BY THE SAME AUTHOR Merchant Ship Design ‘Merchant Ships ead Shipping (Both published by The Hutchinton Publishing Group Ltd.) Notes and Examples in Naval Architecture (Published by Baward Arnold (Publishers) Lea’) Naval Architecture (Published by Ernest Benn Ltd) Applied Naval Architecture (Pabtished by The Longman Group Ltd.) Ships and Naval Architecture ‘(Publushed by The disttute of Marine Engineers) ‘Merchant Ship Types (Published forthe Insthute of Marine Engineers hy Marine Media Management Lid.) NAVAL ARCHITECTURE For The MERCHANT NAVY EXAMS by R. MUNRO-SMITH, M.Sc., CEng, F.R.LN.A. ssesor ie Natal Sadie the Jon Commit or Nationa Cerca nd Diplomas Newiea! Sclence, Fermerly Senior Lectrer in Naval Archteture aad Shipbuilding 21 the Unieecsy of Newcwstesupon-Tyme and Lecurer In Naval Architecnure atthe University of Liernoot THE TECHNICAL PRESS OXFORDCoytight © 1975 by R. Munro-Saxith First Published 1975 ISBN 0 281 396771 Set in 11 on 12pt Times New Roman by EW: Arcowseatth Lid, Bristol BSS 2NT. Preface This book forms the third Part of a series of training mapuals whose overall purpose is to cover in text and illustration the syllabus of the ‘Depariment of Trade Examinations in the following subjects: (@)_ Mathematics, Applied Mechanics and Naval Archirecture for both the Second-Class and the First-Class Certificates of Competency (Engineer) in the British Merchant Navy; {) Mathematics, Ship Knowledge (Calculations) and Ship Stability for the Second Mate’s, First Mate’s and Master's Certificates of Com- petency. (The possession of a Second Mate’s Certificate qualifies a man 10 take charge of a watch. The First Mate's Certificate qualifies him {o run a ship and her cargo, and the Master's Cenifcate to command er.) The series as a whole covers almost exactly half the full syllabus of the examinations which must be passed by all Deck Officers and Marine Engineers in the Merchant Navy before they can assume the duties and responsibilities of their respective ranks in a merchant vessel at sea. Tn addition, the relevant volume in the series covers also the syllabus in Ship Knowledge (Calculations) and Ship Stability for the Ordinary National Certificate and Ordinary National Diploma in Nautical Science widely taken by deck cadets in the Merchant Navy. Chapters have been numbered consecutively throughout the series in order to facilitate its re-issue at a later date in single-volume form should a requirement for such a volume become apparent once the individual parts of the series have become as widely known as is hoped. In every Chapter throughout the series, the work begins at e fairly clementary level for the convenience of those who need tevisionary studies, but thereafter progresses to the required standard in every subject. The large number of Worked Examples given in the text should assist the student in applying the basic principles and formulae he will have learnt to the Test Questions set at the end of each Chapter. The Test Questions themselves are designed to be of the type and standard commonly encountered in the papetsset for the actual “exams”. Solutions to them are given in a separate Chapter at the end of cach Part, with the mathematical steps required to arrive at the solutions set Out in as much detail as scemed likely 10 be of value, bearing in mind especially the student working on his own at sea.vi Preface The book is expressed in SI metric centimetres—a metric unit of meas ich is widely used nautical calculations. ‘ure which is also widely used 1% Table of Contents (The Chapter rumidring rans consecutely with shar of the fist two Parts of the. Series, . MATUEAATICS onl AbvIGbD MECHANICS FOR Tus MERCIANT Nar "EXAMS respectzey. Chapter, DEFINITIONS OF TERMS: GENERAL HYDROSTATIC CALCULATIONS 16. TRANSVERSE STABILITY 17. TRIM 1 18, PROPULSION 5 19, RUDDERS 20. SOLUTIONS TO TEST QUESTIONS INDEXChapter 15 Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Calculations In the study of naval architecture, as of any other subject, itis essential to begin by getting a clear understanding of exactly what is meant by the various terms used. The following are some of the terms commonly employed, and their accepted abbreviations. ‘The Forward Perpendicular (F-P.) is an imaginary vertical line nor- mally taken through the intersection of the fore edge of the stem and the surmmer load line, ‘The After Perpendicular (A.P.) is an imaginary vertical line taken where the after side of the meets the summer load line (or, if there is no sternpost. at the centre of the cudder stock). ‘The Length Between Perpendiculars (L.B.P.) is the horizontal distance between the forward and after perpendiculars, Amidships is the point midway between the FP. and 4.P. Itis denoted by the symbol shown in Fig. 15.1 below. Fig. 15.1 The Summer Load Line is a line painted on the ship’s side whose upper edge indicates the maximum permissible draught of the ship in summer.32 Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Calculations ‘The Midship Section is the transverse section of the ship taken amid- ships. ‘The Breadth Moulded (B) is the ship's maximum breadth over the frames, measured amidships. ‘The Depth Moulded (D) is the ship's depth, taken amidships. from the top of the keel to the top of the deck beam at ship-side, The name of the deck to which the depth is measured must always be stated. ‘The Draught (H) of a ship is the distance of the lowest point of its keel below the waterline. Sheer is the term used to describe the longitudinal curvature given to decks, It is measured in terms of the difference in height of side at any given point above the height amidships. The sheer at the F-P. is usually twice the sheer at the 4.P., and it has zero value at amidships. Camber is the term uscd to describe the curvature, or round-up. given to decks. It is measured in terms of the increased height of the beam at centre. The standard camber is one-fiftieth of the breadth of the ship. ‘The Middle Line Plane, or the Plane of Symmetry, is the ship's principal plane of reference, The shape of the ship where it is cut by the plane of symmetry is known as the Sheer Plan or Profile. Waterplanes are imaginary planes taken at right angles to the middle line plane, about which they are always symmetrical. ‘The Heel of a ship is the amount of its inclination in the transverse direction. Itis usually measured in degrees. ‘The Trim of a ship is the difference between the draughts forward and aft. ‘The Freeboard is the vertical distance between the actual or permissible ‘waterline and the upper surface at side of the deck to which it is being measured, ‘The Bilge is the rounded area of plating situated between a ship’s vertical shell plating and its outer bottom plating. ‘The Tumble Home ofa ship is the amount by which its midship section falls in from the talf-breadth line. Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Calculations a3 ‘The Flare is the outward curvature of a ship's hull surface above the waterline, ‘The Rise of Floor in a ship is the amount by which the line of the outer bottom plating rises above the base line at the half-breadth line, ‘The Flat of Keel is the area of flat bottom plating situated on cither side of the middle line plane. Rake is a term used to describe the departure from the vertical of any line seen in profile, eg., a funnel, a mast or the stern contour. Yaw or Drift is a term used to describe a ship’s angular divergence from its mean course, taken in the horizontal plane. The Displacement of a ship is the amount of water “displaced” at any given instant by its hull. This quantity of water can be expressed either as a volume, as a mass or as a weight. The SI unit of volume being the cubic metre, the under-water volume of a ship is expressed in ‘m?, The displacement is expressed in tonnes, where 1000 ke = 1 tonne, In fresh water (commonly abbreviated F.W.), the volume | m> = 10° kg = I tonne, so that when a ship is floating in F.W. its displacement in tonnes equals its volume of displacement in m?. Sea-water (S.W.) has a mass density somewhat greater than that of fresh water, the relative densities being as follows: Mass Density of Fresh Water (F.W.) = 1000 kg/m* Mass Density of Sea-water (S.W.) = 1025 kg/m* It follows that in S.W. Displacement in Tonnes = Under-water Volume (m*) x 1.025 = Under-water Volume (m?) = 0.975 ‘Thus for 8.W., . 3 m? Tonnes = m? x 1.025 or = 0975 and m? = 708 gy = Tonnes x 0.975 1.025 ‘The consequences flowing from the difference in mass density between F.W. and S.W. are significant, and are further considered below. Since the volume of displacement of a ship depends on its draught,aa Definvions of Terms: General Hydrastaste Calewiations the displacement for a range of draughts can be calculated and plotted as a displacement curve such as the one shown in Fig. 15.2 Draught metres Displacement in tonnes Fig. 152 Buoyancy was seen in Chapter }3 to be the upthrust exerted by the water on a ship. and to be equal to the volume of displacement multiplied by the weight density of the water. In symbol, A = Pw Reserve Buoyaney, on the other hand, is the watertight volume of a ship above its waterline. Its reserve of buoyaney is one of the measures of a ship's ability to withstand the consequences of flooding after collision or other damage. Light Ship is the term used to describe the displacement of a ship when it is fully equipped and ready to proceed to sea, but before crew, passengers, baggage, stores, fuel, water or cargo are received on board. Deadweight is the difference beween a ship’s displacement at any ‘given draught and its “light ship” condition. The total deadweight is thus the difference between the load dis- placement and the light ship displacement, the toad displacement being taken as the displacement at maximum permitted draught. Total deadweight includes crew, passengers, baggage, stores. fuel, water and cargo. Form is an expression uscd to describe the general shape of a ship's hull. In discussions involving hull geometry, certain coefficients are useful in comparing the form of one ship with that of another. Some of these: coefficients are as follows: Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Calewlations 3s i 2 v hip's lock Coefficient (Cy) is the ratio of the volume of at diepncenent (P) to the valume of a rectangular block having the same length (L), breadth (B) and draught (H)as the ship. In formula, v Cea ip 150m long and 165m broad has a draught of EXAMPLE, | SP ip sorweser ‘of 12,500 tonnes. What is its black coefficient? vo 12,500 x 0.975 TBH ~ 150 = 165 x7 dent (Cp) is the ratio of the volume of dis- atm cot at a a he ship and a constant cross-sectional area equal to the are: jmmersed section (A,)- In formula, Pr a,x L ‘She Waterplane Area Coefficient (Cy) is the ratio of the area of il Je having the terplane to the area of the circumscribing rectangl een and ‘breadth as that of the waterplane, In formula, 703 Ce Cr Awe Cw TB lidshi i is the ratio of the immersed en on having a breadth equal to that of the ship and a depth equ 10 draught. In formula, An Bx Cu = ‘The Relationship between Block, Prismatic and ‘Midship Area Coefficients is as follows: Cy = Cp x Cy ‘The algebraic proof of this relationship is easy, using the formulae given above Cr * C= anxE “BxH ‘A reasonable approximation to the value of the waterplans area36 Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Caleutations coefficient (Cy) is given by the equation: C= Cy +01 EXAMPLE. A ship of 12,300 tonnes displacement in sea-water is 130 m long and 17.5 m broad, and has a draught of 7.25 m. The prismatic coefficient is 0.340. Determine the urea of the immersed midship section. 12,300 x 0.975 = Oe OTS *= 130 x 175 «725 ~ 77 and since Cy=Cex Cu, Cw = 0.865 ~ 0.840 Ay = 17S % 7.25 * 0.865 = 109.8 m? EXAMPLE. A ship has a displacement A in S.W. of 9000 tonnes. Its breadth is 1494 of its lengzh and 2.25 times its draught. The black coefficient is 0.75, Determine the breadth of the ship. Since and since B B-225H, H=5- 225 Now LX BX HX Cp= Ax 0975 B o Bx = gag <8 73g * 075 = 9000 x 0975 and pp = 2000 x 0975 x 75 684 B=1545m - Similar Figares Planes or bodies are said to be similar when their linear dimensions are in the same ratio. ‘The areas of similar figures vary as the square of their corresponding, Sion Figures a7 dimensions. Thus in two circles of diameter D and d respectively, ® 2 Area, = =p? a nae Peay a and Arca, a > Sinve $s constant the ratio of the two areas is Fy. The volumes of similar bodies vary as the cube of theit corresponding dimensions. Thus in two spheres of diameter D and d respectively, Volume, = pe and Volumes = 7a* n. Since & is constant, the ratio of the two volumes is jy. To apply these ratios to ships, let L — Length of ship, WS = Wetted Surface Area, and A = Displacement. Then AL’ or Abak and WS cL? or (WSL Thus (WS) oc AK, WS ce AY and A x (WS) ‘The corresponding speeds of similar ships vary in accordance with th v v speed-length ratios —— and —— ree ene aes In symbol, vo» vi vil Vic VJL ac Lt At EXAMPLE. A ship 118 metres tong has a displacement of 9600 tonnes, a weited surface area of 2350 m? and a speed of 14 knots. Determine (a) the displacement, (b) the wetted surface area and (¢) the corresponding speed of a.6 m model of the same ship. and Ay Ls \* 9600 1is}s @ Re (By BH Ag (Displacement of Model Ship) = 2° © — 1.26 tonnes 118°(b) ta} ° (b) ws." (Z WS, (Wetted Surface of Model) vie | We ) Hot =! VL ft 11s 6 2. 0 (Speed of Model) ~ 3.16 knots ‘Similar Ships When two ships of different size are nevertheless geometrically similar, the form coefficients Cp, Cp, Cy. Cy do not vary between them. Their displacement, of course, varies as L? and their linear dimensions vary as L. EXAMPLE, A ship 881m long and 105m broad has a draught of 475 m and a displacement in S.W. of 2600 tonnes. Determine the corres- ponding dimensions and draught of a geometrically similar ship of 3200 tonnes displacement. 2 gg 2600 _ 88° Ae k 0 88° x 3200 L 09 943m This calculation can be cross-checked backwards in the following way: V__ 2600x0975 _ sig CBH 88 x 105 x 475 But AL x Bx Hx Cy x 1.025 Which for the Larger Ship = 94.3 x 11.25 x 5.09 x 0.579 x 1.025 = 3200 tonnes ‘The Volume of Displacement 1. Areas of Waterplanes. If a curve be drawn on a vertical scale of draught in which the ordinates represent the areas of waterplanes, the area under the curve will represent the volume of displacement. ‘The centroid of this area is the vertical position of the centre of buoyancy (B) and is generally referted to the base. The height of the centre of buoyancy above the base line is abbreviated as KB. 2. Areas of Immersed Sections. If a curve be drawn in which the ordinates represent the immersed transverse sectional area of the ship ona base of length, the area under the curve will represent the volume of displacement. The centroid of this area is the longitudinal position of the centre of buoyaney, and is usually related to amidships. Tt is referred to as the L.C.B, Waterlines, abbreviated as W.L., are formed by the intersection of the surface of the ship with horizontal planes. EXAMPLE. The areas of a ship's waterplanes are as follows WL. 061 122 183 244 305 366 427m Area 50S 61S 685 740 785 825 860m* An appendage to the hull below the 0.61 WL. has a displacement of 218 tonnes with its KB at 0.38 m. Determine (a) the total displacement of the ship in S.W. to the 4.27 m waterline and (b) its KB. Levers About (@) WL. Area SM. Products 0.61WL. — Functions O61 SOS 1 505 0 — 122 615° 4 (260 1 2460 183 685 21370 2 2740 244 7400 4 2960 3 8880 305 78 21570 4 6280 366 825 4 «©3300 5 16,500 427 8600 I 860 6 3160 13,025 42,020 Displacement from the 0.61 m to the 4,27 m W.L. = 4x 061 x 13,025 x 1.025 = 2715 tonnesDisplacement below the 0.61 m WL. = 28 +. Total Displacement to the 4.27 m W.L. = 2933 tonnes {b) KB of Main Hull Between the 0.61 m and the 4.27 m W.L. 42,020 © 13,025 = 1.97 m above the 0.61 m W.L. = 2.58 m above base Now take moments about base. eee Displacement KB(m) Moment x 061 Main hull above 0.61 m WI. 2s 2.58 7005 Appendage below 0.61 m W.L. 2B 0.38 83 Totals to 4.27 m W.L. 2933 tonnes 7088 KB to 4.27 WL. EXAMPLE, | The immersed transverse sectional areas of a ship, taken at intervals of 6 m commencing at the after end, are as follows: Station O 1 20 3 4 5 6 7 8 Area = — 14.1 260 296 308 295 23.2 113 mt Determine (a) the volume of displacement, and (b) the longitudinal position of the centre of buoyancy relative to Station No. 4. eee Station Area(m?) S.M. Products Lever Function eee tion 0 ~ 1 — 4 ~ 1 141 4 564 3 169.2 2 260 2 520 2 104.0 3 29.6 4 1k 1 118.4 4 30.8 2 616 — 916A OR Station Area(m*) S.M. Products Lever Function 3 295 4 1180 1 118.0 6 23.2 2 46.4 2 92.8 7 118 4 472 3 M6 8g = 1 = 4 > 500.0 352.4 Forward 391.6 Aft 39.2 Aft (@) Volume of Displacement = 4 x 6 x 500.0 = 1000 m? (®) Longitudinal Position of Centre of Buoyancy (L.C.B.) 39.2 = ap X60 500 = 0.47 m abaft No. 4 Station Centre of Buoyancy As stated, this is the centroid of a ship’s immersed volume. Its position is defined by reference to: (a) Its vertical distance above the base (KB); and/or {b) Its longitudinal distance from amidships (L-C.B.) An approximation for the value of KB for 4 2ormal merchant ship is given by the equation; KB = 0.53 x Mean Draught tis given more accurately, either by Morrish’s Formula: YH PY se FP wasn a) eo where H = Draught, 7 = Volume of Displacement, and A — Area of Waterplane; Or by the equation: Cw KB We OtG lhe Waterplane Area Coefficient, and Cy — the Block where Cy Coefficient. hs The distance of the vertical centre of buoyancy below the waterline can be calculated as follows:ai Definitions of Terms: General Hydrastate Caledations V.CB, Below Waterline _~ Atea Between Displacement Curve and Draught Axis Displacement Shaded Arca in Fig, 15,3 Displacement 4 {Tonnes} 4 Im) Fic. 153, A (tenes) Note that if the curve of displacement is a cream parabola, the value of shaded area “A” is given. by the expression 4/7. he § EXAMPLE. The displacements of a ship areas follows for the waterlines : WL. Base 06 12 18 24 30 36 metres A 92 284 518 770 1050 1340 tonnes Determine the KB at the 3.6 m waterline. WL oA SM. f Bae — 1 06 2 4 368 12 2842 568 18 5184 (2072 24° 721540 ' 3.0 10504 = 4200 360 10 t 1340 10,088 ‘The Block Coefficient —A Convenient Approximation 33, Area Under Curve = 10,088 x $ x 0.6 = 2018 V.CB. below Waterline at 3.6m = 2218 = 51 . eat 3.6m — Tay = LSI ©. KB = 360 - 1.51 =2.09m ‘The Tangent to the Curve of KB. For every increment of displacement 5V and of draught SH, the centre of buoyancy will rise by an amount given by the equation: h pr Thus, Rise of B_ Ah tnd where A = Area of Waterplane, ht = Centre of Buoyancy below Water- line, and V = Volume of Displacement. A Un} KB [mn Fis. 154 ‘The Block Coefficient—A Convenient Approximation An approximate, but often convenient, expression to determine the biock cocfliciem brought about by u change in draught is the following: Cw — Ce ‘Change in Cp per metre of Draught34 Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Calculations EXAMPLE. Estimate the block coefficient at 4m draught if the Cy at the 7 m waterline is 0.80 and the Cy is 0.703. 0.80 - 0.703 _ 0.097 7 0.01386 Change in Cy per metre of Draught — Reduction in Cy for (7 — 4 =) 3m Draught x 0.01386 = 0.0416 .703 — 0.042 = 0.661 Cy at 4m Draught ‘Tonnes per Centimetre of Immersion (T.P.C.) This term is used to express the difference in displacement when the draught is uniformly increased or decreased by lem. It varies with different draughts, since it is dependent on the area of the waterplane at the draught under consideration. Sec Fig. 15.5. W tem = fom Fig. ISS Sinkage in em 100 TPC = Area of Waterplane in m? x x Density of Water = Awe x Ww » Density of Water In fresh water, Mass Density In sea-water, Aw Mass Density = 1.025 tonne/m? so T.P.C. = sO x 1.025 EXAMPLE, A ship 125 m long and 17 m broad has a waterplane area coefficient of 0.80 at the load draught. Determine the area of the load waterplane, and the T.P.C. at that draught in sea-water. Change of Water Density when passing from S.W. to FW. aus Area of Load Waterplane = L x Bx Cy 125 x 17 x 0.80 = 1700 m* 1700 rpc. = 12% x 102s = 1742 +00 tonnes EXAMPLE, A ship has a waterplane area coefficient at the load draught ‘of 0.80. The breadth of the ship is 0.135L and the T.P.C. at the load draught 174. Determine the length and breadth of the ship. Volume in Layer of Ship | em thick = T-P.C. x 0.975 So 1 LxB T= ITA x 0.97: x Ow x 795 x 0.975 and 1 L x O.135L x 080 x — = 17.4 x 0.975 Lx O80 x TE x = 125m B=0135 x 125 = 17m Change of Water Density when passing from 8.W. €0 F.WY. ‘A ship moving from sea-water to river water will be subjected to two forces: (a) a Parallel Sinkage, and (b) a Change of Trim. Parallel Sinkage ‘Since river water has a smaller weight density and is therefore less buoyant, the ship will sink deeper. Let ‘A = Displacement of Ship A = Area of Waterplane in W, = Density of River Water in kg/m? WwW, ensity of Sea-Water in ke/m? T ~P.C. = Tonnes per cm Immersion in Sea-Water Then aa Tx W, and Bae Equation 146 efiritins of Terns: General Hydrostatic Catelations and Equation 2 Therefore Equation’3 But J, — V, = Change of Draught in metres x Area of Waterptane in sm? fin 50) (¥— Vy x 100 Ay ©. Change of Draught in em = Equation 4 ‘Now substitute in Equation 4 the value for ¥; — V, determined in Equation 3, and W.-W) _ 100 nD y — Change in Draught in em see x Bauation 5 But since I TPO= T= Ax = B= 4x Tg Me Substitute this value for A in Equation 5, and ¥, (Change of Draught incm = x s ane rine = f=) ACW, = We) 2 Wx T, t EXAMPLE. Determine the change of draught when a ship of 10,000 4 tonnes displacement and TP.C. 15 passes from river water at 1008 kg/m* to seawater at 1025 kg/m? Decrease of Draught AW, — 0) WI, 10,000(1025 — 1008} 10,000 x 17 ons Te (Toa x 16 4 Alternatively, work out the change of draught: problem by another Change of Water Density when passing from S.W. to EW. a7 ‘method. Suppose a ship is passing from sea to river water, and let Displacement of Ship W, = Density of Sea-water Volume of Displacement in $.W. W, = Density of River Water and ¥% = Volume of Displacement in R.W. ‘Then since nothing else in the passing has changed, "! Meta Tewe and = Fn But since , ¥, The Volume of the Water Layer = F; — V, “This layer consists of water having a density of W y % . Displacement of Lager = Hx WI W,— = Al] i) The depth of this layer in centimetres is given by the expression above divided by the T.P.C. in water of density W,. So if the T.P.C. of this ship in W, water is known, and the formula is confirmed. Trim ‘This subject is more specifically covered in Chapter 17. Note generally. a8 Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Calculations ‘on the subject, however, that while it is comparatively easy to create formulae for charges in draught for specified changes of condition or to write rules which give direction of trim, it is always better to attack any given problem with a small diagram and a good understanding of what is actually taking place. ‘The Fresh Water Allowance is the amount by which it is permissible for the ship's loadline to be submerged when loading in water of relative density 1.000 in order that the ship may float at that loadline in sea- water of relative density 1.025. (It was agreed at the International Convention on Load Lines, 1966, that the relative densities for fresh water and for seawater should be taken as 1.00 and 1.025 respectively.) ‘Aformula for determining, in millimetres, the Fresh Water Allowance (F.W.A) in terms of a ship's T.P.C. and its sea-water displacement at summer draught can be worked out as follows. Express the ship’s Tength (L), breadth (B) and draught (H) in metres, and its waterplane area (A) in m?. Let T express its T.P.C. in mm; A, its fresh-water dis- placement at summer draught: and A, its sea-water displacement at the same draught. tis known that LBH x Cy x Density of Water = A in tonnes and that [A x FWA, 4 1.025 = A, |__| * + 1000 | 2SAp= A x FWA. Now 1 T=A x —* 1.02 Ax aay * 1028 So and 25M, x 1.025 _ Ay FWA =r apm Bilping and His Effects 319 Bilging and Its Eifects Even compartments of ships which arc open to the sea never fill completely with water, since some space is always occupied by internal structural members, machinery or cargo. The ratio of the volume which can in practice be occupied by water to the total gross volume of the space theoretically available is termed the ship's permeability, and is usually designated by the Greek letter g. Thus Available Space Total Space Fora normal machinery spuce, the value of y is about 85%. For hold spaces its value depends on the nature and amount of cargo in the compartment. Consider the theoretical case of an amidships compartment of a vessel of exactly rectangular cross-section being opened to the sea It is represented by the rectangle ABFE in Fig. 15.6. wy al | Ls aooen [LSS E F wy aA 8 ky Lost Ww c D BUOYANCY E F Fie. 156 Flooding causes the vessel to sink from W — L to Wy ~ Ly (the weight added to the ship by the entry of the water is represented by the rectangle ABFE, and the extra buoyancy required to support it by the long, shallow rectangle W, L,LW. To assess the added weight by reference to the ship's original depth AE, it is necessary first to estimate the position of the new waterline HW, — Ls, the method itself being known as the added weight method. ‘A superior approach is to consider the flooded portion CDFE as a loss of buoyancy which must be replaced by the added buoyancies W,ACW and BL,LD. The lost buoyancy CDFE is known precisely, since itis to the original waterline WL, and the additional buoyancy to320 Definition af Terms: General Hydeasiatie Caleutations W,L, can be determined from the T-P.C. of the waterplane excluding the portion AB, for the weight and buoyancy of the portion ABDC cancel out and the weight of the ship remains unchanged. This is known as the lost buoyancy method of calculating the effect of bilging. EXAMPLE. A vessel of rectangular cross-section is 90m tong and 43 m broad, and has a uniform draught of Sim. An amidships compartment 15 mong is bilged. Determine the new draught, The position is illustrated by the sketch diagram shown as Fig. 15.7, with x metres representing the distance between the old and new waterlines. 4 ae W ¥ ele Fig. 157 Volume of Buoyancy Lost = Volume of Damaged Compartment up to the Original Waterline = 15 «13x Sm? ‘Equation 1 New Buoyancy Gained by Sinkage = Area of Intact Waterplane x Sinkage in metres = (% — 15)13 x x Equation 2 Since the values in the two Equations must be equal, IS x 135 = 75 x 1x x 15x13 5 wx 71™ and ‘The New Draught = 5 +1 = 6m EXAMPLE, A ship 16 m broad floas at a uniform draught of 7 min S.W. An amidships compartment 18 m long kas a permeability of 0.85, Determine the new draught if this compartment becomes open to the sea, assuming there is no alteration to trim. The TPC. of the ship can be taken as 16. Te = Ava otanaplae x 7 1s Wetted Surface 321 100 x TPC. 100 x 16 1025 1.025 The permeability factor is best dealt with as follows. Instead of working with a compartment 18 m long having a permeability of 85%, it is generally more convenient to assume an equvalent empty length of 18 x = = 15.3 m,and to proceed as in the Example worked out above. Thus now, Intact Area of Waterplane + 156] — (15.3 x 16)m? = 1316m? Now let x = Increase in Draught in metres. Then Area of Waterplane = 1561 m? Intact Area x x = Volume of Buoyancy Lost to Original Waterline So 1316x = 15.3 x 16 x7 and 153 x 167 =e 30m New Draught = 7+ 1.30 = 8.30m Wetted Surface Ifthe half girths at stations are taken from keel to waterline and set out as acurve ona basé of length, the total area below the curve will be slightly less than the truc area because the fore and aft obliquity has been neg- lected. To compensate for this, an addition of about 2% will normally give reasonably accurate results. Frequently, however, the appropriate drawing of the form of the ship {its Lines Plan, as it is called) is not available, and recourse must be had to empirical formulae. Two reliable such formulae are those worked out by Messrs. Mumford and Taylor. The Mumford Formula = WS. = LILH + where WS, = Wetted Surface in m? L = Length of Ship in m H = Draught to Top of Keel in m V = Volume of Displacement in m?32 Defovtions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Calculations The Taylor Formula (modified for expression in S.1. units) WS. = 258 /E KE where A = Displacement of Ship in tonnes L = Length of Shi EXAMPLE, A ship 122m long and 12.2m broad has a draught 6.7 mand a block coefficient of 0.70. Determine the wetted surface Fi ne of the formulae given, and compare the results. By Munyjord v WS. = LILH + * A = (LT x 122 x 6.7) + (122% 122 x 67 x 0.70 67 = 1390 + 1042 = 2432 mt By Taylor A = 122 x 122 x 67 x 0.70 x 1.02: WS. = 2.58/B x L = 258 x /7156 x 122 = 2410 m? It will be scen that the results obtait sin fe sen that fained from use of the two formulae 7156 tonnes ‘The Centre of Flotation (CF) ‘The CF js the centroid of the waterph i | ‘ plane area. Given smail trim, all consecutive waterlines pass through the CF. anaes of foment a Head ona, Stipis Troved (say) forward, the draught is incrcased and decreased aft: but it will remain unchanged it of the centre of flotation. need atthe position ‘The Centre of Buoyancy (B) The centre of buoyancy is the centroid of th inderwater the ship. I is the point through which the total fores of buosewey wt The Metacentre (M} 335 assumed to act vertically upwards, and is generally defined by reference either to: (a) The KB, or Vertical Distance of B above Base; or to (b) The L.C.B,, or Longitudinal Distance of B from Amidships. ‘The Centre of Gravity (G) This is the point through which the total weight of the ship is assumed toact vertically downwards. It is generally defined by reference either to: (a) The KG, or Vertical Distance of G above Base; or to (6) The L.C.G, or Longitudinal Distance of G from Amidships. ‘The Metacentre (M) Consider a ship floating upright end freely at waterline WL (see Fig. 15.8) with its centre of buoyancy at B. ‘Now let the ship be steadily inclined (by some external force such as the wind) at a small angle from the upright to waterline W,L;, without change in its volutne of displacement. The centre of buoyancy for the new immersed shape is at By. Lines drawn through B and B, normel to their respective waterlines and produced intersect at M, which is known as the Metacentre of the ship. For small angles of heel (say, up to 10° to either port or starboard) the centre of buoyancy will be on an arc of radius BM with M asits centre.“EERO an Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Calculations ‘The Metacentric Height (GM) The distance GM in Fig. (5.8, which is the distance between the meta- centre and the centre of gravity of the ship, is known as the ship's Metacentric Height, When M is above G, the metacentric height is positive When G is above M, the metacentric height is negative ‘The Conditions Required for Stable Equilibrium Three conditions must be fulfilled before a ship can float freely and at rest in stable equilibrium, () The weight of the water it displaces must be equal to the total weight of the ship; (2) The centre of gravity G of the ship must be in the same vertical line as the centre of buoyancy B: and (3) The centre of gravity G of the ship must be below its transverse metacentre M. In other words, its metacentric height must be positive, _ Consider the ship inclined at a small angle from the upright shown in Fig. 158, where the upright and inclined waterlines intersect on the centre-line, Two equal forees are acting on the ship: (1) Weight, acting vertically down through the centre of gravity G: and. (2) Buoyancy,acting vertically up through the new centre of buoyancy By. Thus. when the ship is tilted over, these two forces are no longer acting in the same vertical line. Such a system of forces forms a couple. Draw GZ perpendicular to the vertical through B,. The equal forces act at a distance from one another equal to this line GZ. This distance is termed the arm of the couple, and the moment of the couple is A x GZ. The Fig, shows that the couple is acting to take the ship back towards the upright position, In this case, GZ, is said to be a righting arm (or lever), and A x GZ isa righting moment. ‘The angle of heel is shown as @ in Fig. 15.8; and since for small angles of heel (up to about 15°) the metacentre M remainsina virtually constant Position for those angles GZ = GMsino and the moment of the couple is A x GMsin® Shifts in Ship's Centre of Gravity 32s If M is above G, this moment tends to right the ship: and it can be said that the moment of statical stability at angle @is 6 x GM sin 8. Note, however, that this metacentric method of determining a shi stability, as itis called, can only be used if the angle of the ship’s inclina- tion to the upright is less tham about 15°. If G is above M, the couple will tend to take the ship further away from the upright, and a condition of instability will result. . TG and M coincide, both forces are acting in the same vertical line. Consequently there is no couple and the ship has no tendency to move either towards the upright of away from it. Its condition of stability is, then neutral, EXAMPLE. A ship of 12,500 tonnes displacement has a positive metacentriec height of 0.9 m. (The ship is then steadily inclined at an angle of 10°. Calculate its moment of statical stability (or tendency to return to the upright), Here A x GM sin # = 12,500 x 0.9 x 0.174 = 1958 tonne metre Shifts in a Ship's Centre of Gravity Shifts in a ship's G must be considered under three different conditions: (a) When loads already on beard a ship are moved: (6) When extra loads are put on board; and (©) When a load is discharged, (a) The Moving of Loads Already on Board ‘When a load already on board a ship is moved, the centre of gravity of the ship will move in the same direction as that in which the load is moved. There are four possibilities to be considered, (i) When 2 mass of W tonnes already on board is raised through some distance H metres, the G of the ship will be raised to a new position, G,, such that WH A GG, = — {metres where A is the displacement in tonnes. Since there is no change in the displacement or draught of the ship, there is no change in the position of the metacentre. Consequently the metacentric height will be reduced by an amount equal to GG, metres.3.26 Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Cateulations EXAMPLE. Ina ship with a displacement of 7300 tonnes, 110 tonnes of cargo are moved from the weather deck to the bottom of a hold. Tn the process, the centre of gravity of the cargo is moved through 7.5 m. Determine the change in the metacentric height. - WH _ 10x75 Movement of G of ship = GG, = —5~ = —aaqq~ = 013m ‘And since the G of the ship is lowered, the metacentric height is increased by 0.113 m. (i) When a load is moved forward ot aft, the vessel trims by the bow. ‘or stern respectively ; but the draught remains constant at the centre of flotation. The consequences of such a move are considered in Chapter 17. ‘When a Joad is moved transversely either from port to starboard or from starboard to port, the ship heels over to starboard or port respectively. EXAMPLE. Ina ship of displacement 12,200 tonnes, a load of 50 tonnes is moved transversely across the deck a distance of 14 metres. Determine the shift of the ship's centre of gravity. Let d metres be the distance the load is moved. Then Wxd_ 50x14 A 12,200 Shift of G = = 0.0573 m = 5.73 om ‘The further consequences are considered in Chapter 16. When a load is moved both vertically and horizontally, it becomes necessary to caloulate separately the vertical and horizontal movements of the centre of gravity, (iv) When a weight already on board a ship is suspended—as when a load is moved with the aid of a ship's derrick, the consequences are best explained by means of an Example. EXAMPLE. A ship of 1000 tonnes displacement has a GM of 0.3 m. ‘A derrick lifts a load of 6 tonnes from the bottom of the hold, the point of Suspension being 181m above the cenire of gravity of the load as it lay on the bottom of the hold. The load is swung out until the point of suspension is 6 metres out athwartships from the mast. Determine the angle of heel produced. When the load is lifted just clear of the hold bottom, its centroid is effectively raised through 18 m. Therefore the G of the ship is raised $18 _ gi08m. Thus the effective GM becomes (0.30 — 0.108) = 0.192 m. ps in \ ‘Shifts in a Ship's Centre of Gravity 327 ‘The load is then moved transversely 6 metres so that the G of the ship is. 6x6 moved transversely = 0.036 m. The resulting position is shown in 1000 Fig. 159. “ 6 66, = 0-108m SPT Se G6) = 0-036m ¢ GM = 0-192 m Fic 189 Let 6 be the angle of heel produced. Then 36 0.192 For a load already on board, the general rule for the movement of the G of the ship can be stated as follows: tan @ = = 0.1875 and 0 = 10°37 Load in tonnes x Distance Load is Moved in metres Displacement of Ship in tonnes Shift of G (6) The Addition of Extra Weight to the Ship Itis to be assumed that the added load causes only a moderate change of draught. Assume, next, that when a load of W tonnes is placed on board, it is placed at the centre of flotation. This will cause 2 paraliel sinkage equal to W = T-P.C. Then assume it is moved longitudinally to its final position. The resulting change of trim is considered in Chapter 17. ‘The general rule is illustrated in Fig. 15.10, and is as follows: Load Added x Distance from Original G of Ship Initial Displacement + Load Added (©) The Discharge of Weight from Ship When @ load is discharged from a ship, the G of the ship will move away from the load. The rule is: Shift of G = Load Discharged x Distance from Original G of Ship Initial Displacement — Load Discharged Shift of G3.28 Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Caleulations ° aan CoA 1 et 1 mah. gig xed COs Rew So" Rew Fre. 15.10 EXAMPLE. A ship of 15,500 tonnes displacemem discharges 600 tonnes of cargo. The cenire of gravity of this cargo when it was on board was 25 metres forward of, and § metres below, the ship's centre of gravity. Determine the shift of the contre of gravity of the ship. 600 x 25 Shift of G AR = Toy —Fpg = 1-007 m 600 x 5 Rise of G = T5569 — gog 7 O20t m Further consequences of discharging a load {rom a ship are considered in Chapter 17. Pressure on an Immersed Arca “The pressure exerted by a fluid on any immersed plane surface acts indirection normal to the surface itself, and is equal to the product of the weight per unit volume of the fluid, the area of the immersed surface and the distance of the centroid of the immersed area below the free surface of the fluid. Facts to remember when estimating the total pressure on an area such as a bulkhead, where the head varies at different points, include the following: Total Pressure in newtons = Area in m? x Average Pressure per m* = Arca in m? x Pressure at Centroid of Area Pressure at Centroid of Arca = Head at Centroid x Specific Weight of Liquid in N/m? The Centre of Pressure 32 In formula, P= Haw where P = Total Pressure in N_ H = Depth of Centroid of Area from surface of fluid in m A = Immersed Area in m? w = Specific Weight of the fluid in N/m? EXAMPLE. A double-bottom ballast tank 18m long, 121m broad and 125 m deep is filled with sea-water to a height of 9m in the stand pipe, Determine (a) the intensity of the pressure on the tank top; (B) the total pressure on the tank top; and (c) the intensity of the pressure on the bottom of the tank. Work from the formula P = HAw @ P=9Xx1x 1025 x 981 = 90,520 .N/m? by P = 90520 x Area of Tank Top = 90,520 x 18 x 12 = 19,550,000 'N = 19.55 MN {eo} P= (9 + 1.25) x 1 x 1025 x 9.81 = 103,100N/m? EXAMPLE. A vertical rectangular bulkhead 8 m wide has fresh water on one side of it to a depth of 6.5m. Determine the total pressure of the water on the bulkhead. Again work from the formula P = HAw 5 P= x8 x 65 x 1000 x 981 2 = 1.658 x 10°N = 1.658 MN ‘The Centre of Pressure This is the point at which the entire pressure on an immersed arca can be considered to be acting, being the point at which the resultant of all the pressures acts. It is thus the centroid of the pressure diagram.3.30 Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Caleulations The centre of pressure on a vertical rectangular bulkhead with the fluid surface at the top of the bulkhead is illustrated in Fig. 15.11 Water surface PRESSURE DIAGRAM. Fig. {5.11 Consider the case of a vertical rectangular bulkhead 6m wide and 7.5m deep, loaded on one side to the top edge with sex-water. Let a = Area of a Narrow Strip across the Bulkhead, in m* h = Vertical Distance from the Free Surface of the liquid to the strip, in m w = Weight of the Liquid, in N/m? Then, Intensity of Pressure on Strip in N/in? = hw and ‘Total Pressure on Strip in N = hwa Since the total area of the bulkhead can be thought of as consisting of a number of such strips (a, .a2, ag, etc) at distances of hy, hy, hy, tC. from the fluid surface respectively, then Total Pressure on surface of bulkhead = hyway + hywa, + byway +... etc (hay + hyaz + hgdy +... ete.) = w(First Moment of Entire Area about Fluid Surface) The Centre of Pressure 331 But this First Moment = Total Area x Distance of Centroid of Area from Fluid Surface Total Pressure = w x Moment of Area about Fluid Surface and P = HAw, as was seen above In the case cited, 1S # =375m and 4=6x75= 45m? So total pressure on bulkhead (HAw) = 3.75 x 45 x 1025 x 9.81 = 1,697,000 N = 1.697 MN Ithas been seen that the pressure on a single strip (a) of the bulkhead is ‘awa newtons. Therefore the Moment of Load on each strip wa x and The Total Moment of all such Loads a, wa, x hy) + (nga % fa} + (way hg) +... ete = wash} + ah} + ash} +... ete) = w x Second Moment of Area and Total Load= w x First Moment of Area ©. Centre of Pressure Moment of Load ~~Total Load _ wx Second Moment of Area ‘w & First Momient of Area _ Second Moment of Area (or I) Fitst Moment of Area ‘The Second Moment of Area can be calculated by using the Theorem of Parallel Axes explained in Chapter 7, where it was seen that Too = To + Ay? or Ig = loo — Ay*an Defitons of Terms: General Hydrostatic Calculations I, I, + Ay? Contre of Pressure from 00 = 22 = © ay Ay aie Av de Ay Ay Ay Ina rectangle, BD Tabout one edge = 3 and DBD? ‘The First Moment of Area about the sume edge = BD x 5 = —~ So for a vertical rectangular bulkhead having a fluid surface at its top edge, BD 2 2 The Centre of Pressure (CP) = —— x pz = 3D from top In the Example of the 6 m x 7.5m bulkhead given above, CP = BD from top =} x 7.5 = Sm from top or = 2.5 m above base Pressure on a Triangular Bulkhead ‘On a triangle with its apex at the bottom, the centre of pressure acts at half-depth, EXAMPLE, A fore-peak bulkhead is 9 m deep and 8 m wide at the top, tapering uniformly 0 a widih of 2m at the bottom, Determine the total (force in the bulkhead when the fore-peak tank is full of sea-water. ‘This problem can be resolved in either of two ways, but both begin by dividing the bulkhead into a rectangle plus two triangles which together can be takenas forming.a single isosceles triangle, See Fig. 15.12. w Pressure on Rectangle = Aw x 9x2 x 1025 x 981 = 814,600N x $x 6x 9 x 1025 x 9.81 = 814,600 N Pressure on Triangle = Hydrastatie Curces . 333 ftp 4 Wh om Fie. 15.12 <. Total Pressure on Bulkhead = 1,629,200 N = 1.629 MN OR Gi) Determine the centroid of the entire bulkhead area. Position of Centroid Area(m*) from Top, in metres Moment Rectangle (9 2) 18 4s aI Triangle (} x 6 x 9) 0 3.0 81 45 162 62 Centroid of Bulkhead Area = = = 3.6m {from top of bulkhead and total Pressure on Bulkhead (HAw) = 3.6 x 45 x 1025 x 9.81 = 1,629,200 N = 1.629 MN, as above Hyérostatie Curves Many of the concspts considered in this Chapter can be grouped together a set of hydrostatic curves. Such curves can be plotted toau Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Caleutations show how each of the following vary as the draught of the ship varies: (0) The Displacement (2) The Vertical Centre of Buoyancy (3) The Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy (4) The Centre of Flotation {5) The Transverse Metacentre (6) The Longitudinal Metacentre (7) Tonnes Per Centimetre of Draught (8) The Moment Required to change Trim one centimetre (9) The Coefficients of Form Cp, Cp, Cy and Cw With the possible exception of No. 8, all these concepts are dependent on the shape of the underwater form of the ship, and are independent of its loading or of the position of its centre of gravity, They are therefore important basic curves which will always apply to a given ship. Typical hydrostatic curves are shown in Fig, 15.13. ‘The remainder of this Chapter covers subjects which are included in the syllabus for the First-Class examination only. It need therefore not be studied in depth by students preparing for the Second-Class exuminations, though at least a perusal of the matters covered is recommended. ‘The Effect of Free Water Surface (e.g. in Slack Tanks) “The general rules governing a ship’s stability are based on the assump- tion that her centre of gravity and all that is on board her remain in the same position while the ship is being inclined. In practice, this is not always the case, The ship may be carrying a liquid, either as cargo, fuel, fresh water or water ballast. Provided a given tank is completely full, the liquid in that tank will have no other effect on the ship’s stability than that of a solid body of the same weight occupying the same space. But if the liquid in a tank has a “free” surface such that the angle ofslope of the liquid surface can change as the ship is inclined, the disposition of the liquid in the tank, and ‘consequently the position of the centre of gravity, will change as the ship is inclined. In other words, a compartment which is only partly filled with liquid permits a free susface to be set up within the compart ment. “The effect of such free surfaces is to reduce the effective value of the metacentric height (GM). The amount of liquid involved does not affect the result—only the moment of inertia of the free surface. "The problems that arise are considered in Chapter 16. Hydrostar Curves [sana] ry6n0q Fig. 15.13, 3353.36 Definitions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Calculations ‘The Shearing Forces acting on Bulkhead Stiffeners A bulkhead stiffener supports a rectangle of plating the area of which is equal to the length of the stiffener multiplied by the spacing of the stiffeners from one another. If the bulkhead has a fluid on onc side to its top edge, the stiflener supports a pressure P which increases uniformly from zero at the top to a maximum at the bottom. The situation is illustrated in Fig. 15.14. Rr L . L 3 — wt Fey 154 L Ws (where W = ws) The pressure acts “at the centre of pressure, which is at a point QL 7 from the top of the bulkhead. Let the reactions at the top and bottom of the bulkhead be Ry and Ry respectively, and take the moments about the top, Rex bL=P xe Ra=4P and Rp=4P The shearing force at a distance x from the top of the bulkhead is the reaction at the top less the pressure at x from the top, or the area of the pressure diagram from this point to the top. In formula, The Shearing Forces acting on Bulkhead Stiffeners 337 SF at bottom = WE _ WE? WL WL 6 2b 6 2 WL 6 But since _WL "32 WL =2P and {SF at bottom = — AP a“ vs Se Fie. 1515 ~4P As will be seen in Fig. 15.15, there is a point at which the shearing force is zero, This is also the position of maximum bending moment.3.38) Defintions of Terms: General Hydrostatie Calculations Let SF = 0 in Equation J. Then and EXAMPLE. A bulkhead 9 metres deep and supported by vertical stiffeners 0.75 m apart is flooded with sea-water on one side to the top of the bulkhead. Determine the shearing force at the top and bottom, and the position of the zero shear. Pressure on stiffeners = wh 1025 x 981 x 9.0 x 0.75 x ¥ = 306MN <. Shearing Force at Top = $ x 306 = 102 MN Shearing Force at Bottom = } x 306 = 204 MN and Zero Shear is at TEST QUESTIONS 1. The areas of the immersed sections of a. ship taken at intervals of 15 m are as follows: 0, 27.8, 51.0, 69.5, 74.0, 74.0, 65.0, 37.0, 0m*, Deter- mine the displacement in tonnes. 2. Aship 120 m long and 16.5 m broad has a draught of 7.5m and a displacement in sea-water of 10,500 tonnes. The area of the immersed ‘idship section is 117 m2. Determine (a the ship's prismatic coeficient; and (6) the block coefficient. ‘The Shearing Forces acting on Bulkhead Stffeners a3 3. The halfbreadths of the load waterplane of a ship, taken at intervals of 6 m, are as follows: 0, 3.70, 4.27, 4.57, 4.57, 4.54, 3.67, 1.92, 0 ‘metres. Determine (a) the area of the load waterplane; (6) the T.P-C.; and (¢} the load waterplane area coefficient. 4. The T-P.C. values of a ship at the 3.5, 4.75 and 6.0m waterlines are 17.1, 18.1 and 18.3 respectively. Determine the displacement between the 3.5 and 6.0 m waterlines. 5, The T-P.C. values of a ship are as follows: Draught = 75° 625° 50 3.75m TPC. 116 162146128 Determine the mass required to increase the ship's draught from 5.5 10 5.75 m. 6. “A ship of displacement 2600 tonnes has a breadth 0.12 of its length and 2.2 times its draught. The block coefficient is 0.58, Determine the ship’s breadth. 7. Bilge keels of mass 40 tonnes and volume 26m* are added to the hull of a ship whose T-P.C. is 20. Determine the change in the ship's ‘mean draught which ensues. 8 Aship whose breadth is one-eighth of its length has a load water- plane area coefficient of 0.68. The T.P.C. at the load line is 6.75. Deter- mine the length and breadth of the ship. 9, A ship of 9500 tonnes displacement has a weited susface area of 2350m? and a spced of 14 knots. Determine (a) the wetted surface area and (b} the speed of a similar ship of 3500 tonnes displacement. 10. The characteristics of two similar ships are related as follows: Ship A Ship B Displacement A A 6000 tonnes Wetted Surface 2s Sar Determine the displacement of Ship B. 11. A ship of 15,200 tonnes displacement has a T.P.C. of 18.5. It leaves river water at 1004 kg/m? and moves into sea-water whose density is 1024 kg/m?. Determine the change in the ship's mean draught. 12.” A ship of 7150 tonnes displacement having a T.P.C. of 14.3 passes from sea-water into river water of density 1005 kg/m. There is * an increase in draught of 9.95 cm. Determine the density of the sea-water the ship has just left. ; 13. A vessel of rectangular cross-section 75m long, 10.5m in ». breadth and 4.6m deep floats at a uniform draught of 3.65 m. A 15- [° metre-long. compartment amidships having a permeability of 0.60 is hholed below the waterline. Determine the resulting draught of the ship.340 Definivions of Terms: General Hydrostatic Caleutations 14. While a ship is passing from sea-water of density 1025 kg/m? to river water of 1003 kg/m? her deadweight is reduced by 200 tonnes, but her mean draught remains unchanged. Determine the ship's dis- placement in river water. 15. The transverse half-girths of a ship to the load line, taken at equidistant intervals, are as follows: 2.3, 7.4, 10.4, 11.7, 12.5, 12.5, 12.5, 11.0, 8.4, 4.3, 0m. The ship is 105 m long. Determine the wetted surface area, allowing 3% for appendage area and for longitudinal curvature. 16. Ina ship of 7300 tonnes displacement 100 tonnes of cargo are moved from the deck to a hold. In this operation, the centroid of the cargo is moved 7.5 metres. Determine the effect on the metacentric height. 17. A ship’s double-bottom tank forms a rectangle 2] m long and 15.5m broad, and contains oil of relative density 0.9. The oil overflows from an air pipe 45m above the deck, which is itself 12 m above the tank top. Determine (a) the total load on the tank top sand (4) the inten- sity of pressure, in kilonewtons per square metre. 18. A vertical bulkhead of rectangular form, 9m wide and 8.5m deep, has sea-water on one side of it only to a depth of 6.5 m. Calculate (o) the pressure at the bottom of the bulkhead; and (6) the total load on the bulkhead, 19. A ship at a load draught of 7.65 m has a Cy of 0.8 and a Cy of 07. Determine the total deadweight of the ship if jts light-ship Cw placement is 3460 tonnes. Assume that A = CH", where n C= 1240. . ‘The remaining Test Questions set for this Chapter cover problems encountered in the syllabus for the First-Class Certificate, and need not be attempted by those preparing for the Second-Class Certificate only. 20. An oil fuel tank 5m long has a uniform cross-section given by ordinates 0.6 m apart commencing at the top, as follows: 5.2, 4.6, 40, 3.3.2.3, 1.6, 0.9 metres. Determine (a) the maximum mass of oil the tank can hold at 1.13 m*/tonne: and (6) the centroid of the oil above the base of the tank. 21. The areas of successive waterplanes of a ship, taken at intervals of I'm from keel to load waterline, are as follows: 0, 76.5, 98.0, 113.0, 123.0, 130.0, 135.0m?, Determine (aj the displacement of the ship in sea-water ; and (b) the value of the KB at the load draught. 22. ‘The displacement curve fr a given ship isa parabola satisfying the equation H? = cA, where H is the draught, A the displacement ant, ca constant. Determine the KB when H = 6 metres. ‘The Shearing Forces acting om Bullhead Stifemers 341 23, A ship 130m long and 18.75 m broad has a draught of 8.75 m, a displacement of 14,000 tonnes and a T.P.C. of 18. Calculate the displacement at 7.25 m draught, given that A = cH" where A is the dis- placement, H the draught, m= & and c is a constant. * 24, The T.P.C, of a ship taken at waterlines 0.91 m apart from load- line to keel are as follows: 17.0, 164, 15.4, 14.1, 12.1, 9.2 and 0. (a) Deter mine the displacement and KB at the load line, and (6) compare the latter with the value of the KB calculated by using the Morrish Formula: sH 25, A ship 122m long and 17.8 m broad has a draught of 6.4m, a displacement of 9900 tonnes, a T.P.C. of 18 and a KB of 3.5m. Estimate the displacement and KB at 3.6 m draught, given the following data: ‘Change in Cy per metre of draught = Slope of KB curv where Ay = Area of waterplane; H = CB from waterline; and P = Volume of displacement. 26. A waterplane 48 m long has the following values for the balf- ordinates taken at equal intervals from the 4.P. Station AP 1 2 3 4 5 EP. Half-Ordinates 076 26 38 43 40 29 ~~ metres Determine (a) the area of the waterplane:; (b) the T-P.C. ; (¢) the position ofthe centre of flotation relative to amidships :and(d) the second moment of area about 2 transverse axis through the centroid. 27. A barge of rectangular cross-section 30m Jong, 3m broad and 3m deep which floats in river water of density 1005 kg/m? at a uniform draught of 1.5m is towed into sca-water of density 1025 kg/m?, An amidship compartment 3m long and of 100% permeability is holed below the waterline. Determine the resulting draught of the barge. 28. A vessel whose T.P.C. is 25 and displacement 14,000 tonnes ‘at her summer marks in sea-water is loading at a river port in water of density 1010 kg/m. The upper edge of the summer mark is 8 cm above ‘the waterline on the starboard side and 4 cm submerged on the port side. Determine the mass of cargo which must be loaded for the ship to ride at her summer marks in sea-water of density 1025 kg/m*.342 Definitions of Terms: General Hydrestatie Calculations 29. To a ship of 4100 tonnes displacement having a KG of 7.35m the following changes of condition are applied before sailing: Cargo Added 800 tonnes with KG of 3.65 m 600 tonnes with KG of 4.25 m 400 tonnes with KG of 6.70 m Ballast Removed 300 tonnes with KG of 0.60 m Ifthe ship's KM in the departure condition is 7.25 m, determine (a) the metacentric height at departure; and (b) the moment of statical stability at 8° heel, 30, A ship of 7800 tonnes displacement has a load of 70 tonnes on deck. A derrick whose head is 10.5 m above the centroid of the load lifts it and places it in the hold 9m below the deck and 12 m forward of its original position. Determine the shift in the ship’s centre of gravity when the load is (a) just clear of the deck; and (6) in its final position 31. A rectangular oil-fuel bunker bulkhead is 9m wide and 13m deep. The oil has a relative density of 0.9, Determine the total load and the position of the centre of pressure above the base (a) when the oil fills the bunker: and (b) when it extends up the air pipe to a height of 3m above the top of the bunker. 32, A watertight bulkhead of triangular form is 7.5 m wide at the top, and 8 m deep. Determine the load on the bulkhead, and the position of the centre of pressure below the top of the bulkhead, when it is flooded with sea-water on one side (a) to the top edge; and (b) with head of 4m above the top edge. ‘33. A vessel 105m long has 2 constant parabolic section 12m broad at deck level and 9m deep. The vessel, which floats on an even keel with the vertex down, has a displacement in sea-watcr of 3213 tonnes. Determine the draught. 34. A pontoon of circular cross-section, 11 m long and of external diameter 4.5m, floats in fresh water at a uniform draught of 1.25 m. Determine (a) the displacement of the pontoon; and (4) the maximum lift it can exert Chapter 16 Transverse Stability The conditions which must be fulfilled for a ship to float freely and at rest in stable equilibrium were stated in the last Chapter. The metacentric method of estimating a ship’s initial stability was there described, as was the procedure to be followed to find the position of the centre of buoyancy B above the keel when the underwater form of the vessel is known. It remains to be seen how the distance of the transverse meta- centre M of a ship above its B is obtained. This distance is called the ship's BM. ‘The Calculation of a Ship's BM The distance between the centre of buoyancy and the transverse metacentre is equal to the moment of inertia of the waterplane about the centre-line, divided by the under-water volume of the ship. Thus d BM = , where I = M.L, of Waterplane in m*, and P = Volume of Displacement in m’. EXAMPLE, A ship of 19,300 tonnes displacement in sea-water is ‘floating at a waterplane with a transverse moment of inertia of 73,800 m*. ta this condition, the ship's KB is 4.58 m and its KG 7.94 m. Determine the transverse metacentric height, GMz, of the ship. Make a rapid sketch of the four relevant points on a vertical plane through the centre of the ship, as in Fig. 16.1. of Fre. 1631a4 Transverse Stability ‘Then calculate the BM from the known formula I 73.800 ¥ ~ 19,300 x 0975 ‘Then 2 GMy = 056m The Inctining Experiment It is compulsory for every new passenger ship and cargo ship (other than exact “repeats” of @ particular type) to be inclined as soon as it is, completed in order chat the elements of its stability may be established. The immediate purpose of the experiment is to determine the meta- centric height GM. The ultimate purpose is to ascertain the height of the centre of gravity for a defined condition of the ship, which is always its light-ship condition. ‘The value of the metacentric height is obtained directly from the experiment; and since the height of M can be calculated from the ship's, geometry, the height of the centre of gravity KG can be obtained from the formula KG=KM-GM The KG can be calculated for a wide variety of ship conditions pro- vided it is accurately known for onc precisely defined condition. It is to provide this basic knowledge that the /nclining Experiment is carried ‘out, Its purposes are to determine the displacement of the ship and the position of its centre of gravity in an accurately known condition. It is usually carried out when the ship is as nearly complete as possible during the building operation, Certain essential precautions must be taken if the inclining experiment is to have any real value. They arc as follows: (Q) Before the experiment begins, a survey must be made of all the items to come off the ship, and of all the loads to go on or be shifted on board it, together with the centre of gravity of each, ‘before the ship can be brought to the desired condition, Analysis of Experimental Results as 2) All main tanks should be either empty or pressed full, and all small service tanks should be at working level. (3) The ship should be made free to incline, with gangways off and moorings slack. (4) A fine day with no wind should be chosen (5) The ship should be exactly upright at the beginning of the experiment (6) All loose items such as derricks and lifeboats must be secured. (7) Draughts both forward and aft should be read, and the density of the water taken. (8) The pendulums used should be as long as possible, for the read- ings to be taken are often also used as a check on the stabilo- graph (see below). The experiment is normally initiated by moving a known mass across the deck under controlled conditions, and noting the resulting angle of heel. This angle is measured either by two pendulums hung forward and aft in the ship (rigged usually through a line of hatches), or by an instrument called a stabilograph which records the movement of the ship directly in degrees. The angles are kept small, usually in the region of 3*, 0 as to remain proportional to the heeling moment, and the pen- dulum bobs are often immersed in water or oil so as to damp down their motion. ‘The pendulum swings in front of a batten fixed athwartships, as shown in Fig. 16.2, and it is along the edge of this batten that the de- ficction of the pendulum is measured. Ms | e W 6 L w y Fie. 162 ‘Analysis of Experimental Results Consider the movement of w tonnes over a distance of d metres in a ‘vessel such as that illusirated in Fig. 16.3. The shift of mass will cause the6 Transverse Stability centre of gravity G to move parallel to the movement of w to a new position G,,, and the distance wxd G6, will then equal " * He. 163 Since GG, is normal to the centre-line plane of the ship, GG, _wxd “tand Atand where 0 is the angle of heel in degrees. If the movement of each pendulum, of length L, is measured as y on a horizontal batten, then y e=2 tan d= 7 ‘The displacement can be determined from the measurements of draught and water density. EXAMPLE, When a mass of 20 tonnes is shifted transversely 17m across a ship's deck, the swing of a pendulum 6m long is 205 cm, The ship's displacement is 10,700 tonnes, and its KM 7.1 m, Before the vessel ‘can be completed, a generator of mass 100 tonnes has to be installed with its KG at 3m. The KG of the inclining mass is at 9.5m. Determine the ship’s KG in the light-ship condition. Hose The Free-Surface Effect aa Sketch the situations, and caleulate that 20.5 tan @ = == = 0034 Then wd 20 x 17 OM = and ~ 10,700 x 0034 So KM =7.1m GM = 0.94 KG = 6.16 mas inclined Now calculate the moments about base. Mass in tonnes KG in metres Moment 10,700 6.16 65,900 ON 100 3.0 300 10,800 66.200 OFF 20 95 190 10,780 66,010 66,010 It follows that the light-ship KG = = 612m 10,780 ‘The remainder of this Chapter covers subjects which are included in the syllabus for the First Class examination only. ‘They need therefore not be studied in depth by students pre- Paring for the Second Class examinations, though at least a Perusal of the matters covered is recommended. ‘The Free-Surface Effect In the calculation of the value of the metacentric height GM of a ship, a correction may have to be made for the presence of free surfacesa8 Transverse Stability in double-bottom or other tanks. The effect of free surfaces, as was seen in Chapter 15, is to reduce the value of the GM, The amount of fluid involved (it was also scen) does not affect the result—only the moment of inertia of the free surface. Calculation of the free-surface effect is further complicated by the fact that a ship carries tanks containing several different kinds of liquid, such as fresh water for domestic purposes and boilers, sea-water for ballast, and fuel and lubricating oils of more than one different type. Allowance must always be made for the fact that the density of these liquids is often not the same as that of the water in which the ship itself is floating Since the presence of free surfaces reduces the value of GM, it can equally well be said that the centre of gravity G of the ship is raised to G,. ‘The distance GG, (or the ship’s loss in GM) can be calculated by the formula GG,=4% % Ps where i = the Transverse MLL. of each Free Surface about its Own Middle Line F = the Volume of Displacement of the Ship br = the Density of the Liquid having a Free Surface ps = the Density of the Water in Which the Ship is Floating. If the uid in the tank in question is of the same density as the water in which the ship is floating, the formula can of course be simplified to the form Assuming the tank to be rectangular, of length L and of breadth B, then LB? 12 When the tank in question has a watertight sub-division slong its ‘contre line, there are in effect two tanks, each of breadth 5, whose loss of The Free-Surface Effect | GM is calculated by the formula Loss of GM = where i = Momentia of Inertia of the Undivided Tank, A the fluid in the tank is anyching other than the fluid in which the ship is floating, the loss of GM is obtained by multiplying the above expres- sion by PF s 1 will be seen that a divided tank has the great advantage that the loss ‘of GM caused by the free-surface effect is only a quarter of what it would otherwise be. Furthermore, if the rectangular tank be subdivided by two horizontal divisions so as to produce three tanks in the ship's width, each of breadth z thea Loa Le eixed 088 of GM = 5 x Where i = Moment of Inertia of the Undivided Tank. EXAMPLE. A ship of 8000 tonnes displacement has a metacentric height of 0.68 m when its double-bottom tank (15 m long, 13 m broad and 1.2m deep) is full of oil of density 0.9. in this condition the KG of the ship : is 68 m,Oil from the tank is used. Assuming that the ship's metacentre| s Femains constant, determine the GM when the tank is half-full. Oil Used = 15 « 13 = 0.6 x 0.9 = 105 tonnes Loss of GM Due to Consumption of Oit = 105(6.8 — 0.9) 5% Sono Tas" 105 x 59 7895, = 0.0785 mas0 Transverse Stability Loss of GM Due to Free Surface Effect 7895 x 0.975 Total Loss of GM.= 0.0785 + 0.3131 = 0,392m. Resultant GM = 0.68 — 0.392 = 0.288 m If the tank had been subdivided once, the result would have been: Resultant GM = 0.68 — (o07s + 8) = 0.68 — 0.156 ~ 0.524m ‘The advantage of the divided tank is clear. “we ‘Large Angles of Inclination It was shown in Chapter 15 that for smail angles of inclination: (1) The upright and inclined waterlines intersect on the centre-line; (2). The metaceatre M remains in the same position; (3) The initial stability is measured by the metacentric height GM; and (4) For angles up to about 15°, the righting lever GZ is given by the equation GZ = GM x sin@, When the angle of inclination becomes large, as in Fig, 16.4, the following changes occur: + (1) ‘The upright and inclined waterlines no longer intersect on the centreline. (2) The metacentre M does not remain in the same position. (3) Since it is now necessary to measure stability in terms of the righting lever GZ, the equation GZ = GM x sin@ no longer holds good. When the angle of given by the expression: ilination becomes large, the righting lever is (Cross Curves of Stability 351 where b= Volume of Immersed Wedge (which is also the volume of the Emerged Wedge) hh, = Horizontal Distance between the Centroids of the Two Wedges and V = Volume of Displacement This equaticn is known as Atwood’s Formula. The difficulty of the formula is that quantification of the expression vx ith, involves a good deal of caleulation. Since G depends on the loading of the ship and is not a fixed position, it is convenient to adopt an arbitrary fixed position for K and its per- pendicular distance KN from the line of action of the buoyancy force (ef. Fig. 16.4). Since KN then depends only on the gometry of the ship, it can be calculated for various angles of heel and for various values of displacement without reference to a particular condition. With the position of K known, when G has been assessed for a par- ticular condition of loading the GZ. can always be determined from the equation GZ = KN — KG sin 8. Cross Curves of Stability When it is desired to cover a whole range of ship conditions, it is usual to plot values of KN against displacement for each of a number of angles of inclination. Such a plot is shown in Fig. 16.5.3.32 Transverse Stability Range 166 Fic, She 70000 Displacement (tonnes! Angle of heel [degrees] Degrees eNOS RASTA RRO NA Fig. 165 30 The curves shown are known as Cross Curves of Stability. They are usually plotted for a series of angles at intervals of 10° or 15° 8 5 = = 20 Curves of Statical Stability For all practical purposes, a ship’s stability needs to be expressed in the form of the required righting moments or levers about the centre of gravity as the ship is heeled at constant displacement, A plot of such Jevers is known as a Statical Stability Curve. 1 will show, for a given displacement and a given height of the ship’s centre of gravity above its keel (KG), the value of the righting lever GZ required to correct any given angle of heel ‘A curve of statical stability is obtained from the corresponding cross curves as follows: (1) Drawan ordinate on the cross curves at the appropriate displace- ‘ment (say at 20,000 tonnes in Fig. 16.5).3st Transverse Stability (2) Measure the values of KN at the various angles of heel. @) Correct the KN values for the actual KG by the formula GZ = KN - KGsin 8. A.ypical stability curve is shown in Fig. 16.6. ‘The principal information given about aship by such a curve includes (a) Its range of stability; (b) The value of its maximum righting lever; and (The angle at which this maximum lever is exerted. [Note that the curve is tangential to the line OA where AB is the GM erected at 57.3 degrees. EXAMPLE. The following KN values are taken from the cross curves of stability of a ship at a displacement of 10,400 tonnes: Angle of heel 5 10 2 30 45 60 75 D0degrees KN 065 135 2.70 410 580 6.70 6.90 630 metres (4) Draw the curve of statical stability for the ship, given that the KG at 10,400 tonnes displacement is 6.9 m. Estimate (b) the range of stability; and (c) the moment of statical stability at an angle of inclination of 50°. Calculate (d) the initial metacentric height of the ship. For the condition specified, KG = 6.9m: and this value can be inserted in the formula GZ = KN — KG sin @ to give the results listed below: Angle Sin@ KGsin@ KN KN — KGsin0( metres metres metres metres 0087 0600.65 0.05 1 017m 1.20135 ous 2 0342-236 2.70 034 30° 0.50 3.45 4.10 0.65 45° 0.707 4.88 5.80 0.92 6? 0866 «5.98.70 on 75° 0966 = 6.67 6.90 023 0 1D 690650 —040 resulting curve ofstatical stability isshown in Fig. 167, ram which ‘The Stability of a Wall-Sided Ship ass (8) The Moment of Statical Stability at 50° e =A x GZ ase 0,400 x 0.90 = 9360 tonnes metres (2) Atsmall angles of heel : GZ =GMsino p So that at (say) 5° GZ _ 005 Ot = Se = OS ain ~ 0087 ~ *58™ The Stability of a Wall-Sided Ship A ship is said to be wall-sided if, for given angles of inclination, those Portions of the shell plating covered or uncovered by the changed waterplane become vertical with the ship when it is upright. Many ships can be regarded as being wallaided for angles of inclination upto about 3. It can be shown that, for a wall-sided ship, the following wall-sided ; formula for GZ applies. GZ = sin {GM + 3BM tan? 0) where | j GZ = the Righting Lever GM = the Original Metacentric Height i 6 = the Angle of Heel | and iq BM = its Original Value When GM = 0, the ship will still have a righting lever—given by the : ighting lever—given by th GZ = $BM tan? sin 9 ‘When a mass w is moved a distance d across the deck of a ship, the horizontal transference of the mass = w x dcos 0, See Fig. 16.8. | For a condition of equilibrium, w x deos® =A x GZTransverse Stability 338 If the ship has a negative GM (ie. if G is above M), the vessel will “oll” over until B, and G are in the same vertical line. In that case GM. BM GZ=0 and tané ‘The value of @ is thus known as the angle of loll. . ‘At the angle of loll, the vessel has a positive metacentric height (GM,) given by the equation EXAMPLE. A ship of 8200 tonnes displacement has a negative meta- ‘centric height of 8 om and a BM of 3 m. Estimate (a) the angie of loll and (b) the positive metacentrie height at that angle. (a) With @ = angle of loll, 6 POM tnd = 4) aa x 008 =a [yg = 02138 and = 12° approx ® 2GM_—_ 2 x 0.08 26M _ 2 x008 0 GMs = cose 7 oa7a) 7 O16 TEST QUESTIONS 1. A ship of 6000 tonnes displacement Hloats at a waterplane with a transverse moment of inertia of 19 x_10° m? m’. In this condition, the KB is 3.72 m and the KG is 6.00 m. Determine the metacentric height, 2, For the ship in Question 1, determine the mass which, when moved transversely through 15 m, would heel the ship 1.5°. 3. During an inclining experiment, a ship's displacement was found to be 3500 tonnes. When a mass of 6 tonnes was moved 10 m trans- versely across the deck, a stabilograph recorded a heel of 1.50°. In this inclining condition, the KM was found to be 8.5 m. Determine the KG of the ship. . ; - 4. A ship of displacement 1800 tonnes is inclined by moving 6 tonnes 7m across the deck. A mean deviation of 28 cm is recorded ‘on pendulums 5 m long. The KM is 4.7 m, Determine the KG of the ship, The Stability of « Wall-Sided Ship a0 ‘The remaining Test Questions set for this Chapter cover problems encountered in the syllabus for the First-Class Certificate only, and need not be attempted by those preparing for the Second-Class Certificate only. 5. A vessel has a constant parabolic section, vertex down. The breadth of the waterline at a draught of 3.05 m is 9.15 m. Given a KG of 46m, determine the draught required for the vessel to be in con- dition of neutral equilibrium 6. The hall-breaths of the waterplane of a ship, taken at stations 17 m apart commencing at the A.P., ate as follows: 0, 56 74, 84, 88 88, 83, 70, $2, 27, Om ‘When a mass of 20 tonnes is moved transversely 17 m across the deck, the swing of a pendulum 6 m long is 208 mm. The ship's displacement is 10,900 tonnes, and the KB 3.2m. Determine the KG for the ship in this condition. 7. Aship of 9000 tonnes displacement has a KG of 6.1 m and a KM of 6.5 m. A double-bottom ballast tank is 21 m long, 14.5 m broad and 1.2m deep. Assuming that the KM remains constant, determine the metacentric height when sea-water is admitted to the tank to a depth of 0.6m. What would be the GM of the ship if the middle-line division of the tank were to be made watertight? 8A ship of 11,200 tonnes displacement has a KB of 3.85m and a KG of 6.1m. At 45° heel from the upright, the displacement of the emerged and immersed wedges is 2360 tonnes, and the distance between the centroids parallel to the inclined plane 8.3 m. Determine the righting, moment of stability. 9. The GZ's and angles of heel for a ship of 10,200 tonnes displace- ‘ment, taken from the cross-curves for which the KG is 6m, are as follows: GZ 0.12 0.30 047 0,53 044 0.23 -0.06 metres @ 10 20 30 40 350 60 © 70_— degrees Draw the curve of statical stability when KG = 6.25 m and metacentric height is 0.3 m. Specify the maximum GZ, the angle of maximum GZ, and the range of stability 10. A ship wall-sided at the waterline has a displacement of 10,000 tonnes, a BM of 3.0m and a GM of 0.15 m. Determine the angle of heel qused by shifting 100 onnes transversely across the deck through m. 11. A wall-sided ship in a certain condition of loading has a negative metaceniric height of 76 mm. The BM at this loading is 3.35 m. Estimate ‘the = angle of lll and determine the poiive metacentichefght af that anyChapter 17 Trim “Trim is the term used to describe the difference between the draught forward and the draught aft. When the draught aft exceeds the draught forward, the vessel is said to arim by the stern, With an excess forward draught, she is said to trim by zhe bow ot by the head. The position of the draught marks is important. They are generally placed at the perpendiculars. Thus in Fig. 17.1, where 0 is the angle of rim and L the horizontal distance between the points at which the draught is measured, Trim = Hy — He and tan 9 = Ha He He Hi 4 AL _ i Fe 4 When a ship is trimmed without change of displacement, it pivots about its centre of flotation—the centroid of its waterplane area. The centre of flotation (F) is generally abaft amidships in service conditions: so when a ship is trimmed, the change aft is rather less than the change forward, ‘A small mass added to a ship must be positioned at the centre of flotation if it is to avoid altering the trim. The centroid of the zesulting additional buoyancy will also be in line with the centre of flotation. ‘And since a ship trims without change of displacement about its centre Tin 361 of flotation, the draught at that position does not change. It does change, however, at all other points—including amidships, where the mean draught between perpendiculars occurs. ‘A change of trim is measured by the sum of the changes in draught at bow and stern, If the change of trim is caused by the shifting of a mass already on board, the ship's displacement will remain constant but the mean trimmed draught will differ from the original mean draught by reason of the unequal division of the change between bow and stern. ICs therefore inaccurate to read off the displacement of a ship trimmed either by the bow or by the stern from a displacement scale prepared for level waterlines. A layer correction to this latter scalc is essential. Suppose that the ship indicated in Fig. 17.2 is floating at waterline WL, and is then brought to waterline W,L,. The result will be that ‘Change of Trim (:) = WW + LL, Fig, 172 By solving similar triangles, it will be seen that the correction to the mean draught (x) is given by the formula a x= L It will also be seen that the required correction to the displacement is the displacement of the layer, which is at Tx TPc Whether this latter expression is positive or negative depends on the position of the centre of flotation, and on whether the excess trim is by the bow or by the stern. The possible layer corrections which may be required are as follows:302 Trim Trim C.F. from Amidships Correction Required At Att Add Layer Forward Forward Add Layer Aft Forward Subtract Layer Forward Aft Subtract Layer Far better than trying to memorise rules like the above to govern all cases, however, is 0 draw a simple sketch to illustrate the facts of a given situation, and to work by logic and applied common sense from what this sketch shows. In the converse problem of determining the draughts forward and aft resulting from a known trimming moment, it is useful to know that the change of draught is distributed in proportion to the distance of the draught marks from the centre of flotation. For example, if the change of trim be 450 mm by the stern in a ship 120m long with its centre of flotation 1.25 m abait of amidships, the trim will be divided as follows: at 1s 60 + 1.25 Forward: “—— x 450 = “55 x 450 = 230 mm L 5-125 Aft = x 450 = 0 = 125, a x 450 = 220mm, Should the draught marks be not at the perpendiculars, but at the points shown in Fig. 17.3, then Change of Draught at Forward Mark = fe and Change of Draught at After Mark FP. Ford, Longitudinal 8M, 0 BMy 383 Change of trim may be brought about by any one or more of the following causes: (1) By moving masses already on board in either a fore or an aft direction; (2) By adding a mass to the ship at any point other than in the plane of its CF; (3) By removing a mass from the ship from any position other than one in the plane of its CF. Changes of trim, with their resultant changes of draught fore or aft, are of the utmost importance in all calculations made in connection with the loading or stability of a ship; and their possible consequences must never be left out of account. ‘The remainder of this Chapter covers subjects which are included in the syllabus for the First Class examination only. It need therefore not be studied in depth by students preparing for the Second Class examinations, though at least a perusal of the matters covered is recommended. Longitudinal BM, or BM, Suppose a mass w be moved h metres from aft to forward in the ship ML364 Trim sketched in Fig. 17.4. The displacement remains constant , and provided the angle of inclination small, the two waterlines will intersect at the centre of flotation, The centre of buoyancy moves from B to By, and the verticals through B and B, intersect at M. This is the longitudinal metacentre, and is often designated M, Inthe situation shown in Fig, 17.4, Is v where BM, = the Distance between the Centre of Buoyancy and the Longitudizal Metacemtre, 1p = the Moment of Inertia of the Water- plane about the Centre of Flotation and V = the Volume of Displace- ‘ment of the ship. ‘The way in which 1, is calculated is described later in this Chapter. BM, = Longitudinal GM or GM, The longitudinal metacentric height GM is the distance between the centre of gravity G and the metacentre M; and GM = KB + BM ~ KG Since the longitudinal BM (BM,) is always large compared with KG, it is frequently assumed in trim calculations that GM, = BM, ‘The Moment to Change Trim 1 cm (M.C.T. | cm) This expression described the moment which needs to be exerted on a given ship to change its trim by Lom. As will be shown below, Ax GM, 1008 but an expression which is often found convenient is that WrP.cy? B MCT. Lem = tonne metres MCT. lem = tonne metres where B is the breadth of the ship in metres. Refer again to Fig. 17.4 and let the mass w tonnes be such that, when itis moved h metres, the vessel trims | cm by the bow. Then, Moment Required to Trim Ship 1 om = wh tonne metres and 6c, =" or wh=Ax GG, The Moment of inertia about Amidships and the Centre of Flotation 365 GG, But cag, 8 equal to the circular measure of @ (the angle of tim), so that 6G, = GM, and wh =A x GM, The conditions provide that L,7 — 1 em, so that @ can be quantified as follows: ge bh lem t Wr Lx 100 100L Therefore wh = Bx GM, x 57 and Ax GM, MCT. Lem = =~ ME Tem =—TFa*. asstated above, ‘The Moment of Inertia about Amidships and the Centre of Flotat ‘This concept is best understood by taking a specific case. Use the half-breadths in the EXAMPLE on the transverse moment of inertia given in Chapter 7 (see MATHEMATICS FOR THE M.N. EXAMS), and determine the longitudinal moment of inertia (a) about amidships and (b) about the centre of flotation. Products Station Breadth SM. Products Levers Products Levers for MLL AP — too 4 — 4 — 1 21 4 84 3 25.2 3 756 2 38 276 2 152 2 304 3 52. 4 (08 1 20.8 t 208 ” S12 «102 0 HLA _3.66 Trim : b Products i Station Breadth S.M. Products Levers Products Levers for Mil 5 aT 4 BB 1 18.8 U 18.8 é 3400220 682 36 2272 7 19-4 76 3B RA FRO 1 = 4 = aS 80.2 55.2 F 241.2 ‘ 612 A 60 A ‘Amidships (a) ‘The Area of the Waterplane = 80.2 x 4 x 6.5 x 2 (for both the sides) = 3475 m? and the CF from Amidships = a x 6.5 = 0.486 m aft ‘Therefore Labout amidships = 241.2 x 4 x 65 x 65? x 2 = 44,150 m4 (8) Toobtain the M.I about the CF itis necessary to use the Theorem of Parallel Axes (Chapter 7), which states that Laitesiga = Her + AY? where Lanunips =the M.I. about a Transverse Axis passing through Amid- ships: Tey = the ML about 2 Transverse Axis passing through the Centre of Flotation: ‘A = the Area of the Waterplane; and. Y¥ = the Distance between the CF and Amidships oe Ler = Lamitsips — AY? = 44,150 — 347.5 x 0-486? 4,150 — 82 = 44065 mt Change of Trim Change of Trim Since trim is the difference between the draughts forward and aft i will be seen from Fig. 17.4 that Moment Changing Trim MCT 1em wh x 100L “axom, ™ Change of Trim ~ EXAMPLE, A ship 110 m long has the following characteristics when ‘floating at a uniform draught of 75m in sea-water: KB = 385m; BM, = 119m; KG = 64m, A= 10,750 tonnes: CF = 15m abaft amidships. Determine the new draughts forward and afi when a mass of 100 tonnes is moved a distance of 60 m from afi to forward. KB = 385m BM, = 119.0 KM, = 122.85m KG = 64 GM, = 11645 m A» GM, _ 10,750 x 116.45 MCT. lem = og, ~~ 100x110 Moment Changing Trim = 100 x 60 tonne metre 100 x 60 113.8 = 138m ‘Change of Trim = 52.7 em by the bow Now Change of Trim aft = 2 x 527 = 25.6cm and haus 565 (Change of Trim Forward = —>— x 52.7 = 755 x $2.7 = 27.1 em\ 3.68 Trim ‘Now caleulate the new draughts as follows Hglincm) Hy (inem) Initial Draught 750 750 Trim -256 0 427 New Draughts M44 m1 Or New Draughts ~ 7.244m Aft and 7.771 m Forward ‘The Addition of Moderate Loads to a Ship The procedure for determining the effect of adding a mass of moderate amount to a ship is best taken in two stages: Stage 1. Assume that the mass is added at the fore-and-alt position where the centre of flotation occurs, This will cause a parallel sinkage, and the increase in draught can be obtained from the T.P.C. Stage 2, Then move the mass from the CF to the desired position. This will cause the ship to trim ; and from the change of trim the change in draught at both ends of the ship can be determined. EXAMPLE. A ship 124m long has the following characteristics when Floating at draughts of 6.1m afi and 5.5m forward: TPC. = 16.3; MCT. lem = 1061m; CF = 1.2m abafi amidships. Determine the new draughts forward and aft when a mass of 220 tonnes is added to the ship with the centroid of the load 18 m abaft amidships. 220 Stage 1 Parallel Sinkage = > Stage 2, Trimming Lever = 18 — 12 = 168m 3.5m ‘Trimming Moment = 220 x 168 = 3696 tonne metre 3 Change of Trim = oe 34.9 em by the stern Now, with, : = 62m, +h 124 62-12 Ta M9=Wem ‘Trim Forward ~ x 349 = 178m ‘Trim Aft = The Addivion of Large Loads to u Ship 3.09 H, Initial Draught 61m 33m Sinkage +0135 +0135 Trim +0171 0.178 Resulting Draughts are 641m Aft and 546m Forward ‘The Addition of Large Loads to a Ship The above method cannot be used without risk of serious inaccuracy itheavy loads are involved. or ifthe resulting trims large. Thisis because the method assumes fixed positions for the centres of flotation, buoyancy and gravity, and fixed values for the longitudinal metacentre, T.P.C. and moment to chazige trim. Some or all of these positions and values are bound to be altered by the addition or removal of large masses. The only safe procedure is to calculate the new displacement and the new centre of gravity after the addition or removal of the loads, and then to work from the hydrostatic curves of the ship. EXAMPLE. A ship of length 128m has a light-ship displacement of 4330 tonnes with a centre of gravity 182 m abafi amidships. The following loads are then taken on board. Water Ballast: 1560 tonnes with centroid 1,5 m forward of amidships Oil Fuel: 1020 tonnes with centroid 3.0 m abaft amidships Fresh Water: 200 tonnes with centroid at amidships Determine the new draughts forward and aft. For an even-keel draught of 4.9 m, the hydrostatic curves of the ship give the displacement as 7110 tonnes; the L.C.B. as 0.9m forward of amidships; the L.C.F. as 2.1 m abaft amidships; and the M.C.T. em as 113 tonne metres. List the factors involved in the following way: Moments Moments Tonnes Cenroid(m) Aft Forward Light-ship Condition 4330, 1.82A 7880 — Water Ballast 1560 1.50F — 2340 Oil Fuel 1020 300A 3060 —ano Trim Moments Moments Tonnes Centroid(m) Aft Forward Fresh Water 200 Amidships = 7110 109408 2340F 2340F 8600 A LOG. = oo m abaft amidships ‘Trimming Moment = 7110 x Distance separating L.C.B, and L.CG. = 711009 + 1.21) = 7110 x 2.11 = 15,000 tonne metres ‘Trimming Moment LCT. Vem = 132.7om by the stern 15,000 3 Total Change of Trim = Now 61 = ppg * 327 = 64.2em and 66. ‘Trim Forward = st x 132.7 = 685m ‘Then 49m +0.642 Trim New Draughts are 5.54m Aft and 4.22 m Forward ‘The Change of Trim Formula The general expression for determining change of trim is as follows: im i (GG, ~ BBA +») Change of Trim in em = “aa ‘The Change of Trim Formula an where the symbol ~ signifies “the difference between” G = Original Position of Ship's Centre of Gravity G, = Final Position of Ship's Centre of Gravity B = Original Position of Ship's Centre of Buoyancy B, = Final Position of Ship's Centre of Buoyancy A = Displacement of Ship Before Loading, in tonnes w = Total Mass Added, in tonnes and M.CTT. Lem is at a Displacement of A + w tonnes In the Example worked out above: G=182mA B= 182mA G.=12imA and By GG, = 061m BB, 2.7m (0.61 ~ 2.727110 Total Change of Trim 11 as calculated in the Example. EXAMPLE. A ship is floating at draughts of 736m aft and 7.03 m forward. Cargo is then loaded as follows. 60 tonnes at 24.4 m forward of amidships 40 tonnes at amidships 50 tonnes at 12.8 m abaft amidships 70 tonnes at 21.3 m abaft amidships The draughts then become 7.44 m aft and 7.11 m forward. Determine the new position of the centre of flotation. Tonnes Moments Moments Added Centroid(m) Aft Forward 0 244F _ 1464 40 Amidships = _ 50 128F 640, —an Trim Tonnes Moments Moments Added Centroid(m) Aft — Forward 2D 213A 1494 = 220 231A 1464 F 1464 F 667A LF Ag He Original Draught — 7.36m 703 ma New Draught 144 7 Change of Draughts +008 AR and +0.08 Forward Sinkage is therefore parallel—which is equivalent to saying that the total load acts at the centre of flotation. \ c= Soe 3.03 m abaft amidships ‘The Effect on Trim of Passing from S.W. to F.W. Tt was seen in Chapter 15 that when a ship passes from sea-water to river water, so meeting a change of density in the water in which it floats, there occurs both parallel sinkage and trim. The volume of the layer newly immersed is given by the expression an - 3 and Wi ‘The Displacement of this Layer = V, x w(t - 4 Docking 33 In the sketch of the ship shown it 17.5, the volume that previously provided the buoyancy had its centroid at B in line with G; but the addition of a layer with its centroid at F (the centre of flotation) causes, ‘an imbalance. Let d express the horizontal distance between F and the LCR ‘The Moment Causing Trim is then a(t =}, and Trimming Moment ‘The Trim = 35 C7 em in river water If the M.C.T. in sea-water (4) be known, the M.C.T. in river water can be approximately expressed 2s follows: W, LCT aw. LCT sw, X ye MCTaw. % MCT 9, % y EXAMPLE. A ship of 2720 tonnes displacement in sea-water passes {from sea-water to fresh water. The hydrostatic data are as follows: L.C.B, = 0.97 m forward of amidships MCT. fem = 20imin FW. CF = 1.65 m forward of amidships Determine the change of trim CF = 1.65mF LOB. =097mF 2 d= 068m Trim = [1 i = 924 x 0,025 = 2.31¢m Docking ‘When a ship docks or grounds, an upward force is exerted at the point ‘of contact. This pressure, whether exerted on the blocks or on the ground, is equivalent to the application of a negative weight of like amount at the keel. The effect on the ship's stability can then be examined by314 Trim calculating either a virtual centre of gravity or a virtual metacentric height. When a ship is dry-docked, the draught aft is generally in excess of the draught forward. As the level of water in the dock is lowered, the aft end first takes the blocks; and until the keel takes the blocks both fore and aft, a portion of the ship's weight is taken by the after block. Fig. 17.6 shows the ship when about to take the blocks all fore and aft, at Waterline WL. WoPea Fe. 176 Let W = Weight of ship floating freely, with trim ¢ by the stern; ‘A = Buoyancy at instant when ship is about to make contact with blocks; and P = Pressure on aftermost block at this instant. Then A=W-P and B, = Centre of Buoyancy of A Now take the moments about Point 0 W x dy = Ax dy = (W ~ Pld Wid, — d,) —" oP Alternatively ‘Trim in em by Stern when Keel First Touches Blocks; @ = Distance of CF Forward of Aftermost Block ; and M = MCT. Lem Then Pxa=Mt ana pM Stability on Docking 375 EXAMPLE. A vessel 122 m long with a trim by the stern of 1.22m is to be docked on level blocks. The following characteristics are known: Displacement = 10,000 tonnes 52m abaft amidships 92 m forward of amidships MCT. lem = 120tm LCG. = 0.61 m abaft amidships Estimate the pressure on the aftermost block when the keel is about to make corsact with the blocks. 5 Calculate in either of the two following ways Either p= Wi 4d or pat a a 120 x 122 * 39.48 = = 247 tonnes: Stability on Docking As the water level falls in a dry dock, the ship settles down on to the keel blocks. Some buoyancy is iost at the surface, and to compensate376 Trim for this a portion of the ship’s weight is taken at the keel. The application of such a force low down in the ship tends to reduce stability. Fig. 17.7 (in which a small Tist is exaggerated to hetp clarify the explanation) indicates the stability condit.ons which then prevail The moments about G are as follows: Righting Moment = (WP) x GMsind Upseiting Moment =P x KGsind ‘Net Righting Moment = (W - P) x GMsind ~ Px KGsine = (W x GM sin 8) —(P x GMsin ) ~ (P x KG sin 6) iin OW x GM) ~ (P x GM) — (P x KG)] = sin 6[(W x GM) — (GM + KG)] = w selon [2 xx] - P Since the loss of metacentrc height is 55, x KM, ‘The Virtual Metacentric Height = GM { 7 KM EXAMPLE. It is estimated that when a ship with trim by the stern and a displacement of 10,000 tonnes 's being docked, the pressure on the aftermost block will be 247 tonnes. The metacentre above the keel is 7.62 m and the KG is 7.16 m. Determine (a) the virtual metacentric helght, and (b) the oss of metacentric height KM = 7.62m KG = 7.16 GM = 046m (@) Virtual Metacentric Height = GM — a x KM 247 9.46 — Toa * 7-2 0.46 — 0.19 027m sgn Adding a Load Without Causing @ Change of Draught Aft an P (6) Loss of Metaventric Height = 57, x KM = 019m Adding a Load Without Causing a Change of Draught Aft A ship may occasionally have to pass through a channel in which the depth of water is restricted, In the particular case of a ship with trim by the stera having a draught aft which is the maximum allowed, it may be possible to add a load without causing extra draught aft if the increase in forward draught is limited to bringing the ship to an even keel. It is essential {o know the position at which such a load may be safely added. EXAMPLE. Determine the distance from amidships at which a load can be added to a ship without altering the draught aft. The ship's charac teristics are as follows: Length 116m; H. 124 tm; LCF. 7.3m; Hp = 6.7 m; TPs 2m abaft amidships. 8; MCT. Lem = Let d = Distance load to be added forward of amidships. The distance from the A.P. to the CF = 56m = a; and if the load is, w laced at the CF, the sinkage wi placed at the CF, the sinkage will be 5 ‘trim —_2fimming Moment __w(d + 2) ~ MCT. Lem MGT. lem ma) Change of Draught Aft = which must equal zero. 56 TPC" MCT. “116 116 x MCT a2 TPS and _ M6 x 124 56 x 18 = 12.27 m foward of amidships378 Trim ‘The general expression to cover the problem described is: MCT. xb ax TPC An approximation to the magnitude of the load can be obtained as follows. When H, = draught aft nd Al, = draught forward, the H+ #, . mean draught must be “4 ——P#.ar the sl draught Ha, Distance Load to be placed forward of CF = floats on an even keel at Permissible Sinkage = Hy and The Load. In the Example given above, 74 06 x Load = 00 3 * 18 = $40 tonnes 67 rp. 2 Ifthe centre of flotation is assumed to be at or very near amidships, the distance d at which the load required to bring the ship to an even keel should be placed forward of amidships is approximately given by the equation: TEST QUESTIONS 4. A ship 106 m long has a displacement of 8100 tonnes. Its KB = 425m, BM, = 146m and KG = 7.35 m. Determine the moment required to change trim 1 em. 2. A ship floats at a draught of 7.65 m aft and 7.05 m forward. The ‘centre of flotation is at amidships, and the moment to change trim one em is 109 tm. A mass of 50 tonnes already on board is moved forward ‘a distance of 55 m. Determine the new draughts forward and aft. 3. Aship requires to load 550 tonnes of oil fuel into double-bottom tanks. The centroid of the after tank is 32 m abaft the centre of gravity of the ship, and the distance between the centroids of the after and for- ward tanks is 46 m. Determine the quantity of fuel which must be loaded into each tank in order to leave the ship's trim unchanged. ie Adiding a Load Without Causing a Change of Draught Aft ‘The remaining Test Questions set for this Chapter cover problems encountered in the syllabus for the First-Class Certificate, and need aot be attempted by those preparing for the Second-Class Certificate only. 4. A ship 92 m long floats at draughts of 3.75 m forward and 4.45 m aft. In this condition the CF is 3.7m abaft amidships, T.P.C. is 8 and M.CT. 1m 361m. Determine (a) the new draughts forward and aft after 50 tonnes have been put on board with centroid 44 m forward of amidships; and (b) where a mass of 65 tonnes should be positioned on board to bring the vessel from her original condition to an even keel, 5. Aship 170 m long floats at draughts of 6.85 m forward and 7.55 m afl, with T.P.C, = 29, MCT. lem = 305tm, and CF 4m forward of amidships. The following changes in lozding are then carried out: Tonnes Added 180 at ST m abaft amidships 180 at 30m forward 140 at 65 m abaft 150 at 8 m abaft Tonnes Removed Determine the new draughts forward and af. 6. A ship 130m long has a displacement of 4400 tonnes in he light-ship condition, with her centre of gravity 1.8 m abaft amidships. To achieve the deep-load condition, 7800 tonnes need to be put on board with a centroid 1.5 m forward of amidships. Determine the deep-load draughts forward and aft, given that at an even-keel draught of 8m the displacement is 12,200 tonnes, T.P.C. is 20, M.C-T. Lem is 134, L.C.B.0.75 m forward of amidships and the L.C.F. 1.5 m abaft amidships. 7. A ship 92 mlong has a displacement of 5300 tonaes when floating at draughts of 4.95 m forward and 5.35 m aft in sea-water of 1024 kg/m density. T-P.C. is 10.5 and GM,, 95m. L.C.B. is 0.6 m forward of amid- ships and L.C.F.2.1 mabaft amidships. Determine the draughts forward and aft when the ship moves into water of density 1003 kg/m’. 8A ship 120m long has a displacement of 10,150 tonnes and a M.CI. Lem of 120tm. The centre of flotation is amidships, the meta- centric height 0.46m and the KM 7.6m. It is proposed to dock this ship with a trim by the stern of 1.2m. Determine (a) the pressure on the after block and (6) the virtual metacentric height at the instant of grounding. 9. Ivis proposed to dock a ship of displacement 4280 tonnes which floats at draughts of 4.12 m aft and 3.66 m forward. In this condition GM is 0.15 m and KM 6m, and M.C-T. lem = 77, Determine the virtual metacentric height when the vessel touches the blocks all along her length. The atermost block is 55m distant from the centre of tation.