current is almost rectangular and its rms value is 1/2 [a] and can be easily calculated, tp, T and /, are the conduction period, time period or reciprocal of frequency and peak current respectively. Sometimes, the current waveforms are neither sinusoidal nor rectangular as in many inverter circuits. Since the information of rms values of current is impor- tant for selection of the SCR’s, the same is calculated using the following procedure. The current waveform is broken into suitable segments for which the rms values can be calculated individually. The [/?d¢ value of each segment is calculated and added up to determine the rms value of current. Referring to Fig. 1.29, the rms value of the complex current wave is as follows: Lggn rm Ts mya tm =| 5 {f) are |e a aes (P ars (7 it dt H (1.24) % is i ia 7 yo -—— 1 ——4 Fig. 1.29 Waveform of complex current wave 1.6.10 Repetitive Overload Current Rating It is not uncommon for rectifier equipments to frequently run on overload. Though the duration of overload is short, it is repetitive. [t is quite obvious