CE111 – GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

(SOIL MECHANICS)

Lesson 2. Soil Formation - B

SOIL FABRIC

Soil particles are assumed to be rigid. During deposition, the mineral particles are
arranged into structural frameworks that we call soil fabric (Figure 1.4). Each particle is in
random contact with neighboring particles. The environment under which deposition occurs
influences the structural framework that is formed. In particular, the electrochemical
environment has the greatest influence on the kind of soil fabric that is formed during
deposition of fine-grained soils.
Two common types of soil fabric—flocculated and dispersed—are formed during soil
deposition of fine-grained soils, as shown schematically in Figure 1.4. A flocculated
structure, formed in a saltwater environment, results when many particles tend to orient
parallel to one another. A flocculated structure, formed in a freshwater environment, results
when many particles tend to orient perpendicular to one another. A dispersed structure occurs
when a majority of the particles orient parallel to one another.
Any loading (tectonic or otherwise) during or after deposition permanently alters the
soil fabric or structural arrangement in a way that is unique to that particular loading condition.
Consequently, the history of loading and changes in the environment is imprinted in the soil
fabric. The soil fabric is the brain; it retains the memory of the birth of the soil and subsequent
changes that occur.
The spaces between the mineral particles are called voids, which may be filled with
liquids (essentially water), gases (essentially air), and cementitious materials (e.g., calcium
carbonate). Voids occupy a large proportion of the soil volume. Interconnected voids form the
passageway through which water flows in and out of soils. If we change the volume of voids,
we will cause the soil to either compress (settle) or expand (dilate). Loads applied by a building,
for example, will cause the mineral particles to be forced closer together, reducing the volume
of voids and changing the orientation of the structural framework.
Consequently, the building settles. The amount of settlement depends on how much we
compress the volume of voids. The rate at which the settlement occurs depends on the
interconnectivity of the voids. Free water, not the adsorbed water, and/or air trapped in the
voids must be forced out for settlement to occur. The decrease in volume, which results in
settlement of buildings and other structures, is usually very slow (almost ceaseless) in fine-
grained soils because these soils have large surface areas compared with coarse-grained soils.
The larger surface areas provide greater resistance to the flow of water through the voids.
If the rigid (mostly quartz) particles of coarse-grained soils can be approximated by
spheres, then the loosest packing (maximum void spaces) would occur when the spheres are
stacked one on top of another (Figure 1.5a). The densest packing would occur when the spheres
are packed in a staggered pattern, as shown in Figure 1.5b. Real coarse-grained soils consist of
an assortment of particle sizes and shapes, and consequently, the packing is random. From your
physics course, mass is volume multiplied by density. The density of soil particles is
approximately 168lb/ft3(2.7 grams/cm3). For spherical soil particles of diameter D (cm), the
mass is 2.7 × (πD3/6). So the number of particles per gram of soil is 0.7/D3. Thus, a single gram
of a fine sand of diameter 0.015cm would consist of about 207,400 particles or about 94 million
particles per lb.
 SOIL TYPES AND STRUCTURES

A. Major Soil Types:

a. Gravel c. Silt
b. Sand d. Clay

There is no unanimous agreement on the exact division between each of these major
soil types, but gravel and sand are universally considered coarse-grained soil for the individual
particles are large enough to be distinguished without magnification. Silts and clays are
considered fine-grained soil because of their small particles, too small for the most part to be
seen unaided.

Table I. Size Range for Soil Types

Soil Type Upper Size Limit Lower Size Limit

Gravel Varies from 80 mm up to about 4.76 mm or 2.0mm (#4 or #10 US
200mm Standard Sieve)
Sand 4.76 mm to 2.0mm #200 or #270 sieve
Silt and Clay 0.074 mm to 0.05 mm None
Table II. Soil Types, Descriptions and Average Grain Size According to USCS
(Unified Soil Classification System)

Soil Type Description Average Grain Size

Gravel Rounded and/or angular bulky Coarse : 75mm – 19mm
hard rock Fine : 19mm – 4mm
Sand Rounded and/or angular bulky Coarse : 4mm – 1.70mm
hard rock Medium : 1.7mm – 0.38mm
Fine : 0.38mm – 0.075mm
Silt Particles smaller than 0.075mm,
exhibit little or no strength when 0.075mm to 0.002mm
dried
Clay Particles smaller than 0.002mm,
exhibits significant strength when < 0.002mm
dried, water reduces strength

 Particles larger than gravel are commonly referred to as cobbles or boulders.

 When gravel extends up to 200mm (8 in) size, anything larger would be termed as
boulder
 Where the 75mm (3 in) size is taken as the upper size for gravel, the sizes between
75mm and 200mm may be designated as cobbles.
 As for sands and gravels, these discrepancies usually do not cause serious problems.
Conventionally, when a construction project requires a particular material, it has
become a standard practice to indicate the soil or aggregate requirements on the basis
of size, instead of or addition to classification.
 Particle size serves as the basis for classification of sands, gravels, cobbles, and
boulders.
 The classification of a fine-grained soil as either silt or clay is not done on the basis of
particle size but rather is based on the plasticity or non-plasticity of the material. Clay
soil is plastic over a range of water content; that is, the soil can be remolded or deformed
without causing cracking, breaking, or change in volume and will retain the remolded
shape.
 Clays are frequently “sticky”. When dried, a clay soil possesses very high strength
(resistant to crushing).
 A silt soil possesses a little or no plasticity and when dried, has little strength.
 The reason for the difference in behavior between clay and silt relates to the difference
in mineralogical composition of the soil types and particle shape. Silt soils are very
small particles of disintegrated rock, as are sands and gravels, and possess the same
general shape and mineralogical composition as sands and gravels which are non-
plastic. The clay minerals, however, represent chemical changes that have resulted from
decomposition and alteration of the original rock mineral.
 Naturally occurring soil deposits most generally include more than one soil type. When
they are classified, all the soil types actually present should be indicated, but the major
constituent soil type should dominate the description, while the soils of lesser
percentage are used as modifying terms.
For example, a material that is mostly sand but includes silt would be classified
as silty-sand, whereas a silt clay mixture with most clay would be termed as
silty-clay.
 Although a soil may be predominantly coarse-grained, the presence of silt or clay can
have significant effect on the properties of mixture. Where the amount of fine-grained
 material exceeds about 1/3 of the total soil, the mixture behaves more like a fine-grained
soil than a coarse=grained soil.

B. Determination of Particle Size of Soils

1. Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soil

The distribution of particle sizes or average grain diameter of coarse-grained soils
(gravels and sand) is obtained by screening a known weight of the soil through a stack of
sieves of progressively finer mesh sizes. Each sieve is identified by a number of square
holes per linear inch of mesh. The particle diameter in the screening process, often called
sieve analysis, is the maximum particle dimension to pass through the square hole of
particular mesh.

Stack of Sieves

Particle size distribution curves

2. Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soil
The screening process cannot be used for fine-grained soil (silt and clays) because they
are extremely small in size. The common laboratory method to determine the size
distribution of fine-grained soils is hydrometer test. The hydrometer test involves mixing
a small amount of soil into a suspension and observing how the suspension settles in time.

3. Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size

Real soils consist of a mixture of particle sizes. The selection of a soil for a particular
use may depend on the assortment of particles it contains. Two coefficients have been
defined to provide guidance on distinguishing soils based on the distribution of the
particles.
a. Cu = D60 / D10

Where: Cu = Uniformity Coefficient

D60 = Diameter of the soil particles for which 60% of the
particles are finer.
D10 = Diameter of the soil particles for which 10% of the
particles are finer

* Both of these diameters are obtained from a grading curve

b. Cc = (D30)2
D10D60

Where: Cc = Coefficient of Curvature (Also known as Coefficient of

Gradation or Coefficient of Concavity)

D30 = Diameter of the soil particles for which 30% of the

particles are finer

o Effective Size (D10)

 This is the diameter in the particle size distribution curve corresponding
to 10% finer. It is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity and
drainage through the soil.
  Sorting Coefficient

So = (D75/D25)1/2

Where: D75 = Diameter corresponding to 75% finer

D25 = Diameter corresponding to 25% finer

C. Clay and Water

 The surfaces of clay mineral particles have a net electrical charge that is negative, while
the edges have positive and negative charges. This results from the molecular grouping
and arrangement of ions. However, the charges are not uniform, but vary in intensity
at different locations on the particle. Because of the extremely small size of clay
particles and the very high ratio of particle surface to particle mass, the forces of
electrical charge have profound effect on the behavior of particles coming in association
with other particles and water (or other fluids) present in the soil. Because of the
manner of some development or deposition, clay deposits always exist in the presence
of some water.
 In contrast, the engineering behavior of coarse particles is not significantly affected by
surface electrical charges because of comparatively low ratio of particle surface to
mass.
 The plasticity that clay soils possess is attributed to the attracted and held water. Water
molecules are attracted because of their dipole structure. The unusual properties of
plasticity possessed by clays occur because of the unusual molecular structure and the
common presence of water in soil deposits. Experiments performed with clay using
non-polar liquid in place of water have resulted in “no plasticity” condition similar to
that noted for coarse-grained sandy soil.

D. Soil Structure
Actual soil deposits are made of accumulation of soil particles having at least some
variation, but more frequently great variation in particle size. Generally, the greater the range
of particle sizes, the smaller the total volume of voids spaces there will be. For a given soil
deposit, however, a range of conditions between loose and dense is possible. Typical values
for different types of soil mixtures are tabulated, as shown on Table 3.

Table III. Typical Void Ratios and Unit Weights for Cohesionless Soils

Range of Void Ratio Range of Unit Weight

Soil emax emin Condition YminKN/m3 YmaxKN/m3
Description (loose) (dense) (moisture) (loose) (dense)
Well-graded Saturated 19.50 22.00
fine to coarse 0.70 0.35
sand Dry 15.00 19.00
Uniform fine Saturated 19.00 20.50
to medium 0.85 0.50
sand Dry 14.00 17.50
Silty sand Saturated 18.00 22.50
and gravel 0.80 0.25
Dry 14.00 17.00
Micaceous Saturated 17.00 19.50
Sand and Silt 1.25 0.75
Dry 12.00 15.00
  In relating the volume of void spaces to properties desirable for building construction
purposes, it is generally anticipated that the smaller the void ratio (or the denser the
material), the higher strength and the lower the compressibility will be.
 Coarse soil in an initially loose condition may be prone to quick volume reductions and
loss of strength if subjected to shock or vibrations, unless there is some cementing at
points of particle contact or “cohesive strength” provided by moisture menisci.
 Experience indicates that it is possible for sands or silts to be deposited in such manner
that an unusually loose or honeycomb structure results. Grains settling slowly in quiet
waters, or loosely dumped moist soil, can develop a particle to particle contact that
bridges over relatively large void spaces between the aggregates and carries the weight
of the overlying material.
 For coarse-grained soils and silts, the mass of an individual particle is relatively great
compared to the surface area. Therefore, the effect of gravity has the most influence
over the arrangement of deposits of such soils. On the other hand, clay particles,
because of their large surface to mass ratio, are more affected by the electrical forces
acting on their surfaces than by gravity forces.
 Clay deposits develop from clay particles that have settled out of a suspension in a
freshwater or saltwater environment tend toward a “flocculated structure”, whereby the
attraction and contact between many of the clay particles is through an edge-to-face
arrangement.
 Clay deposits with flocculent structures will have a high void ratio, low density and
probably high water contents.
 When used for construction clays that were in flocculent conditions before use
generally lose some strength as a result of remolding.

E. Special Soil Categories

Special soil implies a soil type with a property or behavior that is considered unusual and
capable of causing problems and therefore requires special treatment.

1. Collapsible Soils – refers to the category of soil deposits that experience significant
decrease in volume when exposed to weather.
 Typically found in arid regions (loess)
 Most collapsible gravels are water transported and deposited formations such as
mud flows slope wash deposits or torrential stream deposits where rapid
deposition was followed by drying.
 A property of the collapsible gravels is the presence of silt or clay fine-grained
materials (typically 25-45% of the soil weight, but as low as 10%) which acts
as binder to produce a fragile metastable structure vulnerable to breakdown in
the presence of water.
 Sites underlain by collapsible deposits have been improved by flooding and
using mechanical processes that resulted from collapsing the soil to achieve a
stable condition prior to construction. After construction, efforts to prevent
structural damage concentrate on preventing water from reaching the
collapsible strata.

2. Liquefaction – is a condition that can occur when saturated cohesionless sand deposits
exist in relatively loose condition (earthquake)
  Structures underlain by sand that undergo liquefaction may experience
significant vertical or lateral movements while unsupported earth slopes tend to
slide.
 Generally, deposits of uniform sands are considered more susceptible than
well-graded sands and fine sands are considered more susceptible than coarse
sands.
3. Expansive clays – these clays experience considerable shrinkage when water content
is reduced.
 Containing montmorillonite mineral expand in volume if the soil water content
is below a stability value when water is available.
 Stability value of water content for clays prone to expanding refers to the
condition in which additional water will not be attracted to the particle and
further expansion does not occur.
 Chemical stabilization using additives- lime slurry mixing
4. Dispersive clays - are fine-grained soils that will deflocculate in still water and erode
if exposed to low velocity of water.

 Ordinary clays typically do not erode in the presence of water unless the flow
velocity is relatively high, more that 1m/sec.
 The erodability of dispersive clay can be reduced through the use of hydrated
lime or aluminum sulfate admixtures.
5. Laterites – refers to a category of residual soil formed from the weathering of igneous rock
under the conditions of high temperature and high rainfall such as those typically occurring in
tropical regions.
 Deposits of lateritic soils maybe found in a hard or cemented state, particularly
in areas where vegetation is sparse or has been removed. The cementation,
attributed to the presence of free iron oxide in the soil, is such that the hardened
soil can be quarried and used as bricklike material for building construction
purposes.

 Suitability Number

SN = 1.7 [(3 / (D50)2 + 1 / (D20)2 + 1 / (D10)2] 1/2

Where:
SN = Suitability Number
D50 = Diameter of Soil at which 50% of the weight is finer
D20 = Diameter of Soil at which 20% of the weight is finer
D10 = Diameter of Soil at which 10% of the weight is finer

Table IV. Backfill Rating System

Suitability Number Rating as Backfill

0 – 10 Excellent
10 – 20 Good
20 – 30 Fair
30 – 50 Poor
>50 Unsuitable

Reference:
1. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering by Braja M. Das 5 th edition.
2. SOIL MECHANICS FUNDAMENTALS by Muni Budhu 2015 edition