Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164

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Surface & Coatings Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/surfcoat

Thermally sprayed coatings resistant to erosion and corrosion for power

plant boilers - A review
Krzysztof Szymański, Adam Hernas, Grzegorz Moskal ⁎, Hanna Myalska
Silesian University of Technology, Institute of Materials Science, 40-019 Katowice, ul. Krasińskiego 8, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Available online 28 October 2014 The article presents the issues related to materials and the fabrication process of protective coatings by thermal
spraying methods used for the protection of power plant boiler elements in Poland. The basic mechanisms of de-
Keywords: struction processes occurring in the fluidized bed power boilers and the associated equipment were presented.
Wear The basic methods of thermal spraying were characterized, which allow the production of coatings with the
Corrosion chemical composition, phase structure and properties appropriate for a functional performance. The advantages
Erosion
and disadvantages of the methods of thermal spraying were discussed. The basic groups of coatings with a high
Coatings
Thermal spraying
resistance to corrosion and erosion wear produced by thermal spraying methods, which can be used in the power
HVOF industry, were described.
HVAF © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The reasons for the failure of many elements of installations operat-
ing in the power plant industry are the combined processes of erosion
and corrosion occurring at high temperatures. These processes are the
most intense in the combustion chamber, on the surfaces of super-
heaters and economizers, as well as in the fuel and air feeding and ash
removal systems. A scheme presenting those boiler installation ele-
ments which are exposed to the most intense erosive–corrosive wear
is shown in Fig. 1 [1–4].
The first and basic technique of limiting the processes of erosive and
erosive–corrosive wear is optimization of the construction of the boiler
chamber and the installation elements, that is optimization of the shape
and velocity of the dust and combustion gas stream in such a way so as
to maximally reduce the wear of the critical elements of the boiler. An
example of such solutions is humps in the exhaust channels, throttling
sheets close to the heaters, as well as modifications of the lining or
corners of the combustion chamber.
In the places where the construction modifications do not bring
good effects, certain types of materials are used, combined with the
increase of their thickness, and if this is not sufficient, special pads or
coatings are applied, which are made of materials with a high wear
resistance.
The heatable surfaces (sheet pilings, ceilings, cofferdams) undergo a
very intense erosive–corrosive wear at an elevated temperature, thus
constituting one of the basic ‘operation problems’ present in fluidized
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: krzysztof.szymanski@polsl.pl (K. Szymański), adam.hernas@polsl.pl
(A. Hernas), grzegorz.moskal@polsl.pl (G. Moskal), hanna.myalska@polsl.pl (H. Myalska).
boilers. This is connected with the intense movement of the fluidized
bed particles, which, by dropping close to the walls of the boiler, cause
their intense abrasion. A method use to protect the sheet pilings in the
areas of intense wear is the application of protective coatings, which
assure the required operation durability. The most wear-exposed
areas are protected with ceramic linings. An example of such areas can
be: lining of the burner area, a hump and other elements in the ash
removal systems.
A special example of such protection, present in fluidized boilers, is
the application of a ceramic lining funnel in the lower part of the
chamber, and directly above the latter — thermally sprayed coatings. Un-
fortunately, the use of relatively ‘thick’ ceramic linings limits the effective-
ness of the heat exchange and increases the construction mass, whereas
the change in the geometry of the area around them causes the formation
of areas of strong disturbances of the bed's flow, which lead to an intense
damage of the walls. Such areas, if they are not detected in time, most
often result in the machine's failure. Examples of tube damage caused
by erosive and erosive–corrosive wear are presented in Fig. 2 [5].
The actual operation conditions present in power devices include:
abrasive wear caused by the hard ash particles striking at various angles,
high operation temperature (on metal elements, it equals about 550 °C)
as well as corrosive operation of the fuel combustion products. This
enforces the use of such coating materials which characterize high hard-
ness and good adhesion, and makes it possible to obtain their significant
thickness, low porosity and a complex phase composition guaranteeing
high corrosion resistance to compounds containing sulfur, chlorine and
water steam with oxygen depletion [6–10].
Among the numerous methods of protective coating production,
only the thermal spraying and pad welding allow the generation of
coatings with the abovementioned characteristics. A big advantage of

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2014.10.046
0257-8972/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
154 K. Szymański et al. / Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164
Fig. 1. Boiler elements highly vulnerable to erosion–corrosion wear.
thermal spraying as compared to the pad welding methods is the
high speed and mobility of the process, which enables the produc-
tion and regeneration of the coatings directly in the boilers, even at
the time of short standstills. The thermal spraying methods do not
have any significant material limitations in reference to the coating
and base composition, they assure a low temperature (423 ÷ 473 K)
of the treated elements and make it possible to produce coatings of
high hardness (N1500 μHV) and the thickness of the order of a few
millimeters [11]. From among the many thermal spraying methods,
in practice, for the protection of boiler elements, the flame, arc, plas-
ma and HVOF methods are used. The flame and plasma methods are
relatively rarely used, due to the complexity of the process (flame
with remelting) or the relatively high costs (plasma) [12–14]. An
example of the interconnection between the wear mechanism, the
used spraying technology and the type of the coating material is pre-
sented in Table 1.
The most often used thermal spraying method is the arc method.
Its biggest advantage is the possibility of effective coating of large sur-
faces, which is reflected in the relatively low costs of the coating pro-
duction. The development of the method and the high utilitarian
properties of the coatings result from the application of advanced com-
posite materials which make it possible to obtain coatings of a de-
signed phase composition, e.g. a corrosion resistant metallic matrix
with hard reinforcement phases. A certain drawback of coatings of
this type is their porosity, which is reduced e.g. by way of applying
high quality devices and materials as well as additional sealing coat-
ings [15,16].
The most recent technology is the supersonic thermal spraying
method, which allows the production of high quality carbide coat-
ings. The latter characterize in: high hardness (up to 1600 HV),
high coating density (porosity b2%) and high adhesion (N80 MPa).
The characteristics of the high velocity methods are a relatively broad
topic and it has been discussed in various publications [17,18]. Fig. 3
below shows examples of coatings produced with the use of the
discussed thermal spraying methods on fragments of a boiler's sheet
pilings.
A very important issue in the thermal spraying processes is the ap-
plication of appropriate coating materials. The method of producing
coating materials has a determining effect on the possibilities of their
use for different thermal spraying technologies. For arc methods, solid
or core wires are used, whereas high velocity methods use powder-
formed materials. Producers of materials apply advanced technologies
which make it possible to produce materials with the assumed and
complex chemical and phase composition as well as of the specified par-
ticle morphology. The structure of such materials is optimized for the
given thermal spraying method and it includes the specificity of the
transformations taking place in the material during the process of ther-
mal spraying, formation and use of the coating.
This is particularly essential for powder materials with an assumed
chemical and phase composition — where a spherical shape, high den-
sity and a fine-grained structure are favorable. Such powders can be
produced by methods of atomization from liquid phase, agglomeration
and sintering, as well as a mechanical and high temperature synthesis
and they often undergo an additional plasma treatment. Selected coat-
ing materials used for thermal spraying of coatings for the purpose of
the power industry are presented in Table 2. Examples of the morphol-
ogy of selected powders are presented in Fig. 4.
2. Experimental methods
The intense erosion and erosion–corrosion processes present in the
lower part of fluidized boilers limit the disposability of fluidized boilers.
The coatings produced by different commercial companies applied at
the end of the 1990s did not fulfill all the technical and economical
expectations of the Polish power industry. That is why the Surface
Engineering Group of the Department of Materials Science of Silesian
University of Technology and the RAFAKO S.A. boiler factory was creat-
ed, which initiated research aiming at the development of a technically
and economically effective technology of protecting the walls of water
fluidized boilers (The Żerań and Siersza Heat and Power Stations) before
erosion or erosion–corrosion wear occurs.
 K. Szymański et al. / Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164 155

Fig. 2. Typical examples of erosive wear in fluidized boiler: a) the area over the ceramic lining, b) transition zone in thermally sprayed coatings, c) damage caused by erosion of the wall, and
d) damaged superheater tube.

The scope of the research implemented within the frames
of the research projects [19–25] and the cooperated work
included:
■ analysis of the causes and mechanisms of wear for selected elements
of power boilers,
■ development of material and technological concepts of water boiler
wall protection,
■ selection of technology and devices for the production of protective
coatings,
■ selection of powder and wire materials for the production of coat-
ings of an assumed operation durability,

Table 1
Choice of materials and technology for various operation conditions [15].

No Wear type Spraying method Material group

1. Atmospheric corrosion Flame Wires: Zn, alloys: Zn–Al, Al, Al–Mg

Powders: Al2O3, Al2O3–TiO2, CrO2
2. Arc As before + stainless steels, NiCr based alloys
3. High-temperature corrosion Flame Wires: Al., high Cr-content alloys with Ni or Fe matrix
Powders: ZrO2, ZrO2 + Y2O3, Al2O3
4. Plasma ZrO2, ZrO2 + Y2O3 modifications and other
5. Arc Al, high Cr-content alloys with Ni or Fe matrix
6. Abrasive wear Flame Powders of self-fluxing type with remelting
7. Arc Fe or Ni-based wires modified with carbide, boride, silicate phases etc.
8. HVOF Composite powders of type: WC–Co, WC–Co–Cr, NiCr–Cr3C2, WC–CrC–Ni and others
9. Abrasive–corrosive wear at elevated temperatures Arc Ni-based wires modified with carbide, boride, silicate phases etc.
10. HVOF Powders of type NiCr–Cr3C2, NiCr–Cr3C2 with modifying additions e.g.: Cr3C2–TiC–NiCr,
WC–Cr3C2–NiCr or Ni
156 K. Szymański et al. / Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164

Fig. 3. Production of coatings by way of: HVOF, and arc method on elements of power boilers.

■ development of the technological parameters of the coating produc-
tion,
■ determination of the basic utilitarian properties of the coatings in
laboratory tests,
■ development of a technology of the production of protective coat-
ings directly on power units,
■ evaluation of the degree of wear and the durability of selected coat-
ings under operational conditions.
The performed research work including the selection of materials
and technologies of the coating production as well as the selection of
the technological parameters of the process were based on determining
the usability of the coatings obtained in the given production variant for
the particular working conditions of the coating. The procedure is pre-
sented in Fig. 5.
The realized scope of the research made it possible to develop a tech-
nology of producing protective coatings with the use of thermal
spraying methods on selected elements of power boilers. The analysis
of the information on the erosion wear occurring in Polish boilers
made it possible to select those areas of the boiler which should be
protected by way of thermal spraying as well as to select a technologi-
cally and economically justified protective coating for a given area.
This particularly refers to two critical areas: the one directly above the
ceramic lining and the one on the wall-coating border (Fig. 2a and b).
A similar wear character is also observed in areas where the cofferdams
and the superheaters “go through” the walls of the boiler.
3. Results and discussion
Considering the wear conditions present in elements of power in-
stallations, particularly inside the power boiler, the applied protec-
tive coatings have to characterize in a dense microstructure, high
hardness and good erosion and corrosion resistance. Such properties
can be found in coatings produced by way of the HVOF and arc
methods, as well as in remelted coatings. Obtaining high quality
coatings, especially of a low porosity (about 1%) as well as high hard-
ness requires applying high quality coating materials and good coating
production devices as well as fulfilling all the directives of the process,
i.e. proper surface preparation, proper climatic conditions, optimal
thermal spraying parameters and appropriate final treatment of the
coatings.
The highest quality coatings containing carbides are obtained by the
HVOF method. Within the scope of the presented research, selected

Table 2
Typical materials used for thermal spraying of coatings on boiler elements.

Spraying method/ Name Composition/hardness Application

type of material

Arc/wires Metcoloy 5 Fe 18Cr, 8,5Mn, 5Ni, 1Si, 0.155C Austenitic steel of a lower carbon content, corrosion resistant coatings
SM 8222 Fe 28Cr, 5c, 1Mn Steel of a high content of chromium, coatings with high hardness, wear resistance and corrosion
resistance
SM 8625 Ni 21,5 Cr, 8.5Mo, 3Fe, 0.5Co High temperature creep resisting alloy with oxidation and corrosion resistance up to 1000 °C,
similar to Inconel 625
IN 625 a.b.
SM 8718 Ni 19Cr, 18Fe, 3Mo High temperature creep resisting alloy designed for regeneration of alloy Inconel 718, of high
heat resistance and corrosion resistance up to 1000 °C
W-685.1 FeCr23B3CWSiMo Designed for spraying of hard, abrasion and corrosion resistant coatings
FMI-2 FeAlCrB a.b.
HVOF WC–Co 1100–1450 Very high abrasion and erosion resistance, to be applied up to −773 K, low corrosion resistance
WC–Co–Cr 1250–1450 a.b. + very good cavitation wear resistance, good corrosion resistance in aqueous solutions
WC–CrC–Ni 1050–1350 a.b. + to be applied up to −933 K, very good corrosion resistance in aqueous solutions
Cr3C2–NiCr 800–1100 High erosion wear resistance, to be applied up to 1173 K, good tribological properties, very good
corrosion resistance in gases containing sulfur, very good corrosion resistance in aqueous
solutions
 K. Szymański et al. / Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164 157

Fig. 4. Powders produced by way of: a) spraying, b) agglomerating and sintering, c) mechanical alloying, and d) high temperature synthesis.

powders, presented in Table 3, were sprayed onto steel bases with the
use of the Diamond Jet 2600 system and with diversified technological
parameters of the process. The structure of the obtained coatings is
shown in Fig. 6. The produced coatings were evaluated not only in the
scope of the structure but also their utilitarian properties. The results
of the abrasion test performed in a T07 tester are presented in Fig. 7a.
High-silica sand was used as the abrasive. The erosion wear tests were
performed on a research station KS-3 with a centrifugal abrasive
ejection. Class 100 aloxite was used for the test. The results of the test
are shown in Fig. 6b.

Fig. 5. Methods of assessing the structure and functional properties of coatings.

158 K. Szymański et al. / Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164

Table 3 containing intermetallic phases from the Fe–Al (Table 3) system were
Carbide-containing powders used in the study. produced within the scope of the research programs implemented by
No Name of Approximate phase Granulation of the authors. The coatings, after a full cycle of tests, were used to produce
material content of powder powder [μm] test coatings in several power boilers.
1. A 558.074 WC–Co–Cr (86/10/4) −45 + 15 In special cases, other combinations of materials and protective coat-
2. A 518.074 WC–Co (88/12) −45 + 22 ing production technologies are also used. Examples of the structure of a
3. A 584.054 Cr3C2–NiCr (75/25) −45 + 10 coating sprayed from a composition of metallic and ceramic materials as
4. D 3004 Cr3C225(Ni 20Cr) −45 + 20
well as a remelted coating are presented in Fig. 11. In cases of a complex
5. D 3007 Cr3C220(Ni 20Cr) −45 + 20
6. NCC–NCT Cr3C2 25(Ni 20Cr + mod.) −45 + 15 operation of an environment degrading the material, composite coat-
ings of a laminar structure are used, where each layer plays a particular
role in the protective set. An example of a multi-layer coating is shown
in Fig. 12. A thermally sprayed coating normally has cracks as well as dif-
The very high protective properties of the coatings produced by the ferent phases of a complex shape, whereas an additional protection
HVOF method result, among others, from the very fine-grained struc- with a coating containing ceramic phases causes the formation of an
ture, which reinforces the matrix by using fine dispersive particles of additional barrier blocking the erosive operation of the environment.
nanometric sizes. Examples of such a structure are presented in Fig. 8. Production of such coatings is a complex process, yet, in some cases, it
Ultrafine-grained coatings have been tested for a few years. is technically and economically justified.
Another group of coatings used in the widely understood “power Last 10 years is an intensive development of new solutions in the
engineering” is produced by the method of arc thermal spraying. field of thermal sprayed coatings for energy applications in Poland.
Those are metallic coatings characterizing in a band structure with the The main part of the research is carried out at the Silesian University
porosity of the order of up to a few percent (it is beneficial for the poros- of Technology in the Team of Surface Engineering. This development en-
ity to be as low as possible due to the operation in an aggressive corro- compasses both new technologies as well as coating-forming materials.
sive atmosphere). The latter is most significantly affected by the proper In the case of new technologies of thermal spraying the high velocity
selection of material, device and technological parameters of the coating air fuel method is becoming more widely used as a method to obtain the
production. It is possible to obtain coatings with low porosity (about 1%) coatings with significantly lower porosity, higher hardness and service
and high thickness (0, 5–1 mm) as well as diversified hardness — from life [26]. A higher level of sprayed particle's speed and its lower temper-
350 (IN635) to over 1000–1200 HV (e.g. W-685 and CE-595). Such ature give a possibility to obtain coatings with a much lower level of un-
diversified properties of the coatings can be obtained by way of applying desirable phase, typical for high velocity oxy fuel process. Typical phases
materials of different chemical and phase compositions as well as opti- constituent of HFAV and HFOF coatings are showed in Fig. 13.
mized parameters of the coating production. Examples of wire materials Another direction of coating's development is modification of
used in the application of this type are shown in Table 3. existed solution. One of the best is modification of FeAlCrB coating-
A properly conducted thermal spraying process in combination with forming materials from versions FMI-2 to FMI-3 with a higher level of
an appropriate preparation of the base makes it possible to obtain thick, aluminum [27] (Table 4). This type of coating is operated successfully
well adhering coatings with high utilitarian properties. Examples of the for 13 years, and periodic repairs still showed the satisfactory condition
structure of the produced coatings are shown in Fig. 9, whereas the of the coating. The top surface of covered pipes is showed in Fig. 14. The
results for the erosion resistance can be found in Fig. 10. Materials same situation was observed in the case of WC–Co coatings obtained by

Fig. 6. Microstructure of carbide-containing coatings thermally sprayed by HVOF: a) type of WC–Co–Cr, b) WC–Co, c) Cr3C2–NiCr, and d) and flame Cr3C 27 (Ni20Cr) (430 NS).
 K. Szymański et al. / Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164 159

Fig. 7. Abrasion wear resistance a) and erosion resistance b) for HVOF sprayed coatings of materials containing carbides.

Fig. 8. Structure of coatings HVOF-sprayed to submicron particle sizes.

160 K. Szymański et al. / Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164

Fig. 9. Structure of arc-sprayed coatings of: a) FMI-3, b) W-685, c) 27 DS, and d) CE-595.

HVOF method and additionally modified by TiC addition. Comparative
studies of the standard and modified coatings in real operating condi-
tions showed a much better state of the coating with the addition of
TiC particles. It was also found that the hardness of the coating modified
slowly, but steadily increases with increasing operating time, as wad re-
vealed during periodic shutdowns of boiler. This suggests that the slow-
down of creation of undesirable phase triple type W–Co–C by the
addition of just TiC takes place. This has been confirmed in a preliminary
study of phases constituent of WC–Co + TiC coating, which demon-
strated the formation of a phase-type Co2C and Co3Ti at the expense of
undesirable phases W2C, WC1 − x, Co3W9C4 and Co6W6C [28].
The next used method is based on the bi-modal microstructure of
coating creation to increase their durability. In this case chemical and
phase composition of coatings can be changed as well. Those types of
solution were not yet verified under operational conditions, but they
are under intensive investigations by the Surface Engineering Team of

Fig. 10. Erosive wear resistance of arc-sprayed coatings.

 K. Szymański et al. / Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164 161

Fig. 11. Structure of a coating formed from ceramic materials by flame atomic absorption and a coating with an additional remelting process.

Silesian University of Technology. The study shall be subject to the type of
coating WC–Co with the addition of nano-sized powders of WC, TiC, Cr3C2
and B4C. The results of the initial investigations published for TiC addi-
tions in position [26] and for other modifiers revealed that 5 wt.% of mod-
ified addition improved hardness deposited by HVAF method coatings.
The last important direction of coating investigations related to their
power plant's applications (and for aircraft turbines as well) is the
ceramic coating of TBC (thermal barrier coating) type. In this case the
investigations are concentrated on new types of materials, other than
8YSZ, for example pyrochlore of zirconate, ceriate and hafniate types
[29]. From the other sites conceptions of two layered coatings of DCL
(double ceramic layer) type are expanded [30].
4. Conclusions
Thermal spraying technologies allow production of complex coat-
ings on practically all kinds of metallic surfaces by way of applying

Fig. 12. Multi-layered structure of thermally sprayed coatings.

162 K. Szymański et al. / Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164

Fig. 13. Diffractograph of the coating deposited with the HVOF a), and HVAF b) technique.

Table 4 various special coating materials. These coatings characterized in a set of

Wires used in the study. beneficial utilitarian properties, include:
No Name of material Approximate phase
composition of powder • high corrosion resistance, also at high temperatures,
• high erosion resistance, also at elevated temperatures,
1. FMI — 3 FeAlCrB
2. W — 685 Fe–Cr–B • option of regeneration of the coatings at the locations of their use.
3. M5 Fe–Cr–C
4. SF 27 Fe–Ni–Cr–Si–B These properties allow their wide use in the protection of power
5. NGK WC–Cr–Co boiler elements. The effectiveness of the protection results from the ap-
6. FMI — 2 B Fe–Al–Cr–B
plication of appropriate high quality coating materials, advanced coat-
7. CE — 595 Fe–Cr–Si–B
ing production technologies and high experience of the companies
 K. Szymański et al. / Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164
Fig. 14. Top surface of FMI-3 coating after 13 years period of exposure.
which provide such services. In Fig. 15, it can see surfaces protected with
thermally sprayed coatings after some operation time and the process of
regeneration of the coating above the lining. The basic technology can
be transformed into coatings sprayed on other elements operating
under the conditions of erosive–corrosive processes at elevated temper-
atures. An example of other applications is shown in Fig. 16.
The Silesian University of Technology (Institute of Materials Science,
Surface Engineering Group) together with RAFAKO S.A. were the
precursors of the application of the thermal spraying technology for
coatings by means of the high velocity method on elements of power
boilers in Poland.
Acknowledgments
The results presented in this paper were obtained from research
work co-financed by the National Centre of Research and Development
in the framework of Contract SP/E/1/67484/10 — Strategic Research
Programme — Advanced technologies for energy generation: develop-
ment of a technology for highly efficient zero-emission coal-fired
power units integrated with CO2 capture.
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[19] Project — KBN 4 T08C 008 25 pt: “Kompozytowe materiały i powłoki natryskiwane
cieplnie metodami naddźwiękowymi — HVOF i HVAF o wysokiej odporności na
zużycie korozyjne i erozyjne” (Composites materials and coatings thermally
sprayed by high velocity methods of HVOV and HVAF type with high resistance to
corrosion and erosion wear).
[20] Project — COST 522 — “Development of new materials with high dispersion inter-
metallic phases and HVOF — high velocity oxy-fuel thermal spraying technology
for composite coatings with high erosion and corrosion resistance at elevated
temperature”
[21] Project — COST 538, high temperature plant lifetime extension, in group WP1 —
environmental degradation & coatings.
[22] Project — PREWIN European Network, tailored protective coating technology for
waste combustion in power installation.
[23] Project — KBN/7T08D 01516 “Opracowanie technologii wytwarzania
kompozytowych mieszanin o wysokiej dyspersji faz międzymetalicznych dla
naddźwiękowego natryskiwania cieplnego HVOF (high velocity oxy fuel) powłok
z proszków i drutów proszkowych” (Development of manufacturing technology
164 K. Szymański et al. / Surface & Coatings Technology 268 (2015) 153–164

Fig. 16. Protective coatings made on the rotor fan and the elements of pulverized coal burner.

of composites mixture with high dispersion intermetallic phases to high velocity
spraying by HVOF method (high velocity oxy fuel) of coatings from powders and
powder wires).
[24] Project — PBZ KBN 12/T08/T10/99 “Materiałowe i technologiczne aspekty w
energetyce konwencjonalnej” (Materials and technological aspects in conventional
enegetic).
[25] Project — NB-294/ RM-7/99 “Opracowanie materiałów i technologii zwiększających
trwałość elementów kotła fluidalnego” (Elaboration of materials and technology of
life-time durability of fluidized bed boilers).
[26] H. Myalska, G. Moskal, K. Szymański, Surf. Coat. Technol. 260 (2014) 303–309.
[27] B. Formanek, K. Szymański, A. Hernas, Problemy Ekspolatacji 2 (2012) 57–66.
[28] J.M. Guilemany, J.M. de Paco, J. Nutting, J.R. Miguel, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 30 (1999)
1913–1921.
[29] G. Moskal, L. Swadźba, M. Hetmańczyk, B. Witala, B. Mendala, J. Mendala, P.
Sosnowy, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 32 (2012) 2025–2034.
[30] G. Moskal, L. Swadźba, M. Hetmańczyk, B. Witala, B. Mendala, J. Mendala, P.
Sosnowy, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 32 (2012) 2035–2042.