LESSON V

BASIS IN SELECTING ANIMALS FOR BREEDING, BREEDING

SYSTEM, REPRODUCTIVE PHENOMENA, REPRODUCTIVE
PROBLEMS

Overview
Topics included in Lesson V is the selection of breeding animals which is one of the most
important aspects in starting a farm. Selection ensures the choice of the best animals for
reproduction. Most of the productive and reproductive traits are greatly influenced by the
kind of breeding stocks in the herd.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of Lesson V, the students can:
1. Explain the basic principles in stock selection,
2. Discuss common reproductive problems, and
3. Identify the common breeding systems used.

Materials Needed
Reading Materials, Power Point Slides, Power point projector

Duration: 3 hours

Learning Content

SELECTION

The following are recommendation in selecting breeding animal:

• Select a breed/breed combination or strain that is most common in the
community
 • Start preferably with crossbreds or upgraded animals
• Consider the market outlet and the consumers’ preference before starting
business

Bases of Selection
• Physical Selection (e.g strong legs, long body, good body conformation)
• Performance (e.g. mothering ability, average daily gain, backfat thickness
for swine)
•
Beef Breeding
Breeding is then defined as the controlled propagation of cattle to improve qualities
desirable to man.

Modern Goal:
1. To develop types that will meet market demand
2. Be productive under adverse climatic conditions
3. Efficient in converting feeds to animal products

Variations due to Genetics and Environment

Cattle traits are either qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative traits show discontinuous variations

-Coat color
-Homed or polled
-Certain blood characteristics
-Blood types
-Presence or absence of particular enzymes

Generally inheritance of qualitative traits are simple in accordance with the laws of
heredity. Environment plays a very minor role.
The quantitative traits show continuous variations between the extremes. The mean types
among the characteristics are most frequent to change. These are:
• Growth rate
• Live weight
• Body measurements at maturity
• Milk yield
• Milk composition

Breeding System
Breeding system are defined as several types of mating to combine desirable qualitative
and quantitative characteristics through mating system which are planned or non-random.

Random mating (or unplanned) – this means each possible mating in a population has
the same probability or occurrence.
Normally used in breeding experiments to minimize genetic changes in a control
population wherein selected populations are controlled.

Inbreeding – mating of closely related individuals within a breed.

To increase homozygosity and decrease heterozygosity of the inbred.

Close Breeding – mating of close relative e.g, father –daughter; son-mother; brother-
sister

Brahman X Brahman
Sire Dam

F male
When the male matures and breeds the dam or mother, then this is close breeding. Or if
the 𝐹1 is a female and once mature is bred to the sire, then this is close breeding.
Line Breeding – breeding of not so close relatives, e.g. cousins. This is a form of mild
inbreeding
designed to concentrate the genes of a certain ancestor of the genetic constitution of the
progeny.

Strain breeding – a very mild form of inbreeding which leads to increase homozygosity
within the strain in the long term.

Effects of Inbreeding
1. Marked decrease in fertility
2. Reduces vigor
3. Decrease in growth rate of offspring
4. Reduces viability of the offspring

Crossbreeding – mating of individuals from two or more established purebreds.

• To increase heterozygosity
• To take advantage of hybrid vigor or heterosis
Hybrid vigor is defined as the average quality of the first generation exceeding the
average of the two parental breeds. Heterosis is displayed mainly in the fitness traits,
fertility and viability.
Example
1. Brahman X Angus

𝐹1 50% B 50% A
2. Afrikander X Hereford

𝐹1 50% Afrikander 50% Hereford

Types of Crossbreeding
Systematic crossbreeding – two or more breeds are involved in a breeding program
lasting several years. This way, a crossbred which may eventually stabilized into a breed,
e.g., Brangus (Brahman x Angus), Charbray (Charolais x Brahman) may occur. Or a
crisscross or triple cross can be developed with the best desired characteristics such as
daily gain, carcass weights, etc.

Example: A, B, and C are breeds

A triple cross:
A x B

𝐹1 50% A x 50% B
(breed to C)
(a triple cross) 𝐹2 25% A 25% B 50% C

Upgrading –the mating of purebred sires to nondescript or native females and their
offspring generation after generation.

Example:
100% B (Brahman) x 100% BC (Batangas Cattle)
Sire Dam

𝐹1 50% B 50% BC (select the female, then bred

Later to 100% B)
𝐹2 75% B 25% BC (select the female, then bred
Later to 100% B)
𝐹3 87.5% B 12.5% BC (and so on and so forth)
Reproductive phenomena
a. sexual maturity (bulls/heifers) = 6-8 months
b. Estrus cycle = 18-24 days (21 days average)
c. Estrus duration
- Exotic/European breeds = 14-18 hours
- Indigenous/Zebu = 10-12 hours
d. Ovulation = 10-14 hours after end of estrus
e. Parturition = average 283 days
f. A bull ejaculates about 2-12 ml of 500 or more sperm cells per ml
g. The sperm cells survive the oviduct up to a maximum of 48 hours
h. Many sperm cells reach the oviduct in 6 to 7 hours after deposition in the vagina.
i. there are many thousand egg cells produced by the female but those released are very
few. One mature egg cell is released at anytime.
j. One egg cell is fertilized by one sperm cell at the oviduct (fallopian tube)

Signs of Estrus
a. Mount others
b. Reddening and swelling of the vulva
c. Mucous discharge
d. Isolates herself
e. Seem sickly and has no appetite
f. Frequent urination, restlessness and sometimes bellowing or mooing, and
g. Standing still when mounted (the only reliable or true sign of estrus; estrus is defined
as the period of sexual receptivity of the female to the male).

Due to the reproductive phenomena in both male and female cattle, a simple guideline is
adopted when artificial insemination (AI) is practiced, thus’
“Females observed in estrus in the morning are inseminated late afternoon of the same
day. Those observed in the afternoon, are inseminated not later than noon time the next
day”
Artificial insemination (AI) and Embryo Transfer (ET) are modern reproduction techniques
which multiply countless times, the capacity of superior make or female, respectively.
The estrus of females can also be manipulated or synchronized using drugs such as
Prostaglandin F2 alpha. Estrus are then predetermined and a large number of females
are inseminated almost at the same time.
Embryo Transfer involves superovulation of superior females. Several follicles can
develop and multiple ovulations can occur. Insemination can be done and the embryos
are collected non-surgically. The collected embryos can be frozen and stored in liquid
nitrogen tanks for future transfer to surrogated dams. Or transfers can be done to
surrogate dams treated to synchronized estrus and physiologically ready to receive and
implant the embryos. This is also done non-surgically.

SOME INDICATORS OF GOOD BREEDING OR REPRODUCTIVE MANAGEMENT

1.Conception rate (Pregnancy) – percent of breeding females that conceived versus the
total exposed females
CR = cows pregnant at end of breeding season
X 100
Cows exposed during breeding season
Pregnant = 65
Exposed = 100
CR = 65%
A 65% AI rate is very high, an 85-90% natural rate is exceptional.

b. % (90 or 120 day) non returns

= percent of breeding females confirmed pregnant at 90 or 120 days, by pregnancy
diagnosis, versus the total exposed females. This is similar to conception rate.

2.Calving rate – percent of breeding females that give birth versus the total exposed
females.

3.Calving interval – the average length of time (in days) between successive calving
 -Can be calculated for each cow or the entire herd.
-One year is ideal. Eighteen (18) months is common.

4.First heat after parturition – the occurrence of estrus after giving birth to a young. First
heat is related to calving interval

PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION
Successful reproduction involves a complex series of physiological functions by both male
and female functions are to:
1.Produce large numbers of viable male germ cell(spermatozoa)
2.Ejaculate these spermatozoa into the vagina of the cow or.in the case of AP,into an
artificial vagina.

The function of the female in successful reproduction in more complex than that of the
male because her role continues after fertilization. The female’s function are the following.
1.Productive viable female germ cells(ova).
2. Deliver the ova to the site of fertilization (the oviduct).

3. Provide optimum environment for fertilization, embryo-development, implantation, and

development of the fetus to term.
4. Deliver a live, healthy calf at the end of the gestation period.
5. Deliver the after birth and evaluate the reproductive tract to normal size and condition
so he process may be repeated.

BULL’S REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

Spermatozoa are produced in the seminiferous tubules of testis, stored in the epididymis,
and at the time of ejaculation pass through the vas deference, ampulla, urethra ,and
penis. During ejaculation, fluids are added to the spermatozoa from the accessory sex
glands, the ampullae(a small amount).seminal vesicles, prostrate and Cowpers glands.
This fluid seminal fluid or plasma, serves as a medium for sperm transport, sperm
activation (sperm are relatively a motile until ejaculation).and as a supply of nutrients for
the sperm.
®Volume of semen per ejaculate varies from 2 to 15ml, with an average =5 to 6ml.
®Sperm concentration ranges from 1 to 3 B sperm per ml, with an average of about
2 B per ml.
®Percent motile cells ranges from 0 to 85%,with an average of 70%.
◊Base on these figure, an average ejaculate contains about 7B motile
In Artificial Insemination, semen is normally collected by the use an artificial vagina.
Volume is recorded and the ejaculate is evaluated for concentration (spermatozoa per
ml, motility, and morphology. Inferior quality of semen is discarded as its use is likely to
result in lowered conception rates. The semen is diluted with an egg yolk-citrate extender,
and if the semen is to be frozen, glycerol. Dilution rates are calculated to yield a final
motile spermatozoa per insemination of 10 to 12 million. Art average ejaculate of 5 ml of
semen that contains 1.25 B live cells per ml after freezing contains enough spermatozoa
for 500 to 600 inseminations. The semen is packaged in ampoules or straws, frozen and
stored(usually in liquid nitrogen storage tanks) at a temperature of 300 to -320 ̊F(-184 to
̊ . As long as the semen is maintained at this temperature, it remains viable for 10
-196 C
to 15 years or more.

COWS REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

Ova are produced in the follicle of the ovary, released from the follicle(ovulation), picked
up by the infundibulum of the oviduct, move into the oviduct, fertilized in the oviduct,
moved into the uterine horn4 to 6 days after fertilization, and implanted in the uterus 30
to 33 days after fertilization. The embryo is carried in the uterus while developing into a
full term calf, and the calf is discharged through the cervix, vagina and vulva. The process
of ova production and release begins at puberty (usually 6 to 10 months of age) and
continues on a 21-day cyclic basis until pregnancy. The cycle is normally reestablished
within 40 to 50 days after calving and continues until pregnancy occurs again.

The development and function of the female reproductive process in the female is also
under the control of the pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary hormones FSH and LH
stimulate the development and maturation of the follicle that contains the ova. The
maturing follicle secretes estrogen, which causes the animal to exhibit the symptoms of
estrus (heat). LH causes the rupture of the follicle. It also causes luteinization of the
follicular cells and the formation and function of the corpus luteum. The CL secretes
progesterone, which prepares the uterus to receive the fertilized ova and is essential in
maintaining pregnancy.

Thus, successful reproduction involves the presence of viable male and female cells in
the right place at the right time, in combination with a normal healthy female to provide
suitable environment for the growth, development, and delivery of a healthy calf.
Synchronization – proper timing- of this series of physiological functions is as critical to
successful reproduction as are viable germ cells and normal reproductive tracts.

Time Breeding to Obtain Conception Rates. The time of optimum fertility of the ova is
very short, 2 to 4 hours. Ovulation time varies from 5 to 16 hours after the end of standing
heat, with an average of 10 to 11 hours. Fertile life of sperm is limited to about 28 hours
in the female reproductive tract. This indicates that timing of breeding is critical to optimum
fertilization rates have been reported by breeding during the last one-half of the standing
heat period. Breeding earlier or later than this reduces conception because of reduced
viability of either sperm or ova. Based on this facts and conception-rate data, the following
recommendations have been followed for some years of standing heat is first observed
in the morning, breed in the afternoon or evening, if standing heat is first observed in the
afternoon or evening, breed the next morning. These recommendations are based on an
average length of heat period of 18 hours, average ovulation time of 10 to 11 hours after
the end of heat, and the assumption that the first observed standing heat was near the
beginning of the standing heat period.
BREEDING MANAGEMENT
The cow comes into estrus the whole year, but chiefly in the summer, heat, season or
estrus lasts for about 18 hours and recurs every three weeks. The period of gestation is
about 9 months. These frequent periods of estrus make it possible to arrange that every
cow in the herd does not calve at the same time, and that the supply of milk is more or
less distributed throughout the year. To achieve this the cows-in-milk should be about
45% of dairy herd (Table 12.1). When in heat, a dairy cow may show restlessness,
enlarged vulvas, a tendency to ride other cows and a decline in milk production, other
cows tend to ride her too. The most reliable sign is standing still when mounted on, which
is called standing heat. It is easier to detect dairy cows that are in heat that beef cows
because they are milked each day and therefore are closely observed. The cow can then
be bred.

An Ideal dairy herd should have the following animal composition:

Optimum Make-Up
%
Cows-in-milk 45.0
Dry cows 9.5
Bulls 0.5
Total mature stock 55.0

Heifers (above 10 mos.) 24.0

Young stock (1 ½- 10 mos.) 13.0
Calves (< 1 ½ mos.) 8.0
Total Growing stock 45.0
TOTAL LIVESTOCK INVENTORY 100.0
REPRODUCTIVE PHENOMENA FOR SWINE

Age of female puberty (gilts): 4 to 8 months

Age of male puberty : 6 to 8 months
Time of first breeding: 7 to 9 months
Estrous cycle length: 18 to 24 days
Duration of estrus: 2 to 3 days
Time of ovulation: 40 to 46 hours after the beginning of estrus
Optimal time of breeding (fresh/frozen)24 to 36 hours after the onset of estrus12
to 24 hours in gilts
Gestation period : 114 days (3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days)
Birth weight : 4 to 4.5 lb
Litter size : 8-14
Weaning age : 3 to 6 weeks

Heat Detection Strive to wean 21 to 22 pigs per year

Average 2.57 litters per year Goal should be to wean nine piglets per litter or more Boar
effect Sow to return to cycle: after piglets are removed – 4-10 days Birth to weaning <
10% mortality

Gilt exposure to a mature boar

Boar has pheromone secreting salivary gland that sexually stimulates female pig. Gilts
reach puberty 5-8 months

Heat Detection in swine

Proper and accurate heat detection is important for a successful mating system.
A. Physical signs
1. Vulva may be swollen and red
2. Clear viscous vaginal discharge
 3. Restless and grunting
4.. Mounting behavior
5. Frequent attempts to urinate with little or no discharge

B. Techniques
1.Haunch-Pressure test. The operator should approach the sow from behind and
rub her sides and thigh.
2.Riding-the-back-test. This technique is applied by riding or merely pressing the
back of the animal.
3. Semen-on-the snout test. This test is particularly important in artificial
insemination although it can also be applied in natural breeding. In this method,
semen sample is squeezed on the snout face of the animal using a squirt bottle or
atomizer. Synthetic boar-odor preparation may be used instead of a semen sample
in applying semen-on the snout test.
4. Teaser boar. Allowing a boar but preferably one that has been vasectomies to
amount the sow.
5. Sound test: Use of chomping sounds of the boar.

Physical signs to consider for mating

1. Too early Vulva heavily red and swollen

2.Hardly any mucus on vaginal mucosa
3. Negative back pressure test, only standing reflex in presence of a boar In time
4. Vulva moderately red and swollen
5. Vaginal mucosa with mucus
6. Positive back pressure test
7. Too late No redness or swelling of vulva
8. Sticky vaginal mucosa
9. Gilt "in heat", immobile
10. Gilt with swollen vulva, secondary sign of estrus
11. Gilt with swollen vulva, secondary sign of estrus
1 2 Gilt standing for "back pressure" test

Boars best environment to enhance their breeding performance. Thermal stress

should be prevented Expose to females. Avoid slippery floors Breeding records should
be maintained

Semen Collection Corkscrew penis Pressure sensitive. Electroejaculation not

recommended Mounting dummy. Don’t touch shaft/body of penis3 – 7 minutes Ejaculate
– 30 ⁰C. Rest boars every 2-3 days SOW.BOAR
Semen Processing The sperm-rich fraction is filtered from the gel fraction of the ejaculate
Evaluated Diluted with semen extender Fresh and cooled semen are more effective than
cryopreserved High quality ejaculate: 8 – 10 inseminations (each has 1-2 billion sperm).

Artificial Insemination 2 – 3 breeding per estrus Middle of 2-3 days of estrus12 hours
after standing heat and another one 12 hours later3 inseminations/ estrus Heterospermic
insemination Semen from 2 boars better.

Parturition – Preparation. Deworm 10 days before farrowing Ectoparasite control

before putting in farrowing house Wash thoroughly for mange and lice Light bedding: 1-
2 inch. Worn shavings, corn cobs, straw or stalks125 W infra red light: neonates need:
⁰F; mum need: 60 – 65 ⁰F.

Clinical Signs of Impending Parturition. Vulva swelling Labial mucosa hyperemic

Mammary gland enlargement Milk: 12 to 24 hours Respiratory rates increase: Several
hours Restless and nesting.

Parturition Mostly at night Stage 1: nesting Vocalization Lateral recumbency. Stage 2

Farrowing interval: 16 minutes Stillbirth: 30 minutes or longer All delivered in 4 to 6 hours.
Stage 3 Placenta (RP are uncommon): Complete within 4 hours. Mostly at night Legs are
flexed and breech can be normal ~ 45%Stillborn common: 5-7%Induction: PG after
112days – parturition in hrs . Add oxytocin or xylazine.
Maternal behavior If savaging is observed remove other piglets They do not
vigorously lick their young Mortality of neonate. Don’t nurse Crushing by sow
hypothermia.

Dystocia Intervene after 45 – 60 min with no progress. Less than 1%uterine inertia:
oxytocin (not if piglet is stuck) and calcium obstruction of birth canal: gilts Intervene after
45 – 60 min with no progress. Seek assistance after 45 to 60 minutes without progress.
Traction Go in with pointed hand Mild traction with malposition pig pullers, lambing
snares, nylon cord. End of parturition – retained fetus? Manual palp. / ultrasound C-
section.
22
Neonatal Care Oxygenation/pulse assessment Hold downward and pump.
Temperature regulation high risk day 2-3⁰F Umbilical cord 4-5 cm from umbilicus , Dip
2% povidone iodine Ligate: suture/string
Nutrition (nursing)Within minutes Like front teats “Bump weaning”: from large to small
litter: fall backs Once/hr . Note different milk replacer options in book: runts Bonding
Meconium Passive transfer of antibodies: within 12 hr Physical examination

FREQUENCY
It is generally recommended that a boar should at 8 months of age but the frequency of
service must be regulated to confirm to the physiological capacity to produce adequate
supply of viable sperm cells. As the boar becomes older, there is an increase in his semen
volume and total production.

Recommended service for boars

Junior Boar Senior Boar
(8 months to 1 year) (more than 1 year)
Service per:
 Day 1 2
Week 5 7
Month 20 3

BOAR TO SOW RATIO:

It is a good practice to keep one young boar in reserve for every 20 breeding females in
the herd to take over the breeding work in case one or two of the herd boras become
incapacitated for one reason or another. In commercial operations, the cost of keeping
an extra boar is substantially less than the expense on feed alone for sows that cannot
be bred due to inability of a boar to perform his work.
In a multiple farrowing program, the recommended number of boars needed for a given
sow population is as follows:

1.Two services per sow per heat period.

15 sows or less -One boar if boar is at least 15 months
old
15 - 25 sows -Two boars
2.One service per heat period
20 sows or less One boar if young boar
30 sows or less -One boar if boar is at least 15 months

REPRODUCTIVE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE BOAR

A. Lack of libido and failure of the boar to breed

1.The boar may have a genetic problem that results in abnormal sex drive. The conditions
probably will not improve. Culling of the problem boar is recommended no matter how
expensive the boar is.
2 The temperature may be too high. Boars suffering from milk to severe heat stress are
inclined to breed less frequency and seldom mate satisfactorily.
3.The boar may have been injured a breeding attempt.
4.Feet and leg problems such as lameness or hoof injury may cause the lack of interest
to mate.
5.The boars may be too fat and consequently lacks stamina and libido.
6.Perhaps the boars are not properly fed. One should not expect the boars to work
satisfactorily if they are hungry.
7.Perhaps the boars were not handled properly especially during the first mating.

B. Failure of the female to conceive through the mediation of the boar.

1.Improper breeding technique of the boar may be the cause. It is possible that the boars
do not remain in contact with the female long enough.
2.The boars may be afflicted with a particular disease or if the motile sperms are present,
it is likely that the sows have a disease.
3.The problem may be the result of general infertility that could be of genetic origin.
4.There may be a physical or anatomical defect in the reproductive tract of the male.

MANAGEMENT AT BREEDING TIME FOR SWINE

Developing a Breed Schedule
Determine adequate boar power by considering the number of services required per
week, not the number of sows per boar. Using a 100-sow herd as an example, the
objective should be 200 plus farrowing per year. For maximum efficiency, breeding and
farrowing should be evenly spaced as possible throughout the year. Not including
breeding failures, 200 plus farrowing requires 17 sows to be bred each month i.e. more
than four per week. Considering the normal 15% failure rate, 20 sows are needed for
breeding each month, or five per week. Each sow should be served twice. Boars that
serve twice in a day with a day rest between breeding, an allowance should be made for
one boar to breed a sow during the week.
Allow adequate boar power when breeding a group of weaned sows at the first post
weaning heat period because most will tend to cycle within four to seven days after
weaning.
Mating System
Mating systems vary as to amount of labor involved, ease of obtaining accurate breeding
records and facility requirements.

Hand mating- This is the preferred mating system. The operator checks for heat and
takes the female in heat to the boar.
Its advantages are:
1.The operator knows for certain that the female was bred.
2. Accurate breeding dates can be recorded.
3. The operator can accurately check for return to heat.
4. Boar use is regulated.
5. Anestrous problems can be determined earlier.
6. A more accurate sire breeding performance can be calculated.
7. Fewer boars are required for the same number of females.
Note: The main disadvantage is that more labor and closer observation are
required.

Pen-mating – Here a boar runs with a group of females.

1.Although less labor intensive, more boar power is required.
2. In pen-mating system, one mature boar can handle 8 to 10 females in a 21-day
breeding period.
3. A young boar (8 to 12 month) can effectively service from four to six sows in the
same period.
Note: The main disadvantage of pen-mating is that records of breeding dates, boar
service male and female return to heat dates are often unknown except when the
herdsman observes a mating
Poultry Principles and Practices

The objective of poultry breeding is to modify chickens to better fit the needs of man.

Constant selection from generation to generation, and breeding from only the better birds
is the most common method used in flock improvement. The theory that offspring’s tend
to resemble their parents is far from accurate since some offspring’s do not resemble their
parents. This is geneticist has worked out many great rules governing the inheritance of
certain characteristic pertaining to chicken.

The genetic make-up of the commercial strains of chicken is done by the application of
inbreeding method (3-4 generations) for trait purification. There is strict selection, then
cross breeding among great grand parental stocks (GGP’s) to take advantage grand
parental stocks (GP’s) to take advantage of the heterosis effect. Likewise, test crossing
is applied to find out the nick ability or compatibility of traits in each level.

ILLUSTRATION

The Biological Multiplier Effect

Stock Individual GP PS Progeny Commercial Final Comm.

type Progeny Progenies Product

Layer 1 GGP 100 female 10,000 female 100,000 F 3,000,000 F

Broiler 1 GGP 50 female 2,500 female 300,000 F 600 tons meat

The Genetic Basis of Poultry Breeding

Economically Important traits of chicken:

1. Fertility
2. Hatchability
3. Rate of growth
4. Efficiency and feed utilization
5. Egg production
a. age at sex maturity
b. rate of lay
c. persistency
6. Egg size
7. Egg quality

It is deal to improve all these traits in one strain but some of these traits are incompatible
with other traits. For instance, rate of lay results to depressed rate of growth and
decreased body weight. Therefore, body size is incompatible with some reproduction
traits.

The breeding program for egg production aims to improve egg production traits such as
fertility, hatchability, feed efficiency and viability for maximum profit. Whereas, for meat
type chicken the objective is to improve growth rate, feed efficiency, viability and carcass
quality.

Methods of Mating Used for Chicken

1. Pen mating – usual method of pedigree breeding in chicken wherein there is one
male in a group of females. Labor is minimized but testing is limited to a number
of males.

2. Stud mating – method wherein a male is confirmed to a laying pen (2 x 3 ft) within
a female pen. A female is held in the stud pen to mate only for a short period.
When the male mates with the female, the female is released to the outside pen
another pen another female is brought in for another round of insemination. This
method avoids disturbing the egg record resulting from moving the layers from
laying to breeding pen.
 3. Flock mating – commonly used by breeding farms in the Philippines. This is a
system wherein two or more roosters are confined in layer pen with a flock of
females following the recommended male to female ratio.

4. Artificial Insemination (AI) – this method involves man interference. Trained poultry
men need to do preliminary training of the rooster for semen collection. Handling
of rooster is necessary to tame and accustom the rooster to the touch of the
caretaker. The volume of semen per ejaculation ranges from 0.1 – 1.0 oer
ejaculation. A semen dilution of 1:5 (1 semen: 5 parts diluent) was proven to have
comparable fertility with undiluted semen. The semen must not be less than 0.1 cc
per female.

Advantages of AI:
• No preferential mating by roosters
• Problem of male to female ratio is eliminated
• Fighting between males in a pen is avoided
• One ejaculation could be apportioned to several layers

Methods of Flock Improvement

1. Selection – most commonly applied where only superior genotypes are made to
reproduce. In poultry only three methods of selections are commonly used:
a. Individual or mass selection – selection based on individual’s own record of
performance. This is most efficient for traits that are highly heritable. Among
several individuals the one with the highest performance record is selected.

b. Family selection – the whole family is selected or rejected according to the

man phenotypic value of the family. This is applied when traits have low
heritability value.
c. Within family selection – criteria is the deviation of each individual from the
mean value of the family which the individual belongs to. The greatest amount
is the most desirable. Advantage: economic breeding space.

2. Breeding and Hybridization

a. Inbreeding – a system where closely related individuals are mated (brother x

sister). The objective is for genetic purity or homozygosity.

b. Crossbreeding – mating of birds belonging to different strains. Test crossing

is necessary to predict how any of the strains will combine (nickability).
 c. Strain-crossing – mating of individual belonging to different breeds/varieties to
obtain heterosis or hybrid vigor.

d. Outbreeding/Upgrading – mating of less lonely related individuals to introduce

new blood. This usually increases the average performance of the nest
generation.

e. Reciprocal recurrent selection – a system of breeding to ensure a high degree

of heterosis as obtained in the crossing of inbred lines. It involves identification
of lines within a breed, which combines well together to give production better
than can be obtained in one strain alone.

Learning Activity
1.Students will conduct practical examination on selection of animals.

Learning Evaluation
1. Enumerate and discuss bases on selection.
2. Identify the common breeding systems used of poultry and livestock.

Reference

Lambio, A.A. 2010. Poultry Production in the Tropics. The University of the Philippines
Press, Diliman, Quezon City.

A Training Manual for Poultry Production. 1975. The Southeast Asian Regional Center
for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA) College, Laguna, Philippines.

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