Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Geography 3rd Edition Paul Guinness

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Cambridge
IGCSE and O Level
®
Geography
Third edition
Paul Guinness
Garrett Nagle
421363_FM_IGCSE_OL_Geo_i-viii.indd 1 17/01/18 9:35 AM

Garrett Nagle would like to dedicate this book to Angela, Rosie, Patrick and Bethany — for their help and patience in the
production of the book.
Paul Guinness would like to dedicate this book to Mary.
IGCSE® is a registered trademark

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© Paul Guinness and Garrett Nagle 2018
First published in 2009 by
Hodder Education
An Hachette UK Company
London NW1 3BH
Second edition published 2014
This third edition published 2018
Impression number 5 4 3 2 1
Year 2020 2019 2018
All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication may be reproduced
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A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library
ISBN 978 1 5104 2136 3

Contents
Fact file iv
World map v
Introduction vi
How to use this book vii
THEME 1 Population and settlement

1.1 Population dynamics 2
1.2 Migration 20
1.3 Population structure 29
1.4 Population density and distribution 34
1.5 Settlements (rural and urban) and service provision 38
1.6 Urban settlements 49
1.7 Urbanisation 70
End-of-theme questions 84
THEME 2 The natural environment

2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes 90
2.2 Rivers 107
2.3 Coasts 129
2.4 Weather 149
2.5 Climate and natural vegetation 156
THEME 3 Economic development

3.1 Development 172
3.2 Food production 194
3.3 Industry 205
3.4 Tourism 211
3.5 Energy 221
3.6 Water 231
3.7 Environmental risks of economic development 241
THEME 4 Geographical skills and investigations

4.1 Geographical and mathematical skills 266
4.2 Geographical investigations: coursework and the alternative to coursework 292
Command words 305
Glossary 306
Acknowledgements 316
Index 319
iii

Fact file
The world’s largest oceans and seas The world’s largest countries
Ocean or sea Area in million km2 Country Area in 1000 km2

Pacific Ocean 156 1 Russia 17,098
Atlantic Ocean 77 2 Canada 9,985
Indian Ocean 69 3 USA 9,834
Southern Ocean 20 4 China 9,598
Arctic Ocean 14 5 Brazil 8,515
Mediterranean Sea 3.0 6 Australia 7,692
Caribbean Sea 2.7 7 India 3,287
South China Sea 2.3 8 Argentina 2,780
Bering Sea 2.3 9 Kazakhstan 2,725
10 Algeria 2,382
Source: www.infoplease.com/world/world-geography/
oceans-and-seas 11 D. R. Congo 2,345
12 Saudi Arabia 2,000
13 Mexico 1,964
14 Indonesia 1,904
15 Sudan 1,886
16 Libya 1,760
17 Iran 1,648
18 Mongolia 1,564
19 Peru 1,285
20 Chad 1,284
Source: www.nationsonline.org
iv

v
INTRODUCTION
Introduction out of two on each theme. Questions are structured

with gradients of difficulty, are resource-based and
involve problem solving and free-response writing.
This book has been written to help you obtain the This paper is mainly concerned with Assessment
knowledge, understanding and skills you need for Objectives 1 (Knowledge with understanding),
geography IGCSE®/O Level. It will also increase your 2 (Skills and analysis) and 3 (Judgement and decision
awareness of geography from a local to a global scale, making). It is worth 45 per cent of the total marks.
using examples and case studies from around the Paper 2 Geographical skills (1 hour 30 minutes;
world. Geography is about people and places, so we 60 marks): Candidates answer all the questions. The
hope that you will use your own home area as much paper is based on testing the interpretation and
as possible to add to the material in this book. analysis of geographical information, decision making
We would encourage you to keep up to date with and the application of graphical and other techniques
geographical events — one way is through listening as appropriate. The questions do not require specific
to the news or reading about events in newspapers information about places, but do require the use of a
or on the internet. Geography is happening every 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 topographical map, and include a full
day, everywhere, and examiners love to read about key. This paper is worth 27.5 per cent of the total marks.
new developments — so think about your own Either
geographical location and new geographical events. Component 3, Coursework (school-based
This book has been written to follow closely the assessment; 60 marks): Teachers set one school-based
IGCSE/O Level syllabuses. It includes a number of assignment of up to 2000 words.
activities to help you succeed with the written Or
assessment, and guidance for your coursework. Helpful Paper 4, Alternative to coursework
support with essential maths skills is also provided. (1 hour 30 minutes; 60 marks): Candidates answer
Other resources published to support this student two compulsory questions, completing a series of
book include: written tasks based on the following three themes:
• a Revision and Study Guide, which provides a 1 Population and settlement
condensed version of the course, and includes 2 The natural environment
common errors (misconception in geography) and 3 Economic development
exam-style questions and answers (this book has not
been through the Cambridge endorsement process) The questions involve an appreciation of a range of
• a Workbook, which provides a series of questions techniques used in fieldwork studies. This paper is
relating to all themes. worth 27.5 per cent of the total marks.
Below are details of the exams and assessment that Scheme of assessment for O Level
you will experience. Be prepared — knowing what All candidates take three papers.
to expect will help you succeed in your exams. Make
sure you also use your teachers’ experience — they Paper 1 Geographical themes (1 hour 45
are an excellent resource waiting to be tapped. Good minutes; 75 marks): Candidates are required to
luck and enjoy your geographical studies. answer three questions (3 × 25 marks), one question
from each theme. This paper is worth 45 per cent of
the total marks.
Assessment Paper 2 Geographical skills (1 hour 30 minutes;
Scheme of assessment for IGCSE 60 marks): Candidates answer all the questions. This
paper is worth 27.5 per cent of the total marks.
All candidates take Paper 1, Paper 2 and either
Component 3 or Paper 4. Papers 1, 2 and 4 consist of Paper 3 Geographical investigations (1 hour
combined question papers and answer booklets where 30 minutes; 60 marks): Candidates answer two
candidates answer in the spaces provided. compulsory questions, completing a series of written
Paper 1 Geographical themes (1 hour 45 minutes; tasks based on the three themes. This paper is worth
75 marks): Candidates are required to answer three 27.5 per cent of the total marks.
questions (3 × 25 marks). They choose one question Paul Guinness
Garrett Nagle
vi

How to use this book
How to use this book

To make your study of IGCSE and O Level Geography as rewarding and successful as possible, this Cambridge
endorsed textbook offers the following important features:
Activities Key questions Tables, diagrams
Carefully designed activities support Each chapter starts with key questions Valuable information and statistics are
your learning and check your progress that focus on the subject material to be summarised in numerous diagrams,
on each topic. covered. charts and graphs.
Tables provide data drawn from up-to-
Plate tectonics
date sources in an easy-to-digest format.
1.6 Urban settlements Growth and functi
on of settlements
Table 1.11 A simple

rural hierarchy
Hamlet
Key questions General store
Village
Small marke
Increasing General store t town
Megalopolis Post office General store
H What are the characteristics of urban land use? population Increasing Post office
– Post office
H How does urban land use vary between countries at different levels of size number of Butcher
Conurbation Butcher
development? settlements –
Garage
H What is the effect of change in land use and rapid urban growth? – Garage
City Grocer
– Grocer
Hardware store
– Hardware store
Town Primary schoo
l Primary school
, baker, bike
shop, chemist,
electrical/
Village television/radio
shop, furniture
store, hairdresser,
Figure 2.4 World oes volcanoes government offices
local
volcan earthquakes Hamlet
distribution of convection
,
shoe shop, solicito restaurant,
and earthquakes movement is huge ds r,
cause of earth which rise towar Isolated home supermarket,
Earth’s interior, /farmstead undertaker
ed plumes of rising currents in the nents apart and
cause
These are isolat the crust to create ce, drag conti
▲ Figure 1.66
A hierarchy of hamlets as well
over hotspots. burned through the Earth’s surfa s happen becau
se settlement as serving their
e. These event The maximum
magma that have them to collid n layers and market towns distance that a own population.
consi sts of semi-molte )
ones — high-ordertogether with more specialised travel to buy a person is prepa
active volcanoes. the Earth’s interi or
or crust (com posed good is known red to
Earth’s surface are draw custom from functions. The market towns Low-order goods as the
have a small range range of a good.
(magma), so the around on the magma. There ) the surrounding order goods have whereas high-
s villages and
of plates) move (five of which carry continents needed to suppo a large range. The number of
Activities uakes as s
seven large plate
a
ution of earthq s (Figure 2.5). rt a good or servic people
1 Describe the
global distrib of smaller plate Indo-Australian, e is known as
2.4. us and and a number the Pacific, the
shown in Figure nce between shallow-foc s are b
The main plate American,
2 What is the
differe
uakes ? ctic, North American, South er ones include
deep-focus earthq Antar ian plates. Small Juan de Fuca
African and Euras an and
Iranian, Arabi and
the Caribbean, to one another,
Plate tectonics
move relative new
plates. These nic activity and
that describe
and e create tecto
is a set of ideas s, when they collid
Plate tectonics l distribution of earthquake landforms.
explain the globa and rift valleys. The
mountains Aleutian
volcanoes, fold Trench ▲ Figure 1.72 Downtown Seoul
North
Hellenic Plate
Eurasian Plate
Japan
Urban land use Interesting note
American Iranian Plate c
Plate Trench The growth of cities in the nineteenth and early Hong Kong is the only city in the world with more
Philippine
Juan de Arabian Mariana twentieth centuries produced a form of city that was completed skyscrapers than New York City.
Aleutian
Plate
Fuca Plate Anatolian d

Trench Plate
Plate Trench easily recognisable by its urban land use. It included
Pacific a central commercial area, a surrounding industrial
Caribbean
Cocos Plate
Mid-Atlantic
Ridge African
Plate
zone with densely packed housing, and outer zones Land value
Pacific Plate of suburban expansion and development. Geographers
Plate Plate Java The value of land (bid rent) varies with different
Trench
East
South Indo-A ustralian have spent a lot of time modelling these cities to land uses. For example, it varies for retail, office and
American
Pacific Plate Plate boundary Plate explain ‘how they work’. residential land uses (Figure 1.73a). Retail land uses
Tonga
Rise Peru/Chile uncertain Every model is a simplification. No city will ‘fit’ are attracted to more expensive central areas. Land at
Trench
Trench
Antarctic
these models perfectly, but there are parts of every the centre of a city is the most expensive for two main
Plate model that can be applied to most cities in the reasons: it is the most accessible land to public transport,
Maps
Antarctic Scotia Plate developed world. All models are useful because and there is only a small amount available. Land prices
Figure 2.5 The Plate they focus our attention on one or two key factors. generally decrease away from the central area, although
tectonic
world’s main 93 ▲ Figure 1.67
Settlement hierar
plates 48 (c) Gneeveguilla chy
village, (d) marke in County Kerry. (a) Isolate
t town Killorg d dwelling in Gullau
lin n, (b) linear settlem
ent Dohilla,
AM
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Interesting notes
421363_1.5_IGCS 43
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06.indd 93
E_OL_Geo_089-1
information.
421363_2.1_IGCS
Photos
27/12/17 9:00
AM
Fascinating facts are scattered

throughout the book. Vibrant photos with informative captions
Case study provide visual stimuli along with lots of
Up-to-date case studies based on a useful information.
range of international examples include End of theme questions
‘case study analysis’ questions designed End-of-theme questions provide Glossary
to help you understand and think about essential practice at answering
questions to the required standard. Key words, highlighted in bold in the text,
concepts in the real world.
are defined in the glossary.
THEME 2
Case st End-of-theme questions

udy: Po
Glossary
Lozère pulation Growth them
is
mountain a department and fun bed and form
size an ction of Topic 2.1 Earthquakes on the sea from the
farmin ous region, andin southeast d numb settlem and volcanoes rb sediments bar, while others form bay.
g France er of se ents waves distu or l
relief andand tourism. the ma . It is a rvices arine ridge e of a smal
Ho in eco ion in whic
h rock into a subm ss the whol
rearing. poor-quality wever, due to nomic activities in Lozè A type of eros scrape and grind away of a spit acro of the sea.
soil, far Table 1.1 re corrasion) development , curving indentation g of pebbles
of unempSurprisingly, min
the mo
unt are 3 Popula
sion (or
waves or a river open n, cons istin
migrat loyment. Thi
the reg g is
ion has mainly cattle
ainous tion cha Abra
carried by
,
Bay A wide re of coastal depositio It is usually
Year nge in
Lozère fragments be reached. ered coasts.
ion of you s is due
to a
a very low Popula , 1801–2 as a cliff face. place can Beach A featu coasts or sand on shelt
Table 1.1 ng
2 shows people in sea long history of e
rat 1801 tion 011 a surface such ease with which a a well- on exposed low water
marks.
rent decrease
fell bet rch of wo Yea r The generally have the high and that land value and
Howeve
ween the how the
1860s and population rk.
out-
1821
130,000
Popula Accessibility high accessibility will centrally located. defined by states ases.
r, of St-And 1921 tion
An area with port network and be ing signs of activity. model that district incre
slightly in recent yea the end 135,000 Bid rent A ral business the
. Thi rs of the
travel — s is due to impthe population twentieth cen cèze
ré-Cap 1841
1941
108,000
developed
trans
no curre ntly show not dista nce from the cent rsity — a measure of tic
142,000 ano A volca trees in areas that have as
Biological
dive ies, of gene
some embut the popula roved commu has increased tury. 1861 94,000 Active volc to increase Biodiversity animal spec ms that
tion is an nications 138,000 1961 Planting of be planted the Earth’s
plant and yste
unskilled ployment, but 1881 Afforestation Trees may and to variety of of the ecos
and ofte the job ageing one. Tou and easier 144 1981 82,000
ious ly held forests. n, to bind soil together with in species, and
n quite s are sea ,000 prev es er,
poorly sonal, parrism offers 1901 74,000 by vegetatio thus soil erosion. differenc ies. e living) matt
Table 1.1 paid. t-time, 130,000 2001 interception runo ff and for a spec ific age supp ort those spec from organic (onc industrial,
2 Popula
1800–2 tion cha 76, 2011 000 reduce over
land rate
rate Mortality mortality rate or child fuel produced or indirectly from l
006 nge in Case stu mortality Biofuel Any ts es. These fossi
St-And dy 73,000
Age-specific ple the infan
t tly from plan ultural wast
ré-Cap
cèze, 1 a Dra analysis timate) (es
e, for exam either direc estic or agric e of crops,
Year w a line or age rang niqu es to
commerc ial, dom
made from
a rang
graph to on of tech es can be
in Loz mortality rate. nology The applicati and vegetable fuel substitut eds, wheat and suga thousand population
r.
1800 b Des ère between show the cha tech g of animal
Popula
tion cribe 1801 nge
have dra the changes and 2011 (Ta in population
Agricultural growth and harvestin including oilse ber of live births
per
1821 wn. in popula ble control the ’s surfa ce The num
437 c Sug
gest rea tion in 1.13). t on the Earth Birth rate ral
river into seve l islands
1841
between: sons for the the graph you products. at any poin decreases as in a year. ivision of a
455 The pressure of the air above it; it nel The subd sediment as
smal
1861 i change Air pressure ht ge pressure
is 1013
Braided chan ed by deposition of mon in
1801 s in pop to the weig nels are com
479
ii 188 and 1881 ulation that is due level the avera called channels caus nel. Braided chan
1881 1 ases. At sea pressure are
427 iii 198 and 1981 ▲ Figure 2.108 Global
distribution of earthquak altitude incre Areas of relatively high d depressio
ns.
in the main
chan to
1901 d Com 1 and es
millibars (mb)
. ure are calle in metres wate r streams. ol intended
pare the 2011. areas of low press
lly given glacial melt and/ or symb
383
pop
Study Figure 2.108, which
shows the global distributio anticyclones; height, usua age, 1°C for shed name
1921 depart
ment wit ulation cha urement of A distingui or producer.
316 nge of earthquakes. n c Define the terms ‘focus’ nes, on aver in Brand product ental prob
lems
1931
(Ta
2 Table ble 1.12).
h those
in St-Ands in the Lozère a Describe the global and ‘epicentre’. Altitude Meas erature decli with every decrease identify a e of environm
distribution of earthquak d Using examples, explain level. Temp da The rang
222 1.1
in Lozère 4 shows data
ré-Cap b Suggest reasons for es. the main factors that above sea fore rises 1°C Brown Agen cities. but has
1962 cèze the distribution of earthquak increase the impacts of (and there ly been used
190 a Cho .
for ser es. earthquakes. every 100 m ce popu lation ciate d with large prev ious ing can
vices in
Topic 2.2 Rivers 100 m). to redu asso that has so that hous
1982 ose a sui seven set altitude of ies that aim site A site be made safe
148 agains table me tlement policies Polic Brownfield lict. It must
1999 b Des t the number thod to plot pop s Anti-natalist unts of become dere uction
104 cribe the of service ulation Study Figure 2.109. h large amo us and the main prod
and the relation s. size growth. through whic must be poro be built on
it.
left over from therefore be sold.
2006
c Identif number of ship between a Approximately how body of rock an aquifer Something
Table 1.1 145 high is the source of the d Describe the changes
in the river valley between Aquifer A rock of wate r. rodu ct e and can to emit a
4 y one exc service
s for the population size stream? Jordan flow. The mit
hold and trans through it, such as
By-p has some valu organisation
Service how, and eption A and point B. point water can process that permit that allows an
so that it can
s in Loz 174 reg
ère why, it to the pat ion b How much does it fall e Describe the valley permeable move
Settlem d Sug
gest does not ter . in order to reach the of the Jordan stream and s water to r above a layer Carbon cred
it A nhouse gase
s. the
ent
inform a hierarchy of fit the patn and sugges Waimakariri river? at point C. its valley rock that allow aquifer must occu such as clay. unt of gree not use up
ation pro settlem tern. t c How far is the Waimaka Aquifer A stone. The ing away, specified amo a company
that does remainder
of
tres
f Outline the likely human ing When can sell the

vided. ents bas
ed on the the Jordan stream?
riri river from the source
of activities that might occur a layer of sand ents the water seep is no Carb on trad entit led to
this area. Give reasons in
of rock that
prev
vation of crop
s; there sions it is .
e in me
for your choices. level of emis to another company s

s The culti the resource
Arable farm with livestock. ion. Arches its entitleme
nt lation that
ed by eros largest popu
tion
lvem ent re form cave s city The ort.

invo e featu e two Carrying capa ronment can supp ively
ral bridge-lik ion of a headland wher
Altitud
ed where relat severe

Popula
er,
t
Arch A natu
y
n envi form
l
s
ran
eros give
Railwa
a hole to
t
ing poo
from the . of sed

caves are large of weakness is expo
Doctor
Chemis
Mende
shop
ce
the headland s that receive less

ing (riv
are formed
Dentist
k through Cave Coastal

Restau
Post offi
Badaro meet and brea usually defined as

area aining lines
750 12,
soft rock cont
Hotel
ux city
a town or
Shops
Mobile
378 ✓ s are
riding
The part of
Cinem
Swimm
Bagnoi Arid Arid area of rainfall each year. n.

Swimm
s-les-B 800 ✓ ✓ wave actio ict (CBD)

ng
d.
897 0.5
than 250 mm nic material. faces. ness distr ity is foun
Tennis
Fishing
ains ✓ ✓
lake)
Cubière
grained volca Central busi of the commercial activ deep inside a volcano.
Canoei
913 ✓ ✓ ✓
s 6 thing
Ash Very fine- tion in which some of rock being
✓ ✓
Horse
229 6 ✓ a located
where most
Skiing
Altier 900 6 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ direc cles voir of magm nic materials.

197 25 ✓ 20 ✓ ✓ ✓ Aspect The which parti become reser
Chamber The rocks and other coar
se volca
tal erosion,
Villefo
rt 725 9
✓ ✓
✓ ✓ 6 6
✓ ✓
✓ tion The process by sea are rounded and Particles l wher e coas
209 11 9 25 ✓ ✓ Attri by a river or
the her. Cinders Smal g a coastline
, slope
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 ✓ 25 st one anot e and the
St-And
ré-Cap 605 11 11 9 ✓ 20 6 ✓ transported by being struck again downstream Cliff A rock-face alon movements are activ nature
cèze 639 ✓ 11 ✓ ✓ the distance me distance. The
smaller in size and more rounded as
✓ 25 ✓ ✓ 12 and mass
Key Ser
vices ava 450 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 25 ✓ 16 ler line beco weathering and for some rocks, their
near the shore ent attrition. (over 45°)
168 ✓ ✓ 20
become smal
✓
Numbers ilable to tou ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 11 9 ✓ 14
ases. Particles rises steeply nature of the
show dist rists and ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
✓
11
11 11
25 25
in a river incre rounded due to more
frequ
beac h due cliff depe nds on the ern.
ance in res ✓ ✓ 9 the of the ing patt cular
km to neaidents in settlem ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 11
smaller and
more back down their joint itions at a parti years.
rest ser ent: ✓
✓ ✓ ✓ 16 25 t of water hardness and ination of weather cond of 30
The movemen
✓ ✓ ✓
vice, i.e. ✓ ✓ Backwash or comb lly a minimum
25 = 25
km dist
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 168 t of gravity. ridge of sand d Climate The period of time — usua
ant ✓ to the effec re — a long is submerge place over a
✓ 14 sitional featu to a coastline that
Bar A depo ing parallel
when
offshore bars
pebbles runn develop as
421363_1
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THEME 1
Population and
settlement
Topics
1.1 Population dynamics
1.2 Migration
1.3 Population structure
1.4 Population density and distribution
1.5 Settlements and service provision
1.6 Urban settlements
1.7 Urbanisation
This theme looks at population dynamics, for example

birth rates and death rates, and ways in which
governments try to manage population change. It
looks at internal and international migration and
the impacts that they have. It analyses population
structure and considers variations in population
density around the world. The theme also looks at
rural and urban settlements, and the services that they
provide. It reviews urban structures in developed and
developing countries, and considers the impact of rapid
urbanisation.
421363_1.1_IGCSE_OL_Geo_001-019.indd 1 17/01/18 9:38 AM

1.1 Population dynamics
Key questions
H How rapidly has the world’s population increased?
H What are the reasons for such a rapid increase in the world’s population?
H What are the causes of a change in population size?
H What are the reasons for contrasting rates of natural population change?
H What are the causes and consequences of overpopulation and
underpopulation?
H How effective are population policies in achieving their objectives?
Neolithic Revolution, this period of economic change

significantly altered the relationship between people
and their environments. But even then the average
annual growth rate was less than 0.1 per cent per year.
However, as a result of technological advance
the carrying capacity of the land improved and
population increased. The carrying capacity is the
largest population that the resources of a given
environment can support. By 3500 bce, global
population reached 30 million. By 2000 years ago,
this had risen to about 250 million (Figure 1.2).
8000
7000
World population (millions)
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
▲ Figure 1.1 Athletes and spectators from around the world
took part in the Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, 2016 1000
The rapid increase in the BCE7000–6000 CE1 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050
world’s population
Year
▲ Figure 1.2 World population growth
During most of the early period in which humankind
first evolved, the global population was very low, Demographers (people who study human populations)
reaching perhaps some 125,000 people a million years estimate that world population reached 500 million
ago. Ten thousand years ago, when people first began by about 1650. From this time population grew at an
to domesticate animals and cultivate crops, world increasing rate. By 1800 global population had doubled
population was no more than 5 million. Known as the to reach 1 billion. Figure 1.3 shows the time taken for
2

The rapid increase in the world’s population
each subsequent billion to be reached, with the global However, only since the Second World War has
total reaching 7 billion in 2011. It took only 12 years population growth in the poor countries overtaken
for world population to increase from 6 billion to 7 that in the rich. The rich countries had their period
billion — the same timespan required for the previous of high population growth in the nineteenth
billion to be added. It has been estimated that world and early twentieth centuries, while for the less
population will reach 8 billion in 2023. developed countries rapid population growth has
occurred since about 1950.
Number of years to add each billion (year) The highest ever global population growth
First billion All of human history (1800) rate was reached in the early to mid 1960s when
Second 130 (1930) population growth in the less developed world
Third 30 (1960)
peaked at 2.4 per cent a year. At this time the term
population explosion was widely used to describe
Fourth 14 (1974)
this rapid population growth. But by the late 1990s
Fifth 13 (1987) the rate of global population growth was down to
Sixth 12 (1999) 1.8 per cent and by 2016 it had reduced further to
Seventh 12 (2011) 1.2 per cent. However, even though the rate of growth
Eighth 12 (2023)?
has been falling for over four decades, demographic
momentum means that the number of people added
▲ Figure 1.3 World population growth by each billion
each year remains very high. This is because there are
so many women in the child-bearing age range.
Table 1.1 shows population change in 2016, with a 10
Least
global population increase of 89.8 million in that 9 developed
year. This is the result of 147.2 million births and 8 countries
Population (billions)
57.4 million deaths. The bulk of this population 7

increase is in the developing countries. When the 6 Less
number of births exceeds the number of deaths, 5 developed
countries
world population increases. The greater the gap 4
between the number of births and deaths, the greater 3
the population increase. The very rapid growth of 2
the world’s population over the last 70 years or so, 1
More developed countries
illustrated by Figures 1.2 and 1.3, is the result of the 0
largest ever difference between the number of births 1950 1970 1990 2010 2030 2050
Year
and deaths in the world as a whole.
▲ Figure 1.4 Population growth in more and less developed
Table 1.1 World population clock, 2016 countries, 1950–2050
Natural World More Less developed

increase developed countries
The demographic transformation, which took
per… countries a century to complete in the developed world,
Year 89,795,313 1,134,242 88,661,107 has occurred in a single generation in some less
Day 246,015 3,108 242,907 developed countries. Fertility has dropped further
Minute 171 2 169 and faster than most demographers predicted 20
or 30 years ago. Except in Africa, where in around
20 countries families of at least five children are
Recent demographic change the average and population growth is still over
Figure 1.4 shows that both total population and the 2.5 per cent per year, birth rates are now declining
rate of population growth are much higher in the in virtually every country. According to the
less developed world than in the more developed Population Reference Bureau: ‘Developed countries
world. The fastest rate of growth is taking place as a whole will experience little or no population
in the least developed countries, which form the growth in this century, and much of that growth will
poorest subsection of the less developed world. be from immigration from less developed countries.’

1.1 PoPulation dynamics
Table 1.2 shows the ten largest countries in the world

by population size in 2016, and their population
The causes of a change in
projections for 2050. In 2016, China and India population size
together accounted for 36.5 per cent of the world’s
The birth rate is defined as the number of births per
population. The USA is a long way behind, in third
thousand population in a year. If the birth rate of a
place. While only two developed countries were in
country is 20/1000 (20 per 1000), this means that,
the top ten in 2016, only one — the USA — is in the
on average, for every 1000 people in this country
forecast for 2050.
20 births will occur in a year. The death rate is the
Interesting note number of deaths per thousand population in a year.
If the death rate for the same country is 8/1000,
The Population Reference Bureau estimates it means that, on average, for every 1000 people
that throughout the history of human population 8 deaths will occur.
about 108 billion people have lived on Earth. This The difference between the birth rate and the
means that about 6.5 per cent of all people ever death rate is the rate of natural change. If it
born are alive today. is positive it is termed natural increase. If it is
negative it is known as natural decrease. In the case
Table 1.2 The world’s ten largest countries in terms of given above there is a natural increase of 12/1000
population, 2016 and 2050 (20/1000 − 8/1000). This is the current rate of
natural increase for the world as a whole — look at
2016 2050
the birth and death rates given in Table 1.3. The rate
Country Population Country Population
(millions) (millions)
of natural change may also be shown as a percentage,
China 1,378 India 1,708
so in this example 12/1000 is equivalent to 1.2 per
India China
cent. Table 1.3 shows how much birth and death rates
1,329 1,344
USA USA
vary by world region.
324 398
Indonesia 259 Nigeria 398 Table 1.3 Birth and death rates, 2016
Brazil 206 Indonesia 360
Region Population Birth rate Death rate
Pakistan 203 Pakistan 344
(millions)
Nigeria 187 Brazil 226
World 7,418 20 8
Bangladesh 163 Congo, Dem. Rep. 214
More developed world 1,254 11 10
Russia 144 Bangladesh 202
Mexico 129 Egypt 169 Less developed world 6,164 22 7
Africa 1,203 36 10
Asia 4,437 18 7
Activities Latin America/ 637 17 6
1 With the help of Figures 1.2 and 1.3, briefly describe Caribbean
the growth of human population over time. North America 360 12 8
2 Define the term ‘carrying capacity’. Oceania 40 17 7
3 Comment on the information shown in Table 1.1.
4 Look at Figure 1.4. Describe the differences in Europe 740 11 11
population growth and projected growth in more
developed and less developed countries between Population change in a country is affected by (a) the
1950 and 2050. difference between births and deaths (natural change)
5 Look at Table 1.2:
and (b) the balance between immigration and
a Show the data for 2016 on an outline map of the
world. emigration (net migration). In Figure 1.5 the dividing
b Briefly describe the changes that are forecast to line indicates that the relative contributions of natural
occur by 2050. change and net migration can vary over time. For most
countries natural change is a more important factor in
population change than net migration.

The demographic transition model
Births Immigrants
The demographic transition
model
NATURAL NET The demographic transition model helps to explain
CHANGE MIGRATION the causes of a change in population size. Although
the populations of no two countries have changed in
exactly the same way, some broad generalisations can
be made about population growth since the middle of
Deaths Emigrants the eighteenth century. These trends are illustrated by
▲ Figure 1.5 Input–output model of population change the demographic transition model (Figure 1.7). A model
is a simplification of reality, helping us to understand
The immigration rate is the number of immigrants the most important aspects of a process. Demographic
per thousand population entering a receiving country transition is the historical shift of birth and death rates
in a year. The emigration rate is the number of from high to low levels in a population.
emigrants per thousand population leaving a country No country as a whole retains the characteristics
of origin in a year. The rate of net migration is of stage 1, which only applies to the most remote
the difference between the rates of immigration societies on Earth, such as isolated tribes in New
and emigration. Figure 1.6 shows some simple Guinea and the Amazon basin. All the developed
demographic calculations for the imaginary island countries of the world are now in stage 4 or
of Pacifica. stage 5. The poorest of the developing countries
are in stage 2. Most developing countries that have
undergone significant social and economic advances
Population at beginning of year: 5000 are in stage 3, while some of the newly industrialised
countries such as South Korea and Taiwan have
Population change during the year:
Births: 150 Deaths: 60
entered stage 4. Stage 5, natural decrease, is mainly
Immigrants: 20 Emigrants: 10 confined to eastern and southern Europe at present.
Stages 1 2 3 4 5
Rates of change based on data above
High Early Late Low
decrease
Natural
Birth rate: 30/1000 Death rate: 12/1000 stationary expanding expanding stationary
Rate of natural change: +18/1000
Immigration rate: 4/1000 Emigration rate: 2/1000
Births and deaths per 1000 per year
Rate of net migration: +2/1000

40 Birth rate
Total population at end of the year
= 5100 (natural change of 90 + 10 for net migration) Death rate
30
20
▲ Figure 1.6 Pacifica diagram and calculations Population

10
growth
Activities 0
Time
1 Define: ▲ Figure 1.7 The demographic transition model
a the birth rate
b the death rate » The high stationary stage (stage 1): The birth
c the rate of natural change. rate is high and stable while the death rate is high
2 What is net migration?
3 Look at Table 1.3. Calculate the rate of natural
and fluctuating due to famine, disease and war at
change for each region. particular times. Population growth is very slow and
4 Look at Figure 1.6. Imagine that the population of the there may be periods of considerable decline. Infant
island at the beginning of the year was 4000 rather mortality is high and life expectancy low. A high
than 5000. Calculate the rates of change for this new proportion of the population is under the age of 15.
starting population figure. Society is pre-industrial, with most people living in
rural areas, dependent on subsistence agriculture.
5

» The early expanding stage (stage 2): The death » for those countries in stage 3 the fall in fertility
rate declines to levels never before experienced. has also been steeper
The birth rate remains at its previous level because » the relationship between population change and
the social norms governing fertility take time to economic development has been much weaker.
change. As the gap between the two vital rates
widens, the rate of natural change increases to a Activities
peak at the end of this stage. The infant mortality
1 What is a geographical model (such as the model of
rate falls and life expectancy increases. The demographic transition)?
proportion of the population under 15 increases. 2 Explain the reasons for declining mortality in stage 2.
The main reasons for the decline in the death 3 Why does it take some time before fertility follows the
rate are: better nutrition; improved public health, fall in mortality?
particularly in terms of clean water supply and 4 Suggest why the birth rate is lower than the death
rate in some countries (stage 5)?
efficient sewerage systems; and medical advances. 5 How has demographic transition differed in the more
Considerable rural-to-urban migration occurs developed world and the less developed world?
during this stage.
» The late expanding stage (stage 3): After a period
of time social norms adjust to the lower level of Reasons for contrasting
mortality and the birth rate begins to decline.
Urbanisation generally slows and the average age rates of population change
increases. Life expectancy continues to increase and Population change is governed by three factors:
infant mortality to decrease. Countries in this stage fertility, mortality and migration. This section
usually experience lower death rates than nations looks at influences on fertility and mortality, while
in stages 4 and 5, due to their relatively young migration is covered in more detail in Topic 1.2.
population structures.
» The low stationary stage (stage 4): Both birth The factors affecting fertility
and death rates are low. The former is generally The most common measure of fertility is the birth
slightly higher, fluctuating somewhat due to rate, but other more detailed measures are used at a
changing economic conditions. Population more advanced level of study. One of these measures
growth is slow. Death rates rise slightly as the is the total fertility rate, which is illustrated in
average age of the population increases. However, Figure 1.8. The total fertility rate is the average
life expectancy still improves as age-specific number of children a woman has during her lifetime.
mortality rates continue to fall. Table 1.4 shows the countries with the highest and
» The natural decrease stage (stage 5): In a limited lowest total fertility rates in 2016.
but increasing number of countries, mainly European,
the birth rate has fallen below the death rate. In the
7
absence of net migration inflows these populations
Number of children per woman
are declining. Examples of natural decrease include 6 Least

Germany, Belarus, Bulgaria and Ukraine. developed
5
Contrasts in demographic 4
transition 3
Less
developed
There are a number of important differences in the way
2
that developing countries have undergone population
change compared with the experiences of most developed 1 Industrial
nations before them. In the developing world:
0
» birth rates in stages 1 and 2 were generally higher
1950–55
1955–60
1960–65
1965–70
1970–75
1975–80
1980–85
1985–90
1990–95
1995–2000
2000–05
2005–10
» the death rate fell much more steeply

» some countries had much larger base populations
and thus the impact of high growth in stage 2 and ▲ Figure 1.8 Total fertility rates in industrial, less developed
the early part of stage 3 has been much greater and least developed countries, 1950–2010
6

Reasons for contrasting rates of population change
Table 1.4 Countries with the highest and lowest fertility rates, generally. Indonesia sees education as essential
2016 for its future development (Figure 1.11).
Total fertility Total fertility In some countries religion is an important
Highest rate Lowest rate factor. For example, the Muslim and Roman
Niger 7.6 South Korea 1.2 Catholic religions oppose artificial birth control.
South Sudan 6.7 Romania 1.2 Most countries that have population policies have
Congo, Dem. 6.5 Singapore 1.2 been trying to reduce their fertility by investing in
Rep. birth control programmes.
Chad 6.4 Taiwan 1.2
Somalia 6.4 Bosnia- 1.3 Extending education
Herzegovina opportunities
Burundi 6.1 Greece 1.3
Angola 6.0 Moldova 1.3
Mali 6.0 Poland 1.3 Lower population
growth
Mozambique 5.9 Portugal 1.3
Uganda 5.8 Spain 1.3
The factors affecting fertility can be grouped into Increasing prosperity

four categories:
▲ Figure 1.9 Education and development
» Demographic: Other population factors,
particularly mortality (death) rates, influence 8
fertility. Where infant mortality is high, it is 7
usual for many children to die before reaching
Total fertility rate
6
adult life. In such societies, parents often have 5
many children to compensate for these expected 4
deaths. The infant mortality rate is the number 3
of deaths of children under 1 year of age per 2
thousand live births per year. In 2016, the 1
infant mortality rate for the world as a whole 0

0 20 40 60 80 100
was 36/1000, ranging from 5/1000 in Europe to % girls enrolled in secondary school
57/1000 in Africa. It is not just coincidence that ▲ Figure 1.10 An international comparison between female
the continent with the lowest fertility is Europe secondary education and total fertility rates
and the continent with the highest fertility is
Africa. The infant mortality rate is generally
regarded as a prime indicator of socio-economic
progress. Over the world as a whole infant
mortality has declined sharply during the last
half century.
» Social/cultural: In some societies, particularly
in Africa, tradition demands high rates of
reproduction. Here the opinion of women in
the reproductive years may have little influence
weighed against intense cultural expectations.
Education, especially female literacy, is the key
to lower fertility (Figures 1.9 and 1.10). With
education comes a knowledge of birth control,
greater social awareness, more opportunity
for employment and a wider choice of action ▲ Figure 1.11 A school in Indonesia

» Economic: Fertility rates tend to be highest in the figures of 84 years (males) and 89 years (females)
world’s least developed countries (Figure 1.8). In in San Marino. The lowest life expectancy, according
many of the least developed countries children are to the 2016 World Population Data Sheet, was in
seen as an economic asset because of the work they Swaziland (males 50, females 48).
do, often on very small farms, and also because of The twentieth century fall in mortality was
the support they are expected to give their parents particularly marked after the Second World War,
in old age. In many poor countries there is little or which had provided a tremendous impetus for
no government support for elderly people. In the research into tropical diseases. Rates of life
developed world the general perception is reversed expectancy at birth have converged significantly
and the cost of the child dependency years is a between rich and poor countries over the past 50
major factor in the decision to begin or extend a years in spite of a widening wealth gap. However,
family. Economic growth allows greater spending on it must not be forgotten that the ravages of AIDS
health, housing, nutrition and education, which is in particular have caused recent decreases in life
important in lowering mortality and in turn reducing expectancy in some countries.
fertility. Government statistics published in the UK Table 1.5 Life expectancy at birth, 2016
in 2010 showed that people were getting married
5 years later than a decade before, with couples in Region Males Females
the UK now typically in their mid-30s when getting World 70 74
married. Many other countries have followed this More developed world 76 82
trend. In general, an increase in the average age of Less developed world 68 72
marriage leads to a fall in the birth rate. Africa 59 62
» Political: There are many examples in the past Asia 71 74
century of governments attempting to change the Latin America/Caribbean 72 79
rate of population growth for economic and strategic North America 77 81
reasons. During the late 1930s Germany, Italy and Oceania 75 80
Japan all offered inducements and concessions Europe 75 81
to those with large families. In more recent years
Malaysia has adopted a similar policy. Today, The causes of death vary significantly between the
however, most governments that try to change developed and developing worlds (Figure 1.12). Aside
fertility want to reduce population growth, although from the challenges of the physical environment in
some countries, such as Russia, are concerned about many developing countries, a range of social and
their populations declining because the birth rate economic factors contribute to the high rates of
has fallen below the death rate. infectious diseases. These include:
Factors affecting mortality » poverty

» poor access to healthcare
Life expectancy at birth is the average number
» antibiotic resistance
of years a newborn infant can expect to live under
» changing human migration patterns
current mortality levels. In 1900 the world average
» new infectious agents.
for life expectancy is estimated to have been about
30 years but by 1950–55 it had risen to 46 years. When people live in overcrowded and insanitary
By 1980–85 it had reached a fraction under 60 years conditions, communicable diseases such as
and is presently 72 years, with men living to an tuberculosis and cholera can spread rapidly. Limited
average of 70 years and women averaging 74 years access to healthcare and medicines means that
(Table 1.5). However, the global average masks otherwise treatable conditions such as malaria and
significant differences by world region. The highest tuberculosis are often fatal to poor people. Poor
life expectancy of 79 years is in North America, nutrition and deficient immune systems are also
while the lowest of 60 years is in Africa. Individual key risk factors for several big killers such as lower
countries show an even wider range with the highest respiratory infections, tuberculosis and measles.

World Health Activities

Organization 1 Discuss three factors that cause the birth rate to vary
from one part of the world to another.
What are the main differences between rich and poor 2 Describe the relationship shown in Figure 1.10
countries with respect to causes of death? between the total fertility rate and the percentage of
Online Q&A girls enrolled in secondary school.
30 April 2012 3 Compare the changes in total fertility rates between
the three groups of countries shown in Figure 1.8.
Q: What are the main differences between rich and poor countries
with respect to causes of death? 4 Describe and explain the variations in life expectancy
at birth shown in Table 1.5.
A: In high-income countries almost 50% of the deaths are among
5 What are the main differences in the causes of death
adults 80 and over. The leading causes of death are chronic diseases:
cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive lung disease, cancers, between countries at different levels of economic
diabetes or dementia. Lung infection remains the only leading development (Figure 1.12)?
infectious cause of death.
In middle-income countries, chronic diseases are the major killers,

just as they are in high-income countries. Unlike in high-income
countries, however, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and road traffic accidents
The current demographic divide
also are leading causes of death. Although average population growth has slowed
In low-income countries around 40% of all deaths are among globally, the range of demographic experience
children under the age of 14. Although cardiovascular diseases
together represent the leading cause of death in these countries,
has actually widened. Growth rates have remained
infectious diseases (above all HIV/AIDS, lower respiratory infection, high in many countries while they have fallen
tuberculosis, diarrhoeal diseases and malaria) together claim more
lives. Complications of pregnancy and childbirth together continue
steeply in others. These diverging trends have
to be a leading cause of death, claiming the lives of both infants created a demographic divide between countries
and mothers.
where population growth remains high and those
▲ Figure 1.12 World Health Organization — what are the main with very slow-growing, stagnant or declining
differences between rich and poor countries with respect to populations. International migration is now the most
causes of death? unpredictable factor. For example, in the UK the
Public health campaigns can help to reduce the birth rate has risen recently due to high levels of
spread of disease. Figure 1.13 shows a poster immigration.
produced by the government of the city of Buenos Four groups of countries can be recognised in
Aires, Argentina in an attempt to eliminate the terms of projected population change to 2050
mosquitoes that spread dengue fever. (Figure 1.14):
» Countries that are projected to decline in population
between 2005 and 2050. Less than 15 per cent of
the world’s population lives in such countries, which
include Russia, Germany, Japan and Italy.
» Slow population growth countries, which will increase
their populations by 25 per cent at most by 2050.
China is the most important country in this group.
» Medium population growth countries, which
include the USA, Bangladesh, Brazil and India.
For example, the USA is projected to increase
its population by 42 per cent between 2005 and
2050.
» High population growth countries, which
accounted for only 8 per cent of world population
in 2005. Except for a few oil-exporting countries,
nearly all of the high population growth countries
are in the UN’s list of least developed countries.
Many are in Africa, but the list also includes
Afghanistan, Guatemala and Haiti.
▲ Figure 1.13 Dengue fever poster in Buenos Aires
9

1.6
The epidemic has been particularly concentrated in
southern Africa. The factors responsible for such high
Population increase/decrease in billions
1.4
China
rates include:
1.2 India
1.0
» poverty and social instability that result in family
disruption
0.8 » high levels of other sexually transmitted infections
0.6 » the low status of women
» sexual violence
0.4
» high mobility, which is mainly linked to migratory
0.2 labour systems
» ineffective leadership during critical periods in the
0
epidemic’s spread.
–0.2
Asia Africa Latin North Oceania Europe The impact of HIV/AIDS
America America
• Labour supply — the economically active population
▲ Figure 1.14 Projected population change by region, 2005–50 reduces as more people fall sick and are unable to
work. This can have a severe impact on development. In
Mortality due to HIV/AIDS the worst affected countries the epidemic has already
reversed many of the development achievements
Although in general mortality continues to fall around of recent decades. In agriculture, food security is
the world, in some countries it has risen in recent threatened as there are fewer people able to farm and to
decades. HIV/AIDS (Figure 1.15) is the major reason for pass on their skills.
such increases in mortality. However, the global battle • Dependency ratio — those who contract HIV are mainly in
against AIDS is showing significant signs of success. the economically active population. An increasing death
rate in this age group increases the dependency ratio.
In 2015, 1.1 million people died from AIDS-related
• Family — AIDS is impoverishing entire families and
causes worldwide — which was 45 per cent fewer many children and old people have to take on the role of
deaths than in 2005. According to UNAIDS in 2015: carers. Adult deaths, especially of parents, often causes
households to be dissolved. The large number of orphaned
» Eastern and southern Africa remained the region
children in some areas puts a considerable strain on local
most affected, with 19 million people living with communities and on governments in developing countries.
HIV. This region also recorded the highest number • Education — with limited investment in education many
of AIDs-related deaths (470,000). young people are still unaware about how to avoid the
» Worldwide, 2.1 million people became newly risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. In addition there are a
infected with HIV. considerable number of teachers who have AIDS and are
» Not all world regions had witnessed a decline in too ill to work. UNICEF has stressed how the loss of a
significant number of teachers is a serious blow to the
AIDS-related deaths. Between 2010 and 2015 the future development of low-income countries.
number of people dying from this cause in the Middle
• Poverty — there is a vicious cycle between AIDS and
East and North Africa increased by 22 per cent. poverty. AIDS prevents development and increases the
impact of poverty. Poverty worsens the AIDS situation due
to economic burdens such as debt repayments and drug/
medical costs.
• Infant and child mortality — mortality rates increase as
AIDS can be passed from mother to child.
Activities
1 With reference to Figure 1.14, explain what you
understand by the term ‘demographic divide’.
2 What are the factors responsible for such high
prevalence rates of HIV/AIDS in southern Africa?
3 How does HIV/AIDS affect communities where
prevalence rates are high?
▲ Figure 1.15 World AIDS Day is recognised all over the world
10

Case study: Kenya — a country with a high rate of natural population growth
Kenya has a high rate of population growth (Figure 1.16). Kenya’s total fertility rate is falling, in line with most other
Between 1969 and 2009 the country’s population African countries. However, even if it drops to the forecast
increased more than threefold from 10.9 million to of 3.7 children per woman by 2030, the population will
38.6 million. By 2016, Kenya’s population had reached still grow to 65.9 million (Figure 1.16). This will be almost
45.4 million. Such a rate of increase has been due to six times the population in 1969. Such rapid population
several factors: increase puts heavy pressure on a country’s resources,
• A high number of births per woman: in 2016 the particularly food, water, housing, health and education.
Kenyan average was 3.9 children per woman (down An analysis of family planning in Kenya showed that:
from 4.6 in 2009). This compares with the current • women with more education have fewer children
global average of 2.5. • fewer than one-half of births are attended by a skilled
• Falling death rates, particularly in infant mortality: in provider (doctor, nurse, midwife etc.)
2016, the Population Reference Bureau estimated • the poorest women have the highest unmet need for
that infant mortality in Kenya had fallen to 39/1000. family planning
This compares with the average for Africa as a whole of • many adolescents have sex before age 15
57/1000. • birth spacing of at least 2 years has a big impact on
• A steady and significant increase in life expectancy: child health and well-being.
in 2016 life expectancy was over 62 years in Kenya Kenya has a very high youth dependency ratio, with 42 per
compared with 60 for Africa as a whole. cent of the population under 15. Figure 1.17 shows that
65.9
Kenya has a classic population pyramid for a country with
Population (millions) a high population growth rate. A rapidly growing population
52.6 results in a lower amount of land per capita available to
farmers and their children. This is a major issue as about
70 per cent of the country’s population live in rural areas. A
38.6 recent survey showed that 67 per cent of farmers thought
that the size of their land holding was not sufficient for their
28.7 children. Young people who cannot find work on the land
21.4 often migrate to urban areas. Such rural-to-urban migration
15.3
is a significant phenomenon in Africa. However, although the
10.9 economy is growing, youth unemployment is a considerable
problem as the rate of population increase is greater than the
rate of job creation. The World Bank estimates that 50 per
cent of Kenya’s population will live in urban areas by 2033.
1969 1979 1989 1999 2009 2020 2030 Although the poverty rate fell from 47 per cent in 2005
Estimated year to 38 per cent in 2012, Kenya remains among the most
▲ Figure 1.16 The growth and projected growth in Kenya’s unequal countries in Africa. While clear progress has
population between 1969 and 2030 been made in health, education, infrastructure and other
aspects of society, a significant proportion of the population
100+ continue to live in fragile conditions with sub-standard
95–99
90–94
access to water, sanitation and energy (Figure 1.18). The
Male 85–89 Female situation is particularly difficult in the north and northeast.
80–84
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
4 3.2 2.4 1.6 0.8 0 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4
Population (millions) Age Population (millions)
group
▲ Figure 1.18 Overcrowding in Kibera — Nairobi’s and
▲ Figure 1.17 Population pyramid for Kenya (2016) Africa’s largest slum
11

In recent decades, both erratic weather patterns associated 2 Using Figure 1.16, produce a table to show population
with climate change and the impact of HIV/AIDS have been increase in Kenya between 1969 and 2030.
major contributors to high poverty levels. 3 Study Figure 1.17 and describe the population structure
of Kenya. Refer to the populations:
Case study analysis a under 15 b 15–64 c 65 and over.
1 Use the atlas map at the beginning of the book to 4 Briefly explain the reasons for Kenya’s population structure.
describe the location of Kenya. 5 What are the problems associated with high population
growth in Kenya?
Case study: Population decline in Russia

In 2016 Russia’s birth and death rates were equal, at The decline in Russia’s population has been due to a
13/1000, resulting in a natural change of zero. Such combination of economic and social factors. Population
stagnant population change or natural decrease is common decline or very slow growth has been due to:
in eastern Europe. Russia’s population reached its highest
• low birth rates
level of almost 148.7 million in 1991 (Figure 1.19 and
• high death rates, particularly among men
Table 1.6), just before the break-up of the Soviet Union.
• emigration.
Since then it has been mainly in decline, although very
slight increases have been registered in some recent years. The change in recent decades from a communist centrally
In 2016 the Russian population stood at 144.3 million. With a planned economy to a market economy has resulted in
population density of just over 8 km2, this is one of the most some people being much better off, while many other
sparsely populated countries in the world (Figure 1.20). people struggle to make a reasonable living. Inequality has
increased considerably in Russia, with unemployment and
150
poverty being major concerns for many people. The cost of
raising children is perceived to be high when both parents
140
Population (millions)
Russia’s need to work to make ends meet. These circumstances have

highest had a big impact on decisions to start or extend a family.
130 population Education standards for women in Russia are high and
so women in general have the decisive say in decisions
120 about family size. The use of contraception is high, with
almost 70 per cent of married women aged 15–49 using
110 various methods.
The difference in life expectancy between men and
100 women in Russia is considerable. In 2016 life expectancy for
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2015
Year women was 77 years, but only 66 for men. This extremely
low level for men in a European country has been attributed
▲ Figure 1.19 Russia’s population, 1950–2015 to very high intakes of alcohol, a high incidence of smoking,
pollution, poverty and the ravages of HIV/AIDS and other
Table 1.6 Russia’s population, 1991–2050
diseases. The high male death rate has resulted in there
Year Population (millions) being almost 11 million more women than men in Russia.
1991 148.7 Population decline has had its greatest impact in rural
2016 144.3 areas, with 8500 villages said to have been abandoned
2030 (estimate) 142.6 since 2002. The cold northern regions of Russia have
2050 (estimate) 136.4 experienced the highest levels of depopulation. Such are
the concerns of many Russians about the future that a
sociological survey in June 2011 found that one-fifth of the
Russian population are potential emigrants.
In 2008 Russia began honouring families with four
or more children with a Paternal Glory medal. The
government has urged Russians to have more children,
sometimes suggesting that it is a matter of public duty.
Case study analysis
1 Use the atlas map at the beginning of the book to
describe the location of Russia.
2 Describe the changes in Russia’s population shown in
▲ Figure 1.20 The trans-Siberian railway. Many communities Figure 1.19 and Table 1.6.
in Asiatic Russia have declined in population 3 Discuss the reasons for population decline in Russia.
12

Overpopulation and underpopulation
» Water scarcity already affects every continent and

Interesting note
4 of every 10 people in the world.
In 2016 worldwide, thirteen countries had birth » A quarter of all fish stocks are overharvested.
rates lower than their death rates, thus registering » There are concerns that global peak oil production
a natural decrease in population. Bulgaria and will come as early as the next decade.
Serbia had the highest rates of natural decrease Where an individual country is placed in terms of its
at −0.6 per cent (−6/1000). relationship between population and resources is a
matter of opinion. There may be big differences in the
views of people living in the same country. Such views
Overpopulation and can change over time, particularly with economic cycles.
The Netherlands and the UK are two of the most
underpopulation densely populated countries in Europe. Not everyone
The idea of optimum population has been mainly in these countries thinks they are overpopulated, but
understood in an economic sense (Figure 1.21). At it does seem that an increasing number of people are
first, an increasing population allows for a fuller of this opinion. In the UK, an organisation called the
exploitation of a country’s resource base, causing Optimum Population Trust states that 30 million is
living standards to rise. However, beyond a certain the optimum population for the country. At present
level, rising numbers place increasing pressure on the population of the UK is about 66 million. Signs
resources and living standards begin to decline. of population pressure in both the UK and the
The highest average living standards mark the Netherlands include:
optimum population. Before that population is » intense competition for land
reached, the country or region can be said to be » heavy traffic congestion
underpopulated. As the population rises beyond » high house prices
the optimum, the country or region can be said to » high environmental impact of economic activity
be overpopulated. » pressure on water resources.
In terms of the planet as a whole, there are
many indications that human population is pushing Two of the most sparsely populated developed
up against the limits of the Earth’s resources. For countries in the world are Australia and Canada.
example: Throughout the history of both countries the
general view has been that they would benefit
» One-quarter of the world’s children have protein- from higher populations. Thus Australia and Canada
energy malnutrition. have welcomed significant numbers of immigrants.
» The long-term trend for grain production per However, in recent years, with an uncertain economic
person is falling. climate, both countries have been much more
» About 40 per cent of agricultural land is selective in terms of immigration. Although both
moderately degraded and 9 per cent is highly countries are very large in size, they have large areas
degraded. of inhospitable landscape.
Optimum population: Overpopulation:

the size of population an increase in population
that permits the full Optimum or decrease in natural
utilisation of the natural population resources which leads to a
GDP per head
resources of an area, giving decrease in standards of

maximum per capita output living for the population as
and standard of living. Under- Over- a whole. This is related to
population population carrying capacity which is
the maximum intensity of
Underpopulation: use which a resource can
population is too small to sustain without an
develop its resources unacceptable deterioration
effectively. of living standards.
Total population
▲ Figure 1.21 Optimum population, overpopulation and underpopulation

13

In the developing world, China and Bangladesh are population. In contrast, Malaysia has been concerned
countries that many would view as overpopulated. that it is underpopulated. In 1982, when Malaysia’s
The ‘one-child’ policy, which operated between 1979 population was below 15 million, the government
and 2016, confirmed the Chinese government view. announced that the country should aim for an ultimate
Bangladesh has one of the highest population densities population of 70 million. A range of benefits was put in
in the world and struggles to provide for many in its place to encourage people to have larger families.
Case study: Is Bangladesh an overpopulated country?

‘Spiraling population strains Bangladesh’s sustainability.’ Bangladesh is a relatively small and resource-poor country
with a land area of 147,000 km2. This compares with
Source: OneWorld South Asia, April, 2009
244,000 km2 in the UK. Yet the population of Bangladesh is
163 million compared with 66 million in the UK.
If small, largely urbanised countries such as Singapore The lack of natural resources is a major factor in
and small island states such as the Maldives are not overpopulation in Bangladesh, as is rapid population
considered, then Bangladesh (Figure 1.22) has the highest growth. The current rate of natural increase in Bangladesh
population density in the world. At 1128 people per km2 its is 1.5 per cent. When Bangladesh became an independent
population density is about 20 times the global average. country in 1971 its population was about 75 million — just
This compares with 400 per km2 in India and 143 per km2 under half of the total today. The Population Reference
in China — two countries that many people associate Bureau estimates that the population of Bangladesh will
with overpopulation. Overpopulation cannot be judged by rise to 187 million by 2030 and 202 million by 2050. There
population density alone, but it is a useful starting point is already intense competition for the available resources
when considering the relationship between population and in Bangladesh. How will the country cope in the future
resources in a country. when it is already experiencing large-scale poverty and so
BHUTAN N
many other problems?
NEPAL Extremely high population pressure and the deprivation
associated with it is characteristic of both rural and
urban areas. Four-fifths of the population live in rural
Brahmaputra areas. The very small amount of cultivable land per
person has resulted in a very high level of rural poverty.
Saidpur
INDIA Most families have to survive on extremely small plots of
land. This means that there is not enough work available
for many people. About 40 per cent of the population is
underemployed, working a limited number of hours a
Rajshahi week at low wages. Underemployment is not just confined
BANGLADESH INDIA to the countryside, but affects urban areas too.
Meghna
Ganges The regular threat of cyclones and flooding makes this
INDIA Dhaka problem much worse. Eighty per cent of the country is
situated on the floodplains of the Ganges, Brahmaputra,
Meghna and those of several other minor rivers. Much
Khulna of the country is close to sea level and about 40 per cent
is regularly flooded during the monsoon season. Major
floods can cause considerable loss of life and destroy vital
Chittagong
infrastructure, often setting back development many years.
Where possible, people move to higher land, increasing
Mouths of the Ganges the already overcrowded nature of such areas. Major
Bay of Bengal 0 100 km floods increase the level of rural-to-urban migration,
MYANMAR with the majority of migrants heading for the capital city
(BURMA) Dhaka. Other urban areas such as Chittagong, Khulna
88º 90º 92º and Rajshahi (Figure 1.22) are also growing in population
at very rapid rates. Around 8000 hectares of cultivable
▲ Figure 1.22 Map of Bangladesh
14

Overpopulation and underpopulation
was recently ranked as the least habitable city among

140 cities surveyed by the Economist Intelligence Unit.
The 2016 Human Development Index, which ranks all the
countries of the world according to their quality of life,
placed Bangladesh 139th in the world.
Land is being lost to rising sea levels, a process
associated with global warming. The United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has
predicted that as sea levels rise, by 2050 about 35 million
people from Bangladesh will cross the border into India in
search of more secure living conditions.
Poor governance and corruption have undoubtedly
hindered development in Bangladesh. However, national
and international efforts to improve the lives of the
population have registered progress. For example, the
▲ Figure 1.23 Urban overcrowding in Bangladesh World Bank noted in 2013 that the number of people in
poverty in Bangladesh had fallen from 63 million in 2000
land are lost every year due to urbanisation, industrialisation
to 47 million in 2010. The question is: can Bangladesh
and the expansion of infrastructure. This is potential food
continue to reduce poverty in the future?
production that Bangladesh can ill afford to lose.
Living conditions in Dhaka and the other main urban Case study analysis
areas are in a continuous state of deterioration. Many 1 Describe the geographical location of Bangladesh.
people lack basic amenities such as electricity and clean 2 How does the physical geography of the country make
drinking water. Dhaka (Figure 1.23) has become one of life difficult for its people?
the most crowded cities in the world with a population 3 What evidence would you produce to support the
density of 43,000 per km2. This rapidly growing megacity statement that ‘Bangladesh is an overpopulated country’?
Case study: Is Australia an underpopulated country?

Australia is generally regarded as an example of an
underpopulated country although there are some experts
who would disagree because much of the interior of
the country is so inhospitable. In the world’s sixth
largest country in land area, most of the population is
concentrated in two widely separated coastal regions —
the southeast and east, and the southwest (Figure 1.24)
— and within these regions there is considerable
concentration in urban areas (Figure 1.25).
N
Darwin
▲ Figure 1.25 Sydney, Australia

This country of continental size had a population of only
24.1 million people in 2016 (Table 1.7). The population
Brisbane of Australia is forecast to rise to 31 million in 2030 and
41 million by 2050. The current population density is only
3 per km2 — one of the lowest figures in the world.
Perth Sydney
Australia is a resource-rich nation, exporting raw
Adelaide Canberra materials in demand on the global market all over the
Melbourne world. The country’s major resources include coal, iron
People per km2
100.0 or more
ore, copper, gold, natural gas and uranium. Australia also
10.0 or 100.0
Hobart
has great potential for renewable energy, particularly
1.0 or 10.0
0 1000 km
0.1 to 1.0 in terms of wind and solar power. Such an abundant
Less than 0.1 resource base has attracted a high level of foreign
direct investment.
▲ Figure 1.24 Population density map of Australia
15

Table 1.7 Comparing Bangladesh and Australia 500

Key
Indicator Bangladesh Australia Total growth
400
Population 2016 163 million 24 million Net overseas migration
Population forecast 2030 187 million 31 million Natural increase
Thousands
300
Population density 2016 1128 km2 3 km2
Rate of natural change 2016 1.5% 0.6% 200
Net migration rate 2016 −2/1000 +9/1000
Infant mortality rate 2016 38/1000 3.4/1000 100
Life expectancy at birth 2016 72 years 82 years

0
% urban 2016 34 89
82
88
91
94
03
09
12
85
00
06
15
97
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
19
20
20
20
19
GNI PPP per capita ($) 2016 3550 44,570
Year
Countries that need to import large amounts of natural ▲ Figure 1.26 Australia 1982–2015: net migration and natural
resources, such as China, Japan and Korea, have been increase
major investors in Australia. The country has a well-
developed infrastructure and a relatively highly skilled areas, which have suffered from out-migration for a
population, which enjoys a generally high income. number of decades. Figure 1.26 shows how important net
Australia exudes an image of an affluent outdoor lifestyle overseas migration has been to total population growth.
that attracts potential migrants from many different Another useful indicator of the population/resources
countries. Australia was ranked second in the world (after relationship is unemployment. Australia has a low rate of
Norway) according to the 2016 Human Development Index. unemployment by global standards. Unlike Bangladesh,
Net migration is a good measure of how attractive underemployment is not a significant problem. Australia
a country is to people from other countries. While scores highly for virtually all measures of quality of life,
Bangladesh has negative net migration (Table 1.7), including health and education. Although Australia’s
Australia has one of the highest positive net migration population is highly concentrated in certain areas, there
figures in the world. Australia’s extremely high gross are undoubtedly more genuine opportunities for population
national income per capita is not just a major attraction increase here than in most other parts of the world.
to potential international migrants, it is also a useful Case study analysis
statement of the opportunities available in the country and
the relationship between population and resources. 1 Describe the location of Australia.
Although Australia’s immigration policy has changed 2 Use Figure 1.24 to briefly comment on the population
over the years, the country has generally encouraged distribution of Australia.
immigration to develop the country’s resources and to 3 What evidence would you produce to support the
solve shortages of certain skills. Australia is particularly statement that ‘Australia is an underpopulated
keen for migrants to settle in the more remote rural country’?
The effectiveness of rate. Forming an opinion on demographic issues is

population policies one thing, but establishing a policy to do something
about it is much further along the line, so not all
Population policy encompasses all of the measures nations stating an opinion on population have gone
taken by a government aimed at influencing as far as establishing a formal policy.
population size, growth, distribution or composition. Most countries that have tried to control
Such policies may promote large families (pro-natalist fertility have sought to curtail it. In 1952 India
policies) or immigration to increase population size, became the first developing country to introduce
or encourage fewer births (anti-natalist policies) to a policy designed to reduce fertility and to aid
reduce population growth. A population policy may development with a government-backed family
also aim to modify the distribution of the population planning programme. Because India’s family planning
over the country by encouraging migration or by programme was perceived to be working, it was not
displacing populations. long before many other developing nations followed
A significant number of governments have officially India’s policy of government investment to reduce
stated positions on the level of the national birth fertility. In India the birth rate fell from 45/1000
16

The effectiveness of population policies
in 1951–61 to 41/1000 in 1961–71. By 1987 it was again encouraged. But by 1962 the government
down to 33/1000, falling further to 29/1000 in 1995. had changed its mind, heavily influenced by
By 2016 it had dropped to 22/1000. a catastrophic famine due in large part to the
relative neglect of agriculture during the pursuit of
Anti-natalist policy in China industrialisation. An estimated 20 million people
China, with a population in excess of 1.3 billion, died during the famine. A new phase of birth control
operates the world’s most severe family planning ensued in 1964, but just as the new programme
programme. Although it is the fourth largest was beginning to have some effect, a new social
country in the world in land area, 25 per cent of upheaval, the Cultural Revolution, got underway.
China is infertile desert or mountain and only 10 This period, during which the birth rate peaked at
per cent of the total area can be used for arable 45/1000, lasted from 1966 to 1971.
farming. Most of the best land is in the east and With order restored, a third family planning
south, reflected in the extremely high population campaign was launched in the early 1970s with the
densities found in these regions. Thus the balance slogan ‘Late, sparse, few’. However, towards the end
between population and resources has been a major of the decade the government felt that its impact
cause of concern for much of the latter part of the might falter and in 1979 the controversial ‘one-child’
twentieth century and the early part of the present policy was imposed. The Chinese demographer Liu Zeng
century (Figure 1.27). calculated that China’s optimum population was 700
million, and he looked for this figure to be achieved
by 2080.
Figure 1.28 shows changes in the birth and death
rates in China since 1950, and projected to 2050. The
impact of the one-child policy is very clear to see. Some
organisations, including the UN Fund for Population
Activities, have praised China’s policy on birth control.
Many others see it as a fundamental violation of civil
liberties because it has placed such extreme pressure on
couples to obey the policy. In July 2009, newspapers
in the UK and elsewhere reported that dozens of babies
had been taken from parents who had breached China’s
policy, and sold for adoption abroad.
50
45 Birth rate
▲ Figure 1.27 Beijing — crowds at the Forbidden City 40 Death rate
In the aftermath of the communist revolution 35

Rate per 1000
in 1949, population growth was encouraged 30

for economic, military and strategic reasons. 25
Sterilisation and abortion were banned and
20
families received a benefit payment for every
child. However, by 1954 China’s population had 15
reached 600 million and the government was 10
now worried about the pressure on food supplies
5
and other resources. Consequently, the country’s
first birth control programme was introduced in 0
1950–55
1955–60
1960–65
1965–70
1970–75
1975–80
1980–85
1985–90
1990–95
1995–2000
2000–05
2005–10
2010–15
2015–20
2020–25
2025–30
2030–35
2035–40
2040–45
2045–50
1956. This was to prove short-lived, for in 1958

the ‘Great Leap Forward’ began. Its objective was
rapid industrialisation and modernisation. The
Years
government was now concerned that progress might
be hindered by labour shortages and so births were ▲ Figure 1.28 China’s birth and death rates, 1950–2050
17

The one-child policy has been most effective in urban » the decrease in the supply of labour
areas, where the traditional bias of couples wanting » the long-term prospect of population decline.
a son is less. However, the story is different in rural
areas, where the strong desire for a male heir remains France’s relatively high fertility level (in European
the norm. In most provincial rural areas, government terms) can be partly explained by its long-term active
policy was gradually relaxed so that couples could family policy, adopted in the 1980s to accommodate
have two children without penalties. the entry of women into the labour force. The policy
Although the one-child policy has been very seems to have created especially positive attitudes
effective in reducing China’s birth rate, it has caused towards two- and three-child families in France.
other problems: France has taken steps to encourage fertility on a
number of occasions over the last 70 years. In 1939
» The policy has had a considerable impact on the the government passed the ‘Code de la Famille’,
gender ratio, which at birth in China is currently which:
119 boys to 100 girls. This compares with the
» offered financial incentives to mothers who stayed
natural rate of 106 to 100. This is already causing
social problems, which are likely to multiply in at home to look after children
» subsidised holidays
the future. Selective abortion after pre-natal
» banned the sale of contraceptives (this stopped
screening is a major cause of the wide gap
between the actual rate and the natural rate. But in 1967).
even if a female child is born, her lifespan may More recent measures to encourage couples to have
be sharply curtailed by infanticide or deliberate more children include:
neglect.
» longer maternity and paternity leave: maternity
» A paper published in 2008 estimated that China
had 32 million more men aged under 20 than leave, on near full pay, ranges from 20 weeks
women. The imbalance is greatest in rural areas for the first child to 40 or more for the third
because women are ‘marrying out’ into cities. child
» higher child benefits
In recent years, reference has been made to the
» improved tax allowances for larger families until
‘four-two-one’ problem whereby one adult child is
left with having to provide support for his or her the youngest child reaches 18
» pension schemes for mothers/housewives
two parents and four grandparents.
» 30 per cent reduction on all public transport for
» China’s low birth rate, 12/1000 in 2016, has
contributed to the country’s ageing population, three-child families
» child-oriented policies, for example provision
which has now become a major concern for the
government. of crèches and day nurseries — state-supported
daycare centres and nursery schools are available
In recent years there has been increasing debate for infants starting at the age of 3 months,
within China about the one-child policy. In 2015, the with parents paying a sliding scale according to
Chinese government announced it would relax the income
rules to allow all couples to have two children from » preferential treatment in the allocation of
March 2016. government housing.
Pro-natalist policy in France Overall, France is trying to reduce the economic cost
A relatively small but growing, number of countries to parents of having children. The country is close
now see their fertility as being too low. Such to the replacement level of 2.1 children per woman.
countries are concerned about: The 2016 Population Data Sheet put France’s total
fertility rate at 1.9. The only country in Europe with
» the socio-economic implications of population a higher rate was Kosovo at 2.3. Figure 1.29 shows
ageing the population growth rate in France from 2000
to 2014.
18

The effectiveness of population policies
0.7 French politicians have talked about demography

as a ‘source of vitality’ for the country. Some French
Population growth rate (%)
0.6 commentators also argue that there is a better work/

life balance in France compared with many other
0.5 European countries.
0.4
Activities
0.3
1 Define the term ‘optimum population’.
2 List three signs of population pressure in a country.
3 What is the difference between a pro-natalist policy
0.2 and an anti-natalist policy?
00
02
03
04
05
08
09
11
12
13
01
07
10
14
06
4 Why did China introduce its controversial one-child

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Year policy in 1979?

5 Describe the changes in China’s birth rate shown in
▲ Figure 1.29 Population growth in France, 2000–14 Figure 1.28.
6 State two problems cause by China’s one-child policy.
Although the average age of French mothers at 7 Suggest why China relaxed its population policy from
childbirth is still rising, it is still less than in many March 2016.
8 Give three measures introduced in France to
other European countries. Within France, the highest encourage couples to have more children.
level of fertility is among the immigrant population, 9 Describe the changes in France’s population growth
and even for those born in France the average is between 2000 and 2014 (Figure 1.29).
1.8 babies. French economists argue that, although
higher fertility means more expenditure on childcare
facilities and education, in the longer term it gives
the country a more sustainable age structure.
19

1.2 Migration
Key questions
H What is migration?
H What are the causes of migration?
H What are the impacts of migration on areas of both origin and destination?
people to migrate. An important pull factor is often

much higher wages in another country or region. The
nature of push and pull factors varies from country
to country (and from person to person) and changes
over time.
Intolerance
Adverse climatic Poor employment
conditions opportunities
Natural disasters Push Low income
Social upheaval Housing shortages
▲ Figure 1.30 Chinatown, San Francisco — a major Chinese

community in an American city
The nature of, and reasons A wide range of

amenities
Good job
prospects
for, population migration Attractive
Pull High wages
Migration is the movement of people across a environment
specified boundary, national or international, to

establish a new permanent place of residence. The High standard Improved housing
UN defines ‘permanent’ as a change of residence of living Tolerance
lasting more than 1 year. Migration has been a
major process in shaping the world as it is today. Its ▲ Figure 1.31 Push and pull factors
impact has been economic, social, cultural, political
and environmental. Few people now go through life
without changing residence several times. How many Voluntary and involuntary migrations
people in your class have lived in (a) different parts Figure 1.32 shows the main types of migration and
of your country (b) other countries? the barriers that potential migrants can face. Today,
immigration laws present the greatest obstacle to
Push and pull factors most potential international migrants, whereas in the
Figure 1.31 shows the main push and pull factors past the physical dangers encountered on the journey
relating to migration. Push factors are negative often presented the greatest difficulty. The cost of
conditions at the point or origin that encourage or migration was also generally higher in the past in real
force people to move. For example, a high level of terms (taking account of inflation) than it is today.
unemployment is a major push factor in a region Most countries now attempt to manage immigration
or a country. In contrast, pull factors are positive carefully, being most eager to attract people whose
conditions at the point of destination that encourage skills are in demand.
20

The nature of, and reasons for, population migration
Forced migration Voluntary migration

e.g. religious persecution (Pilgrim Fathers e.g. higher salaries (British doctors to the
to New England), famine, natural disasters USA), retirement to a warmer climate
(Americans to Florida)
Forced migration
barriers
Country – area Country – area
PUSH Voluntary migration PULL
of origin of destination
barriers
Return migration
Barriers to return
Prevention of voluntary movement
Reasons to return e.g. racial or political
e.g. lack of money, lack of awareness
e.g. earned enough money to return, problems in original area
of opportunities
causes of initial migration removed
▲ Figure 1.32 Types of migration and barriers to migration
The big distinction is between voluntary migration on) or by environmental catastrophes such as the
and involuntary (forced) migration. In voluntary nuclear contamination in Chernobyl.
migration the individual has a free choice about In the latter part of the twentieth century and the
whether to migrate or not. In involuntary migrations, beginning of the twenty-first century, some of the
people are made to move against their will and this world’s most violent and protracted conflicts have
may be due to human or environmental factors. The been in the developing world, particularly in Africa,
abduction and transport of Africans to the Americas the Middle East and Asia. These troubles have led to
as slaves was the largest involuntary migration in numerous population movements on a significant scale.
history. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Not all have crossed international frontiers to merit the
15 million people were shipped across the Atlantic term refugee movements. Instead many are internally
Ocean as slaves. The expulsion of Asians from displaced people. The current conflict in Syria has
Uganda in the 1970s when the country was under the produced large numbers of both refugees and internally
dictatorship of Idi Amin, and the forcible movement displaced people (Figure 1.33), as has conflict in Iraq,
of people from parts of the former Yugoslavia under Afghanistan and the former Yugoslavia. Major natural
the policy of ‘ethnic cleansing’, are much more recent disasters such as the Pakistan floods of 2010 and
examples. Migrations may also be forced by natural the Haiti earthquake in the same year created large
disasters (volcanic eruptions, floods, drought and so numbers of internally displaced people.
EGYPT: An estimated LEBANON: It has registered 720 000 N
Total displaced people 4.25 million
11 000 refugees were refugees but there are estimated to be
initially welcomed but are 300 000 more. UNHCR says 8000 enter Total refugees 2 million
now suffering the each day, a quarter of them children.
backlash after the The government estimates that the flow
overthrow of the Muslim of refugees has cost $806 million TURKEY 200 km
0
Brotherhood. Syrians already. Civil war has spilt over into
were associated with the Lebanon, with attacks in Beirut and
ousted regime’s support Tripoli.
for armed opposition to
Domiz camp Kawergosk camp
President Assad.
Aleppo
Idlib JORDAN: It already has 500 000 refugees in the biggest single camp at
TURKEY: More than 200 000 Zaatari (120 000 people). The influx has put pressure on water supplies.
Letakia
Syrian refugees are in 20 Refugees have doubled the population of the Mafraq authority in the
camps, but the total number is Hama SYRIA
north, and 393 000 are dispersed around the rest of the country.
unknown as thousands more Homs
Tripoli
are in private accommodation,
mosques and parks. Officials LEBANON SYRIA: Estimates suggest that 4.25 million Syrians are internally displaced,
warn that there is little Beirut while up to 6.8 million within the country need humanitarian aid. Internal
capacity for more. The influx Damascus refugees receive little or no international aid and most have been
has already cost Turkey $573 IRAQ
displaced several times. Tens of thousands are camped along the Turkish
million. border, in overcrowded, insanitary conditions.
JORDAN
IRAQ: More than 50 000 Syrian refugees entered the Kurdistan region within just one month
Refugee camp Zaatari camp
so that by early September 2013 refugees totalled 171 000. Charities say the region’s camps
Amman are overcrowded, including Domiz where 45 000 people live in a tent city with an official
capacity of 25 000.
▲ Figure 1.33 Syria: refugees and internally displaced people, September 2013
21

1.2 Migration
The United Nations High Commission for Refugees » The spatial impact of migration has spread, with
(UNHCR) put the number of forcibly displaced people an increasing number of countries affected either
worldwide at 65 million at the end of 2015. This as points of origin or of destination. While many
included 21.3 million refugees, the remainder being traditional migration streams have remained
internally displaced people. strong, significant new streams have developed.
» The proportion of female migrants was 48 per cent
Migration trends in 2015. For some countries of origin, women
Figure 1.34 shows international migrants by major now make up the majority of contract workers (for
areas of destination, 2000 and 2015. Nearly two- example, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and
thirds of international migrants worldwide live in Indonesia).
Europe or Asia. The number of international migrants » The great majority of international migrants move
reached 244 million in 2015, a 41 per cent increase from developing to developed countries. However,
compared with 2000. This is 3.3 per cent of the there are also strong migration links between some
world’s population. Foreign-born populations are developing countries, in particular between low-
rising in both developed and developing countries and middle-income countries.
(Figure 1.35). » Developed countries have reinforced controls, in
part in response to security issues, but also to
Europe 76 combat illegal immigration and networks that deal
56
in trafficking and exploitation of human beings.
Asia 75
49
Globalisation in all its aspects has led to an increased
54
Northern America
40
awareness of opportunities in other countries. With
21 advances in transportation and communication,
Africa
15 and a reduction in the real cost of both, the world’s
Latin America 9 Key population has never had a higher level of potential
and the Caribbean 7 2015
mobility. Also, in various ways, economic and
8 2000
Oceania
5 social development has made people more mobile
0 20 40 60 80 and created the conditions for emigration. Many
Number of migrants (millions) developing countries are looking to developed
▲ Figure 1.34 Bar graph showing number of international countries to adopt a more favourable attitude to
migrants by major area of destination, 2000 and 2015 international migration, arguing that it brings
benefits to both developed and developing countries.
Internal population movements

Population movement within countries is at a much
higher level than movement between countries. In
both developed and developing countries significant
movements of people take place from poorer regions
to richer regions as people seek employment and
higher standards of living. In developing countries,
much of this migration is in fact from rural to urban
areas. Developed countries had their period of high
▲ Figure 1.35 Southall, the centre of London’s Indian community rural-to-urban migration in the nineteenth century
and the early part of the twentieth century. The
Recent migration data show the following: developing countries have been undergoing high
rural-to-urban migration since about 1950, resulting
» With the growth in the importance of labour-
in the very rapid growth of urban areas such as Cairo,
related migration and international student
Nairobi, São Paulo and Dhaka. The largest rural-to-
mobility, migration has become increasingly
urban migration in history is now taking place in
temporary and circular in nature. The international
China, where more than 150 million people have
mobility of highly skilled workers increased
moved from the countryside to the rapidly expanding
substantially in the 1990s and beyond.
22

The nature of, and reasons for, population migration
urban/industrial areas to satisfy the demand for occurred because of it (Figure 1.36). Depopulation
workers in China’s factories. is an absolute decline in the population of an
In Brazil, there has been a large migration from the area, usually due to a high level of out-migration.
poor northeast region to the more affluent southeast. It is generally the most isolated rural areas that
Within the northeast, movement from rural areas is are affected. Figure 1.37 shows the causes and
greatest in the Sertão, the dry interior that suffers consequences of rural depopulation.
intensely from unreliable rainfall. However, poor Counterurbanisation is the process of population
living standards and a general lack of opportunity in decentralisation as people move from large urban
the cities of the northeast have also been a powerful areas to smaller urban settlements and rural areas.
incentive to move. Explaining the attraction of urban The objective is usually to seek a better quality
areas in the southeast demands more than the ‘bright of life by getting away from the problems of large
lights’ scenario that is still sometimes used. The cities. This process has resulted in a renaissance in
Todaro model presents a more realistic explanation. the demographic fortunes of rural areas and is often
According to this model, migrants are all too well referred to as the ‘population turnaround’. There has
aware that they may not find employment by moving been considerable debate as to whether this trend
to, say, São Paulo. However, they calculate that the will be long-term or relatively short-lived.
probability of employment, and other factors that
are important to the quality of life of the individual
and the family, is greater in the preferred destination
than at their point of origin.
Depopulation and
counterurbanisation
In developed countries two significant trends
can be identified concerning the redistribution of
population since the late eighteenth century. The
first, urbanisation, lasted until about 1970, while
the second, counterurbanisation, has been dominant
since that time.
The process of urbanisation had a considerable
impact on many rural areas where depopulation ▲ Figure 1.36 Rural depopulation in northern Spain
Unmarried young adults migrate to

regional centres for better
socio-economic opportunities
Population decreases, ages and Ageing population – disintegration
births fall below replacement level of balanced community
Reduction in business services due to Loss of services induces

falling demand, i.e. bus service, pub, out-migration of young families and
general store, post office ensures that in-migration is minimal
Key social service provision cut,
i.e. primary school, mobile library
▲ Figure 1.37 Model of rural depopulation
23

1.2 Migration
Interesting note The impacts of migration

In 2016 Amnesty International said that 10 ‘The overall economic gains from international
countries were hosting more than half the world’s migration for sending countries, receiving countries,
refugees. The leading countries were Jordan and the migrants themselves are substantial.’
(> 2.7 million), Turkey (> 2.5 million), Pakistan Source: The World Bank, 2012
(1.6 million), Lebanon (> 1.5 million).
Migration has played a major role in shaping the
global cultural map. The process of migration is
essentially a series of exchanges between places. In
Activities some parts of the world international migration is
1 Define the term ‘migration’. a long-established process. The truly cosmopolitan
2 What is the difference between voluntary and
involuntary migration?
nature of major cities such as London, New York and
3 Discuss three significant push factors in migration. Paris is clear evidence of this. In other parts of the
4 Suggest how the barriers to migration have changed world there is little evidence of cultural diversity
over time. because international migration has not been a
5 State the difference between a refugee and an significant phenomenon in the recent past.
internally displaced person. Figure 1.38 summarises some of the possible
6 Summarise the data presented in Figure 1.34.
7 Briefly describe two types of internal population impacts of international migration. Many of these
movement. factors are also relevant to internal migration.
Because migration can be such an emotive issue you
may not agree with all of these statements, and you
may consider that some important factors have been
omitted.
The impact of international migration
Impact on countries of origin Impact on countries of destination Impact on migrants themselves

Positive
• Remittances are a major source of • Increase in the pool of available labour may reduce • Wages are higher than in the country of origin.
income in some countries. the cost of labour to businesses and help reduce
inflation. • There is a wider choice of job opportunities.
• Emigration can ease the levels of unemployment
and underemployment. • Migrants may bring important skills to their • A greater opportunity to develop new skills.
destination.
• Reduces pressure on health and education • They have the ability to support family members in
services and on housing. • Increasing cultural diversity can enrich the country of origin through remittances.
receiving communities.
• Return migrants can bring new skills, • Some migrants have the opportunity
ideas and money into a community. • An influx of young migrants can reduce the to learn a new language.
rate of population ageing.
Negative
• Loss of young adult workers who may • Migrants may be perceived as taking jobs from • The financial cost of migration can be high.
have vital skills, e.g. doctors, nurses, teachers, people in the long-established population.
• Migration means separation from family and friends
engineers (the ‘brain-drain’ effect).
• Increased pressure on housing stock and in the country of origin.
• An ageing population in communities with on services such as health and education. • There may be problems settling into a new
a large outflow of (young) migrants. culture (assimilation).
• A significant change in the ethnic balance
• Agricultural output may suffer of a country or region may cause tension. • Migrants can be exploited by unscrupulous employers.
if the labour force falls below a certain level.
• A larger population can have a negative • Some migrations, particularly those that are illegal,
• Migrants returning on a temporary impact on the environment. can involve hazardous journeys.
or permanent basis may question traditional values,
causing divisions in the community.
▲ Figure 1.38 Matrix showing the impact of migration
24

The impacts of migration
Impact on countries of origin and underemployment, which are major problems

in many poor countries. Emigration can also reduce
Remittances — money sent back by migrants to
pressure on the housing stock and on key services
their families in their home community — are often
such as health and education, which are areas of
seen as the most positive impact on the country
heavy expenditure for low-income countries. The links
of origin. They are a major economic factor in
that migrants maintain with their home communities
developing countries (Figure 1.39). Remittances to
can also help to develop new skills and technologies,
developing countries are estimated to have totalled
particularly when migrants return home permanently
$429 billion in 2016. Global remittance flows,
and establish new businesses.
including those to high-income countries, were an
In terms of disadvantages, the loss of workers
estimated $575 billion in 2016. Remittances exceed
with important skills — the so-called brain-drain
considerably the amount of official aid received by
effect — is of concern in many countries of origin.
developing countries.
In extreme cases there may not be enough people to
Remittances can account for over 20 per cent of
continue to farm effectively in some communities.
annual GDP in some developing countries such as
Population structure can be adversely affected if
Kyrgyz Republic, Nepal, Liberia, Haiti and Tonga. They
migration is very gender-selective, and the loss of
have been described as ‘globalisation bottom up’.
many young people can advance the ageing of the
Migration advocates stress that these revenue flows:
population.
» help alleviate poverty
» spur investment and create a multiplier effect Impact on countries of destination
» cushion the impact of global recession when Any increase in the labour force is generally
private capital flows decrease. welcomed by businesses, particularly if migrants have
skills that are in short supply. For example, in the
The major sources of remittances are the USA, and UK the National Health Service (NHS) relies heavily
countries in western Europe and the Persian Gulf. In on foreign nurses and doctors. Greater competition
2016, the top recipients of remittances were: India in the labour force tends to limit wage rises, which
($63 billion), China ($61 billion), the Philippines helps to keep inflation low. Low inflation is an
($30 billion) and Mexico ($29 billion). Other important factor in economic stability. Many people
large recipients included Nigeria, Egypt, Pakistan, value an increase in cultural diversity, which can
Bangladesh, Vietnam and Lebanon. enrich communities. An influx of young migrants
can help to reduce the rate of population ageing and
lower the dependency ratio (Figure 1.40). This has a
positive financial impact on countries.
The negative impact of immigration is more
contentious. A significant influx of migrants can put
pressure on the available housing stock, causing
overcrowding and pushing up prices. Similarly, it
will increase demand on health, education and other
services to varying degrees. Trade unions often voice
concerns over migration levels if they feel that their
members are losing out on employment prospects
because of an increase in the level of competition
for work. In areas where there has been a significant
change in the ethnic balance, tension between ethnic
▲ Figure 1.39 MoneyGram sign — remittances are an important groups may increase.
element of international migration. Moneygram is an electronic
money transfer system
Each receiving country has its own sources of
immigrants. This is the result of historical, economic
Other possible advantages of emigration include and geographical relationships. Earlier generations
reducing population pressure on resources such as of migrants form networks that help new arrivals to
food and water, and lowering levels of unemployment overcome legal and other obstacles.
25

1.2 Migration
12 12
Per cent of international migrants

International migrants
Total population
Per cent of total population
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0–4 15–19 30–34 45–49 60–64 75+ 0–4 15–19 30–34 45–49 60–64 75+
Working ages (58%) Working ages (72%)
▲ Figure 1.40 Age distribution of the total population and international migrants worldwide, 2015
Impact on migrants themselves Migration for education
The prospect of higher wages, a wider choice of job

Return of educated migrants
opportunities and the chance to develop new skills
are all important pull factors to potential migrants.
For many this will enable them to provide financial Support costs
support to their families in the country of origin.
Other benefits may also become apparent, such as Remittances
developing language skills.
On the debit side, the financial cost of migration
VILLAGE CITY
may be significant, but may be shared by family
members in anticipation of the remittances to
follow. For many migrants, by far the greatest cost Labour: mostly unskilled
is separation from family and friends in their home
country. The ‘culture shock’ of settling in a new Job skills and experience
country may be lessened if migrants find housing and
employment in an established migrant community in Young, impressionable, dynamic villagers?
their new country. The risk of exploitation is a real
concern for many migrants. Receiving countries vary Changed attitudes, outlook, ideas and aspirations?
in how effectively they challenge such practices.
▲ Figure 1.41 The costs and returns of migration
The costs and benefits of internal Climate change
migration It is predicted that climate change will force mass
Figure 1.41 provides a useful framework for migrations in the future. In 2009 the International
understanding the costs and returns from migration Organization for Migration estimated that worsening
between rural and urban areas. It highlights the main tropical storms, desert droughts and rising sea levels
factors that determine how rural areas are affected by will displace 200 million people by 2050.
migration — namely the two-way transfers of labour,
money, skills and attitudes. However, while all the Activities
linkages seem fairly obvious, none is easy to quantify. 1 State two positive and two negative impacts of
Therefore, apart from some very clear-cut cases, it is international migration on countries of origin.
often difficult to decide which is greater: the cost or 2 Give three benefits of international migration for
the benefits of migration. countries of destination.
3 Why is it likely that climate change will create mass
migration in the future?
26

The impacts of migration
Case study: International migration from Mexico to the USA

One of the largest labour migrations in the world has been 14
from Mexico to the United States, a rare example where
12
a developed country borders a developing country. This
migration has largely been the result of: 10
• much higher average incomes in the USA
Millions
8
• lower unemployment rates in the USA
• the faster growth of the labour force in Mexico, with 6
significantly higher population growth in Mexico than in 4
the USA
• the overall quality of life: on virtually every aspect of 2
the quality of life conditions are better in the USA than
0
in Mexico. 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2015
Year
Most migration has taken place in the last four decades.
Although previous surges occurred in the 1920s and ▲ Figure 1.42 Increase in the Mexican-born population in
1950s, when the American government allowed the the USA
recruitment of Mexican workers as guest workers, Figure 1.42 shows the increase in the Mexican-born
persistent mass migration between the two countries did population in the USA. About one in ten Mexican citizens
not take hold until the late twentieth century. (12 million) live in the USA, half of them illegally. This is
There is a very strong concentration of the US Mexican the largest immigrant community in the world. However,
population in the four states along the Mexican border: in the last year or so there is evidence that this migration
California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. The main has levelled out (Figure 1.42) because:
reasons for this spatial distribution are:
• tougher economic conditions in the USA have made
• proximity to the border migration less attractive
• the location of demand for immigrant farm workers • the US Border Patrol has made illegal immigration
• urban areas where the Mexican community is long- much more difficult to achieve (Figure 1.43).
established.
Figure 1.43 Fencing along

the US border with Mexico, and
the US Border Patrol
27

1.2 Migration
Donald Trump, who took office as the new president of • reduced unemployment pressure as migrants tend to
the USA in 2017, has promised to build a new ‘wall’ in an leave areas where unemployment is particularly high
attempt to make illegal migration from Mexico much more • lower pressure on housing stock and public services
difficult. This is a controversial issue in both the USA and • changes in population structure with emigration of
Mexico. young adults (Table 1.8)
In the USA the Federation for American Immigration • loss of skilled and enterprising people
Reform (FAIR) has opposed large-scale immigration from • migrants returning to Mexico with changed values and
Mexico, arguing that it: attitudes.
• undermines the employment opportunities of low- It remains to be seen whether the recent migration
skilled US workers slowdown is temporary or permanent. Much depends on
• has negative environmental effects because of the the relative fortunes of the US and Mexican economies.
increased population
• threatens established US cultural values. Table 1.8 Age distribution in 2014 — Mexican migrants and
the native-born population of the USA
The recent global economic crisis, which began in 2008,
saw unemployment in the USA rise to about 10 per Age group Mexican Native-born
cent, the worst job situation for 25 years. Immigration immigrants population
always becomes a more sensitive issue in times of high
Under 18 6% 26%
unemployment. FAIR has also highlighted the costs to
local taxpayers of illegal workers in terms of education, 18–64 87% 60%
emergency medical care, detention, and other costs that 65 and over 8% 15%
have to be borne.
Those opposed to FAIR see its actions as uncharitable Case study analysis
and arguably racist. Such individuals and groups highlight
1 What are the main reasons for such a high level of
the advantages that Mexican and other migrant groups
international migration from Mexico to the USA?
have brought to the country.
2 Describe the change in the Mexican-born population of
The impact on Mexico the USA shown in Figure 1.42.
3 Suggest why immigration from Mexico is a
Sustained large-scale labour migration has had a range
controversial issue in the USA.
of impacts on Mexico, some of them clear and others
4 Briefly discuss the impact of emigration on Mexico.
debatable. Significant impacts include:
5 Describe and suggest reasons for the differences
• the high value of remittances, which totalled over shown in Table 1.8.
$24 billion in 2014 — this is the world’s biggest flow
of remittances and as a national source of income for
Mexico is only exceeded by its oil exports
28

1.3 Population structure
Key questions
H How does population structure vary between countries at different levels of
economic development?
H What are the implications of different types of population structure?
▲ Figure 1.44 Elderly people are making up an increasing proportion of the population in many countries
Variations in population Population pyramids

Age and sex structure can be illustrated by the
structure use of population pyramids (Figure 1.45).
The structure of a population is the result of the Pyramids can be used to show either absolute or
processes of fertility, mortality and migration. The relative data. Absolute data show the figures in
most studied aspects of population structure are thousands or millions, while relative data show
age (Figure 1.44) and sex (gender). Other aspects of the numbers involved in percentages. Each bar
population structure that can also be studied include represents a 5-year age group. The male population
race, language, religion and social/occupational is represented to the left of the vertical axis, with
group. females to the right.
29

1.3 PoPulation structure
Niger Bangladesh
Age Age
100+ 100+
95–99 95–99
Males 90–94 Females Males 90–94 Females
85–89 85–89
80–84 80–84
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4
2 1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10
Population (millions) Population (millions)
UK Japan
Age Age
100+ 100+
95–99 95–99
Males 90–94 Females Males 90–94 Females
85–89 85–89
80–84 80–84
75–79 75–79
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4
3 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
Population (millions) Population (millions)
▲ Figure 1.45 Four population pyramids for Niger, Bangladesh, the UK and Japan
Demographic transition and » The base of the pyramid for Bangladesh is

narrower than that of Niger, reflecting a
changing population structure considerable fall in fertility after decades of
Population pyramids change significantly in shape as government-promoted birth control programmes.
a country progresses through demographic transition The fact that the 0–4 and 5–9 bars are narrower
and economic development: than the bar immediately above is evidence of
» The wide base of Niger’s pyramid reflects extremely recent falls in fertility. The birth rate is currently
high fertility. The birth rate in Niger is 49/1000, 20/1000. Falling mortality and lengthening life
the highest in the world. The marked decrease in expectancy is reflected in the relatively wide
width of each successive bar indicates relatively bars in the teenage and young adult age groups.
high mortality and limited life expectancy. The The death rate at 5/1000 is almost half that
death rate at 9/1000 is relatively high, particularly of Niger. The infant mortality rate is 38/1000.
considering how young the population is. The Life expectancy in Bangladesh is 72 years; 33
infant mortality rate is 56/1000. Life expectancy per cent of the population are under 15, while
in Niger is 61 years; 50 per cent of the population 6 per cent are aged 65 or over. Bangladesh is an
is under 15, with only 3 per cent aged 65 or over. example of a country in stage 3 of demographic
Niger is in stage 2 of demographic transition. transition.
30

Variations in population structure
» In the pyramid for the UK, much lower fertility of the different costs of living in the four countries.
still is illustrated by narrowing of the base. The The difference in GNI per capita between Niger and
birth rate in the UK is only 12/1000. The relatively Bangladesh is consistent with the general difference
uniform width of the bars for the working-age between countries in stages 2 and 3 of demographic
population indicates a significantly higher life transition, although many countries in stage 3 have
expectancy than for Bangladesh. The death rate in much higher GNI per capita figures than Bangladesh.
the UK is 9/1000, with an infant mortality rate of The much higher GNI figures for the UK and Japan are
3.9/1000. Life expectancy is 81 years; 18 per cent also to be expected. There is no significant difference
of the population are under 15, while 17 per cent in GNI per capita between countries in stages 4 and 5
are 65 or over. The UK is in stage 4 of demographic of demographic transition.
transition.
Table 1.9 Population and economic data for the four countries,
» The final pyramid, for Japan, has a distinctly 2016
inverted base reflecting the lowest fertility of all
four countries. The birth rate is 8/1000. The width Country Birth rate Death rate Rate of GNI PPP
of the rest of the pyramid is a consequence of (per 1000) (per 1000) natural per capita
increase (%) ($)
the highest life expectancy of all four countries.
Niger 49 9 4.0 950
The death rate is 10/1000, with infant mortality
Bangladesh 20 5 1.5 3,550
at 1.9/1000. Life expectancy is almost 84 years.
Japan has only 13 per cent of its population UK 12 9 0.3 40,550
under 15, with 27 per cent aged 65 or over. With Japan 8 10 −0.2 38,870
the birth rate lower than the death rate, Japan is
experiencing natural decrease and thus the country Figure 1.46 provides some useful tips for understanding
is in stage 5 of demographic transition. population pyramids. A good starting point is to divide
the pyramid into three sections:
Table 1.9 compares the basic demographic rates
for the four countries with Gross National Income » the young dependent population
(GNI) per capita (per person). The data are given at » the economically active population
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP), which takes account » the elderly dependent population.
85+
The higher the pyramid,
A broad shape at the top the longer people live.
shows a high proportion Elderly
of people living longer. dependants Differences between
males and females
65
can be picked out.
Bulges show either a Indents show higher death
period of immigration rates than normal because
or a baby boom years Adults of a war, famine or disease
before. (epidemic) or through people
leaving the area (emigrating).
A wide base shows a

15
Young large number of children
dependants (high birth rate).
(children)
A narrow base shows a
small number of children
(low birth rate).
▲ Figure 1.46 An annotated population pyramid
31

1.3 PoPulation structure
between the working or economically active

Interesting note
population and the non-working population. The
At 50 per cent, Niger has the highest percentage formula for calculating the dependency ratio is as
of population under 15 in the world. Japan has follows:
27 per cent of its population aged 65 and over, % population % population
again the highest in the world. dependency aged 0–14 + aged 65 and over
ratio = × 100
% population aged 15–64
Activities A dependency ratio of 60 means that for every 100

1 Define the term ‘population structure’. people in the economically active population there
2 What is a population pyramid?
are 60 people dependent on them. The dependency
3 Look at Figure 1.45 and compare the population
structures of Niger and the UK. ratio in developed countries is usually between 50
and 75. In contrast, developing countries typically
have higher ratios, which may reach over 100.
In developing countries, children form the great
Population structure: differences majority of the dependent population. In contrast, in
within countries developed countries there is much more of a balance
In countries where there is strong rural-to-urban between young and old dependants.
migration, the population structures of the areas The dependency ratio is important because the
affected can be markedly different. These differences economically active population will in general
show up clearly on population pyramids. Out-migration contribute more to the economy in terms of income
from rural areas is age-selective, with single young tax, sales taxes and the taxes on the profits made by
adults and young adults with children dominating this businesses. In contrast, the dependent population
process. Thus the bars for these age groups in rural tend to be bigger recipients of government funding,
areas affected by out-migration will indicate fewer particularly for education, healthcare and public
people than expected in these age groups. pensions. An increase in the dependency ratio can
In contrast, the population pyramids for urban cause significant financial problems for governments
areas attracting migrants will show age-selective if it does not have the financial reserves to cope with
in-migration, with substantially more people in these such a change.
age groups than expected. Such migrations may The dependency ratio is an internationally agreed
also be sex-selective. If this is the case it should be measure. Partly because of this it is a very crude
apparent on the population pyramids. indicator. For example:
The implications of different types » In developed countries, few people leave

education before the age of 18 and a significant
of population structure number will go on to university and not get a
The fact that Niger and Bangladesh have large job before the age of 21. In addition, while some
numbers of young people in their populations has people will retire before the age of 65, others
implications for both countries. For example, these will go on working beyond this age. Also, a
young people have to be housed, fed, educated and significant number of people in the economically
looked after in terms of health. All this costs money, active age group, such as parents staying at
and governments have to allocate resources to cater home to look after children, do not work for
for these needs. Conversely, countries such as the various reasons. The number of people in this
UK and Japan have large numbers of older people in situation can vary considerably from one country
their populations. Older people have different needs, to another.
which governments have to provide for. » In developing countries a significant proportion of
children are working full or part time before the
The dependency ratio age of 15. In some developing countries there is
Dependants are people who are too young or too old very high unemployment and underemployment
to work. The dependency ratio is the relationship within the economically active age group.
32

Variations in population structure
Despite its limitations the dependency ratio does

allow reasonable comparisons to be made between Activities
countries. It is also useful to see how individual 1 Who are dependants?
countries change over time. Once an analysis using 2 Define the term ‘dependency ratio’.
the dependency ratio has been made, more detailed 3 Identify one limitation of the dependency ratio.
4 Calculate the dependency ratios for Niger,
research can look into any apparent anomalies. Bangladesh, the UK and Japan from the information
given earlier in this topic.
Case study: The Gambia — a country with a high dependent population

as young dependants and only 2 per cent as elderly
dependants, the dependency ratio is 92. This means that
for every 100 people in the economically active population
in The Gambia there are 92 people dependent on them.
The World Health Organization has stressed the link
between rapid population growth and poverty for The
Gambia and other countries. Many parents in The Gambia
struggle to provide basic housing for their families. There
is huge overcrowding and a lack of sanitation, with many
children sharing the same bed. Rates of unemployment
and underemployment are high, and wages are low, with
parents struggling to provide even the basics for large
families.
The government has insufficient financial resources
for education and health. Because there are not enough
▲ Figure 1.47 A school in the Gambia schools, many of them operate a two-shift system,
The Gambia, in West Africa, is a small country with a young with one group of pupils attending in the morning
population (Figure 1.47), which has placed big demands on the and a different group attending in the afternoon. The
resources of the country. The rate of natural increase in 2016 shortage of teachers means that some are working
was 3.2 per cent. Figure 1.48 shows the high rate of growth 12 hours a day. General facilities are poor and sanitation
since the 1950s. The population of 2.1 million is forecast facilities are inadequate. School books are in very
to grow to 5.1 million by 2050. 95 per cent of the country’s short supply.
population are Muslim and, until recently, religious leaders Another sign of population pressure is the large
were against the use of contraception. In addition, cultural number of trees being chopped down for firewood. As a
tradition meant that women had little influence on family size. result, desertification is increasing at a rapid rate. ‘Forest
Children were viewed as an economic asset because of their educators’ are working in rural areas in particular in an
help with crop production and tending animals. One in three attempt to improve this situation.
children aged 10–14 is working. The country suffered from In recent years the government has introduced a
high infant and maternal mortality. In 2016 the infant mortality family planning campaign, which has been accepted
rate was 45/1000. With 46 per cent of the population classed by religious leaders. It has been working with a non-
6.0
governmental organisation (NGO) called Futures to deliver
contraceptives and family planning advice to rural areas.
The scheme has been subsidised by the World Health
Growth rate (%)
4.5 Organization. To some extent there has also been a

change in male attitudes to family size and contraception.
3.0 This has been very important to the success of the
campaign.
1.5 Case study analysis
1 Describe the location of The Gambia.
0.0 2 What is the dependency ratio in The Gambia, and why is
1952
1955
1958
1961
1964
1967
1970
1973
1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994
1997
2000
2003
2006
2009
2012
2015
2018
it so high?
3 What are the problems of such a high rate of
Year
dependency in The Gambia?
▲ Figure 1.48 Population growth in The Gambia, 1952–2017
33

1.4 Population density and distribution
Key question
H What are the factors that influence the density and distribution of population?
▲ Figure 1.49 The coast of Antarctica — the continent that has no permanent residents
Population density is the average number of people shows the global distribution of population using
per square kilometre (km2) in a country or region. a dot map. Areas with a high population density
Population distribution is the way in which the are said to be densely populated (Figure 1.51).
population is spread out over a given area, from a Regions with a low population density are sparsely
small region to the Earth as a whole. Figure 1.50 populated (Figure 1.52).
Arctic Circle
Tropic of Cancer
Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
▲ Figure 1.50 Dot map showing areas of high population density

34

Population density and distribution
The average density figure for each region

masks considerable variations. The most uniform
distributions of population occur where there
is little variation in the physical and human
environments. Steep contrasts in these environments
are sharply reflected in population density. People
have always avoided hostile environments if a
reasonable choice has been available. Look at
an atlas map of the world illustrating population
density. Now look at world maps of relief,
▲ Figure 1.51 High population density in Cairo, Egypt temperature, precipitation and vegetation. Note the
low densities associated with high altitudes, polar
regions, deserts and rainforests. More detailed maps
can show the influence of other physical factors
such as soil fertility, natural water supply and
mineral resources.
Areas of low soil fertility have been avoided from
the earliest times of settlement as people have
looked for more productive areas in which to settle.
Water supply has always been vitally important. This
is why so many settlements are historically located
by rivers, lakes, and springs, and where artesian
wells could be dug to access aquifers (water-
▲ Figure 1.52 Low population density on the west coast of Ireland bearing rocks) below the surface. Mineral resources,
Table 1.10 shows the density of population by world particularly coalfields, have led to the development
region. The huge overall contrast between the more of large numbers of settlements in many countries.
developed and less developed worlds is very clear. The Although mining may eventually cease when the
average density in the less developed world is more resource runs out, the investment in infrastructure
than two and a half times that of the more developed (housing, railways, roads etc.) over time usually
world. North America (16 per km2) and Oceania means that the settlement will continue. The
(5 per km2) have the lowest population densities of Ruhr coalfield in western Germany, once the most
all the world regions. However, the overall difference productive in Europe, now has only a few working
between the developed and developing worlds is mines remaining. However, it is still one of the most
largely accounted for by the extremely high figure for densely populated regions of Europe. But mining
Asia (136 per km2). Population density is increasing settlements in very hostile environments such
most in regions and countries that have the fastest as Alaska, Siberia and the Sahara desert may be
rates of population growth. abandoned when mining stops.
The more advanced a country is, the more important
Table 1.10 Variations in world population density, 2016 the elements of human infrastructure become in
Region Population density (people per km2) influencing population density and distribution. While
World 53 a combination of physical factors will have decided
the initial location of the major urban areas, once
More developed world 23
such towns or cities reach a certain size, economies of
Less developed world 72 scale and the process of cumulative causation ensure
Africa 37 further growth. As a country advances, the importance
Asia 136 of agriculture decreases and employment relies more
Latin America/Caribbean 30 and more on the secondary and tertiary sectors of the
North America 16
economy, which are largely urban based. The lines
of communication and infrastructure between major
Europe 32
urban centres provide opportunities for further urban
Oceania 5 and industrial location.
35

1.4 PoPulation density and distribution
Social and political factors also play their part in

population distribution. Examples of social factors Activities
Activities
include the historical designation of religious places 1 Define:
such as Varanasi in India (Hindu) and Mecca in a population density
Saudi Arabia (Muslim), which can build up large b population distribution.
2 To what extent does population density vary by world
resident populations over time. Customs regarding region (Table 1.10)?
the inheritance of land can have a big effect on 3 Briefly discuss the factors that influence low
the size of farms and thus the density of rural population density.
populations. 4 What are the factors encouraging high population
Political factors include decisions to build new density?
capital cities such as Brasilia (Brazil), Abuja
(Nigeria) and Astana (Kazakhstan). Decisions to Interesting note
build other major elements of infrastructure can also
influence population distribution. Political unrest Antarctica has no permanent residents. Its very
involving violence, such as in Sudan and South small, temporary population is made up of
Sudan, can result in large-scale migration that can researchers and scientists from many different
significantly change existing patterns of population countries. This amounts to about 1000 people during
distribution. the winter, rising to 5000 in the summer months.
Case study: Sparsely and densely populated areas in North America

North America has a low population density compared • In more hospitable areas, where agriculture and other
with most other parts of the world. The USA has an primary activities are the main economic activities,
average of 35 persons per km2, while Canada has population densities are very modest due mainly to the
only 4 per km2. In both countries population is highly high level of mechanisation in these activities.
concentrated in some areas, while large expanses of land • Population densities are at their highest in the major
elsewhere are very sparsely settled (Figure 1.53). clusters of manufacturing and service industries.
• Very few people live in the cold (Alaska and the
Canadian northlands), dry (arid and semi-arid regions The Canadian northlands: a sparsely
of southwest USA) and mountainous regions (Western populated region
Cordillera and Appalachian mountains).
The Canadian northlands (Figure 1.54) comprise that part
N
Arctic
Ocean
of Canada lying north of 55°N. Figure 1.53 shows that
Persons/km2
virtually the whole area has a population density of less
than one person per km2.
Over 100
20–100
1–19
Less than 1 The influence of low temperature is very clear in the
Population of major cities
0 500 km north and largely explains why 75 per cent of Canadians
Over 3,000,000
live within 160 km of the main border with the USA.
1,000,000–3,000,000
500,000–999,999
Winters are cold with most of the region having a mean
Hudson Bay
Edmonton
Vancouver Calgary
Winnipeg Quebec
Montreal
Seattle Ottawa
Toronto Boston
Detroit Hamilton New York
Milwaukee
Chicago Cleveland Philadelphia
San Francisco Baltimore
Indianapolis Columbus
San Jose Washington
Los Angeles
Memphis Nashville
San Diego Atlantic Ocean
Phoenix Dallas
El Paso Jacksonville
Houston
Pacific San Antonio

Ocean Gulf of Mexico
▲ Figure 1.54 A remote community in the Canadian northlands

▲ Figure 1.53 Population density of North America
36

Population density and distribution
January temperature below −20°C. Summers are short,

becoming increasingly shorter further north. The climate
in much of the region is beyond the limits of agriculture,
which is a key factor in explaining the very low rural
population density.
Much of the northlands are affected by permafrost.
Here the ground is permanently frozen to a depth of
about 300 metres. In summer the top metre or so thaws
out, resulting in a marshy, waterlogged landscape. Life
is extremely difficult in the permafrost environment of
the northlands and, apart from the Inuit and other native
groups, the few people living there are mainly involved
in the exploitation of raw materials and in maintaining
defence installations, although the role of tourism is
expanding. ▲ Figure 1.55 Chicago, a major city in northeastern USA
The great distances separating the generally
small communities in the northlands and the severe Boston and Washington had reached the level of a
environmental conditions in this vast region have created megalopolis. This is the term used to describe an
substantial economic, engineering and maintenance area where many conurbations exist in relatively
difficulties for transportation development. Immense close proximity. The region is sometimes referred
areas of the northlands are lacking in surface to as ‘Boswash’ after the main cities at its northern
communications. Not one of the railway lines extending and southern extremities. Apart from Boston and
into the northlands crosses the Arctic Circle. The road Washington, the other main cities in this region are
system is also very sparse, the most important elements New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore.
of which are the Alaska, Mackenzie and Dempster New York is classed as a ‘global city’ because
highways. The northern limit of the Mackenzie highway it is one of the world’s three great financial cities
is Yellowknife on the northern shore of the Great Slave along with Tokyo and London. With a population of
Lake. The town, which has a population of over 19, 000, 8.4 million, New York is the most densely populated
was founded in 1935 after the discovery of rich deposits of city in the USA. The population of New York alone
gold. Yellowknife is the capital and largest settlement in is much greater than that of the entire Canadian
the Northwest Territories. northlands. The population of the larger metropolitan
The use of water transport is dictated by location and area of New York is 18.9 million.
season, with many water transportation routes frozen over The region also includes many smaller urban
for much of the year. For many communities, air transport areas. Much of the area has an average density over
is the only link they have to the outside world. 100 per km2. Population densities are of course much
higher in the main urban areas. The rural parts of the
Case study analysis region are generally fertile and intensively farmed.
1 With the help of an atlas, draw a sketch map of the The climate and soils at this latitude are conducive to
Canadian northlands. Show the main physical and agriculture, unlike much of the Canadian northlands.
human features of the region. Many people living in the rural communities commute
2 What is the average population density of this region? to work in the towns and cities. The region has the
3 Why is this the most sparsely populated region in North most highly developed transport networks in North
America? America. Although other parts of the country are
growing at a faster rate, the intense concentration
The northeast of the USA: a densely of job opportunities in the northeast will ensure that
populated region it remains the most densely populated part of the
continent in the foreseeable future.
In the USA the greatest concentration of population is in
the northeast — the first area of substantial European Case study analysis
settlement. By the end of the nineteenth century it had 1 With the aid of an atlas, draw a sketch map of the
become the greatest manufacturing region in the world, northeast region to show its main physical and human
and in the USA it became known as ‘the manufacturing features.
belt’. The region stretches inland from Boston and 2 What is the population density of this region?
Washington to Chicago (Figure 1.55) and St Louis. 3 Why is this the most densely populated region in North
By the 1960s the very highly urbanised area between America?
37

1.5 Settlements (rural and urban) and
service provision
Key questions
H What are the main patterns of settlement?
H What are the factors that influence the sites, growth and functions of
settlements?
H What are settlement hierarchies and how do they affect people?
Rural settlements
A settlement is defined as a place in which
people live and where they carry out a variety of
activities, such as residence, trade, agriculture and
manufacturing. Most rural settlements are hamlets
and villages, although not all are. The study of rural
settlement includes:
» pattern
» form (or shape)
» site and situation
» function and hierarchy
» change.
▲ Figure 1.56 Dispersed settlement, Arabba, Italy
Pattern
Most of us live in settlements, and most of us take A dispersed settlement pattern is one in which
them for granted. And yet there is a huge variety individual houses and farms are widely scattered
of settlements, and they are changing rapidly. For throughout the countryside (Figure 1.57). It
example, some settlements in rural areas differ occurs when farms or houses are set among their
greatly from those in urban areas, although the fields or spread out along roads, rather than
distinction between them is becoming less clear. In concentrated on one point. They are common in
developing countries large cities are growing at the sparsely populated areas, such as the Australian
expense of rural areas, despite a recent movement out outback and the Sahel region of Africa, and in
of some very large cities or ‘megacities’. Population recently settled areas, such as after the creation of
change, technological developments and changing the Dutch polders. The enclosure of large areas of
lifestyles are having a tremendous impact on common grazing land into smaller fields separated
settlement geography. by hedges led to a dispersed settlement pattern.
In this section we look at the size, development This happened because it became more convenient
and function of rural and urban settlements. We to build farmhouses out in the fields of the newly
begin with rural settlements and analyse their established farms. Similarly, the break-up of large
pattern, site and situation, function and hierarchy. estates (particularly in England during the sixteenth
We study the characteristics of land use and describe and seventeenth centuries) also led to a dispersed
the problems of urban areas in the developed and settlement pattern. In areas where the physical
developing worlds, and consider possible solutions geography is quite extreme (too hot or cold, wet or
to these problems. We also look at the impacts on dry) there is likely to be a low population density,
the environment as a result of urbanisation, and and a poor transport network, which discourages
possible solutions to reduce these impacts. settlement.
38

Rural settlements
are found in the surrounding fields. Such nucleated

settlements are usually termed hamlets or villages
according to their size and/or function.
A number of factors favour nucleation:
» joint and cooperative working of the land —
people live in nearby settlements
» defence, for example hilltop locations, sites within
a meander or within walled cities, such as Jericho
» shortage of water, causing people to locate in
areas close to springs
» swampy conditions, which force settlements to
locate on dry ground
» near important junctions and crossroads, as these
▲ Figure 1.57 Dispersed settlement, Dingle Peninsula, west
coast of Ireland favour trade and communications.
In some countries the government has encouraged
Nucleated settlements are those in which houses people to live in nucleated settlements, such as the
and other buildings are tightly clustered around a Ujaama scheme in Tanzania, the kibbutzim in Israel
central feature such as a church, village green or and the communes in China.
crossroads (Figures 1.58 and 1.59). Very few houses A linear pattern occurs when settlements are
found along a geographical feature, for example,
along a river valley or a major transport route (see
Figure 1.62 on page 41 for the potential site of linear
settlements).
Village form
Village form refers to shape (Figure 1.60). In a
linear settlement, houses are spread out along
a road or a river. This suggests the importance
of trade and transport during the growth of the
village. Linear villages are also found where poor
drainage prohibits growth in a certain direction.
In the rainforests of Sarawak (Malaysia), many of
▲ Figure 1.58 Nucleated settlement, Mgwali, Eastern Cape,
the longhouses are generally spread alongside rivers
South Africa (Figure 1.61).
Abandoned
Housing for quarry village
and railway-workers,
T-shaped Hospital
foresters or commuters
nucleated
village
Cruciform
Compact nucleated
nucleated village
village Linear
Village nucleated
Nucleated
green village
estate village
Semi-
dispersed
Nucleated village
green
Dispersed village
rural settlement
▲ Figure 1.59 Nucleated settlement, Royston, Hertfordshire ▲ Figure 1.60 Village shapes
39

1.5 SettlementS (rural and urban) and Service proviSion
» level sites to build on — but these are less easy to

defend
» local timber for construction and fuel
» aspect, for example sunny, south-facing slopes
(in the northern hemisphere) as these are warmer
than north-facing slopes and are therefore better
for crop growth
» proximity to rich soils for cultivation and lush
pasture for grazing
» the potential for trade and commerce, such as close
to bridges or weirs, near confluence sites, at heads
of estuaries, points of navigation and upland gaps.
A dry point site is an elevated site in an area of
▲ Figure 1.61 A Malaysian longhouse
otherwise poor natural drainage. It includes small
hills (knolls) and islands. Gravel terraces along major
Cruciform settlements occur at the intersection rivers are well favoured. Water supply and fertile
of roads and usually consist of lines of buildings alluvial soils, as well as the use of the valley as a
radiating out from the crossroads. The exact shape line of communication, are all positive advantages.
depends on the position of the roads and the amount A wet point site is a site with a reliable supply of
of infilling that has since taken place. By contrast, water from springs or wells in an otherwise dry area.
a green village consists of dwellings and other Spring line villages at the foot of the chalk and limestone
buildings, such as a church, clustered around a ridges are good examples. Spring line settlements occur
small village green or common, or other open space. when there is a line of sites where water is available.
In South Africa ring villages are formed where the Some hilltop villages suggest that the site was
houses, called kraals, are built around an open area. chosen to avoid flooding in a marshy area as well as
for defence. Villages at important river crossings are
Factors affecting the site, excellent centres of communication.
growth and functions of Growth and function of

settlements settlements
Cruciform site and situation A number of factors affect settlement size, growth
The site of a settlement is the actual land on which a and function. In extreme environments settlements
settlement is built, whereas the situation or position are generally small. This is because the environment
is the relationship between a particular settlement is too harsh to provide much food. Areas that are
and its surrounding area. In the past geographers too hot, cold, wet or dry usually have small, isolated
have emphasised the importance of physical settlements. In contrast, settlements have managed
conditions on the pattern of settlement, land tenure to grow in areas where food production is favoured.
and the type of agriculture practised. Increasingly, If there is more food produced than the farmers need,
social and economic factors are important, especially then non-farming services can be supported. In the
in explaining recent changes in rural settlements. early days these included builders, craftsmen, teachers,
Early settlers took into account advantages and traders, administrators and so on. Thus, settlements
disadvantages of alternative sites for agriculture and in the more favoured areas had greater potential for
housing. These included: growth, and for a wider range of services and functions.
Some environments naturally favoured growth
» availability of water — necessary for drinking, and hence a large size. In the northeast of the USA,
cooking, washing, as a source of food supply, and settlements on the lowland coastal plain were able
for transport to farm and trade (Figure 1.62). Those that had
» freedom from flooding — but close to the flooded links inland as well, such as New York, were doubly
areas as river deposits form fertile soils favoured (Figure 1.63).
40

Growth and function of settlements
Hudson-Mohawk
CANADA
Gap
Lake Ontario Albany Troy
Toronto Utica N
Rochester
Lake Erie Buffalo
Pittsburgh Appalachian Mountains

with coal, iron-ore and
timber Hudson
Potomac River Hostford
River
Boston
Baltimore New Jersey Providence
Washington Philadelphia New York
Flat, fertile
coastal plains
Sheltered
bay
Coastal Shipping routes Atlantic Ocean

trade routes to Europe
Sheltered bays
▲ Figure 1.62 Settlement sites in the northeast of the USA
Other centres had good raw materials. In South

Africa, the gold deposits near Johannesburg, and the
diamonds at Kimberley and Bloemfontein, caused
these settlements to grow as important mining and
industrial areas.
Functions change over time. Many settlements
that were formerly fishing villages have become
important tourist resorts. The Spanish costas are
a good example. Many Caribbean settlements,
such as Soufrière in St Lucia, have evolved into
important tourist destinations. In the developed
world, many rural settlements have now become
dormitory settlements — this is related to good
accessibility to nearby urban centres (Figure 1.65).
Increasingly, many rural settlements in the
developed world are also becoming centres of
▲ Figure 1.63 New York developed because of its excellent industry, as new science parks locate in areas
trading position — inland as well as overseas such as Silicon Valley in California, formerly an
agricultural region. South Korea has industrialised
Trade and communications have always been and urbanised over the last 50 years or so, and the
important. Cairo grew as a result of being located rural population had declined to just 17 per cent
at the meeting point of the African, Asian and by 2011.
European trade routes. It also benefited from having
a royal family, being the government centre, and
Interesting note
having a university and all kinds of linked trades
and industries such as food and drink, and textiles. Baniachong in Bangladesh claims to be
Similarly, Paris grew because of its excellent the world’s largest village. The area covers
location on the Seine. Not only could the river be about 75 km2 and contains around 70, 000
crossed at this point, it could also be used for trade people.
(Figure 1.64).
41

Other centres have become important due to political

factors. New capital cities, such as Brasilia, Canberra
and Ottawa, have developed central administrative
roles. Other planned cities, such as Putrajaya in
Malaysia and Incheon in South Korea, have become
centres of high-tech industry.
Settlement hierarchy
The term hierarchy means ‘order’. Settlements are
often ordered in terms of their size. Dispersed,
individual households are at the base of the rural
settlement hierarchy. At the next level are hamlets
(Figure 1.66). A hamlet is a very small settlement,
consisting of a small number of houses or farms,
with very few services. The trade generated by the
population, which is often less than 100 people, will
only support low-order services such as a general
store, a small post office or a pub. By contrast, a
village is much larger in population (Figure 1.67).
Hence it can support a wider range of services,
including a school, church or chapel, community
centre and a small range of shops (Table 1.11).
Higher up the hierarchy are towns and cities,
offering many more services and different types
of service. As Table 1.11 shows, there are more
settlements lower down the hierarchy — the higher
up you go, the fewer the number of each type of
settlement. Thus, for example, there are far fewer
cities in a country than there are villages.
Rural settlements offer certain functions and
▲ Figure 1.64 The Seine was a vital factor in enabling the
services. Only basic or low-order functions are found
growth of Paris into a city of international importance in the smaller hamlets, whereas the same functions
and services are found in larger settlements (villages
Urban Extreme non-rural Extreme rural National Park

90 mins
Urban Small village turned 30 mins from 1 hour from from city
sprawl city by car city by car by car
into a new or
overspill town 2 hours
from city
Motorway by car
A road Small suburbanised

Green belt Declining
Large city or village with old core
(farming and village
conurbation recreation;
development Abandoned
strictly controlled) More remote farms
Suburbanised village with
village with Village with
Urban sprawl with little change
old core mainly second
car-based suburbs B road Minor homes
road
A road
▲ Figure 1.65 Cloke’s model of rural change and accessibility to large urban centres
42

Table 1.11 A simple rural hierarchy

Hamlet Village Small market town
General store General store General store
Post office Post office Post office
Megalopolis Increasing – Butcher Butcher
Increasing
number of
population – Garage Garage
settlements
size Conurbation – Grocer Grocer
– Hardware store Hardware store
City
– Primary school Primary school, baker, bike
shop, chemist, electrical/
Town television/radio shop, furniture
store, hairdresser, local
Village government offices, restaurant,
shoe shop, solicitor,
supermarket, undertaker
Hamlet
Isolated home/farmstead hamlets as well as serving their own population.

▲ Figure 1.66 A hierarchy of settlement
The maximum distance that a person is prepared to
travel to buy a good is known as the range of a good.
and market towns) together with more specialised Low-order goods have a small range whereas high-
ones — high-order functions. The market towns order goods have a large range. The number of people
draw custom from the surrounding villages and needed to support a good or service is known as the
a b
c d
▲ Figure 1.67 Settlement hierarchy in County Kerry. (a) Isolated dwelling in Gullaun, (b) linear settlement Dohilla,
(c) Gneeveguilla village, (d) market town Killorglin
43

threshold population. Low-order goods may only live (reside) in the village but work and shop
need a small number of people (for example 1000) elsewhere.
to support a small shop, whereas a large department
store might require 50,000 people in order for it to
survive and make a profit. Capital/primate city
Highest order
The area that a settlement serves is known as its Anomaly with more settlements
Number of functions (services) provided

sphere of influence. Hamlets and villages generally functions than average,
have low spheres of influence whereas larger towns e.g. seaside resort Cities
and cities have a large sphere of influence. The

definition of hamlet, village and town is not always Large towns
very clear-cut and these terms represent features that
are part of a sliding-scale (continuum) rather than Middle order
Small towns settlements
distinct categories.
In general, as population size in settlements Villages
increases the number and range of services Anomaly with fewer
increases (Figure 1.68). However, there are functions than average,
e.g. dormitory town
exceptions. Some small settlements, notably those
with a tourist-related function, may be small in Lowest order
Hamlets
size but have many services. In contrast, some settlements
dormitory (commuter) settlements may be quite Population size of settlements
large but offer few functions or services other than ▲ Figure 1.68 The relationship between population size and
a residential one. In these settlements, people number of services
Activity
a b c
Figure 1.69 Services in three settlements. (a) Newsagents, Cassington; (b) Town Hall, Woodstock; (c) Butchers, Long
Hanborough
Study the photos (a), (b) and (c) in Figure 1.69. Arrange the three settlements in terms of their likely hierarchy.
Justify your choice.
44

Case study: Population size and number of services in Lozère

Lozère is a department in southeast France. It is a Table 1.13 Population change in Lozère, 1801–2011
mountainous region, and the main economic activities are
farming and tourism. However, due to the mountainous Year Population Year Population
relief and poor-quality soil, farming is mainly cattle 1801 130,000 1921 108,000
rearing. Surprisingly, the region has a very low rate
1821 135,000 1941 94,000
of unemployment. This is due to a long history of out-
migration of young people in search of work. 1841 142,000 1961 82,000
Table 1.12 shows how the population of St-André-Capcèze 1861 138,000 1981 74,000
fell between the 1860s and the end of the twentieth century.
However, in recent years the population has increased 1881 144,000 2001 76,000
slightly. This is due to improved communications and easier 1901 130,000 2011 73,000 (estimate)
travel — but the population is an ageing one. Tourism offers
some employment, but the jobs are seasonal, part-time,
unskilled and often quite poorly paid. Case study analysis
1 a Draw a line graph to show the change in population
Table 1.12 Population change in St-André-Capcèze, in Lozère between 1801 and 2011 (Table 1.13).
1800–2006 b Describe the changes in population in the graph you
have drawn.
Year Population c Suggest reasons for the changes in population
between:
1800 437
i 1801 and 1881
1821 455 ii 1881 and 1981
1841 479 iii 1981 and 2011.
d Compare the population changes in the Lozère
1861 427 department with those in St-André-Capcèze
1881 383 (Table 1.12).
1901 316 2 Table 1.14 shows data for services in seven settlements
in Lozère.
1921 222 a Choose a suitable method to plot population size
1931 190 against the number of services.
b Describe the relationship between population size
1962 148
and the number of services for the region.
1982 104 c Identify one exception to the pattern and suggest
1999 145 how, and why, it does not fit the pattern.
d Suggest a hierarchy of settlements based on the
2006 174 information provided.
Table 1.14 Services in Lozère
Settlement
Altitude in metres
Swimming (river,
Swimming pool
Horse riding
Mobile shop
Restaurant
Population
Post office
Canoeing
Chemist
Railway
Cinema
Fishing
Dentist
Doctor
Tennis
Skiing
Shops
Hotel
lake)
Mende 750 12,378 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 25

Badaroux 800 897 0.5 ✓ 6 6 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 6 ✓ 4 ✓ 6 ✓ 12
Bagnois-les-Bains 913 229 6 ✓ ✓ 20 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 20 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 16 14
Cubières 900 197 25 9 9 25 ✓ ✓ 9 ✓ ✓ 25 25 20 9 ✓ 25 25 9
Altier 725 209 11 11 11 11 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 11 11 11 11 ✓ 11 16 25
Villefort 605 639 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
St-André-Capcèze 450 168 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 14
Key Services available to tourists and residents in settlement: ✓
Numbers show distance in km to nearest service, i.e. 25 = 25 km distant
45

Activities
106
105
104
103
102
101
100
99
98
97
49 50 51 52 53 54 55
▲ Figure 1.70 1:50,000 map of Montego Bay, Jamaica
46

3 What is the length of the longest runway at Sangster

0 km
International Airport?
4 a How far is it, ‘as the crow flies’ (in a straight line),
from the hotel (H) on Bogue Islands to the main
buildings at Sangster International Airport?
b How far is it, by road, from the hotel (H) on
1 km Bogue Islands to the main buildings at Sangster
International Airport?
5 In which direction is Gordons Crossing from the
settlement of Montego Bay?
6 Describe the site of Montego Bay. Suggest why the
2 km area grew into an important tourist destination.
7 What types of settlement are found at Pitfour Pen
(5598) and Wales Pond (5396)?
8 Suggest reasons for the lack of settlements in grid
squares 5497 and 5199.
3 km 9 Suggest reasons for the growth of settlements at
Bogue (5198) and Granville (5599).
10 Find an example of:
a a dispersed settlement
b a nucleated settlement
4 km on the map. Suggest why each type of settlement has
that pattern in the area where it is found.
11 Using the map extract, work out a settlement
▲ Figure 1.71 Key to 1:50,000 map of Montego Bay hierarchy for the area. Name and locate an
example of:
Study Figure 1.70, a 1:50,000 map of Montego Bay, a an area of isolated, individual buildings
Jamaica. Use the key (Figure 1.71) to help you. b a village
1 What is the grid square reference of: c a minor town
a the hospital in Montego Bay d a town
b the factory on Torboy (Bogue Islands)? e a large town.
2 What is the grid square reference for: Use the key (Figure 1.71) to help you decide what type
a the hotel (H) at Doctors Cave of settlement each one is.
b the Fairfield Estate?
47

Key questions
H What are the characteristics of urban land use?
H How does urban land use vary between countries at different levels of
development?
H What is the effect of change in land use and rapid urban growth?
▲ Figure 1.72 Downtown Seoul
Urban land use Interesting note

The growth of cities in the nineteenth and early Hong Kong is the only city in the world with more
twentieth centuries produced a form of city that was completed skyscrapers than New York City.
easily recognisable by its urban land use. It included
a central commercial area, a surrounding industrial
zone with densely packed housing, and outer zones Land value
of suburban expansion and development. Geographers The value of land (bid rent) varies with different
have spent a lot of time modelling these cities to land uses. For example, it varies for retail, office and
explain ‘how they work’. residential land uses (Figure 1.73a). Retail land uses
Every model is a simplification. No city will ‘fit’ are attracted to more expensive central areas. Land at
these models perfectly, but there are parts of every the centre of a city is the most expensive for two main
model that can be applied to most cities in the reasons: it is the most accessible land to public transport,
developed world. All models are useful because and there is only a small amount available. Land prices
they focus our attention on one or two key factors. generally decrease away from the central area, although
48

Urban land use
there are secondary peaks at the intersections of main sector is best able to afford the high land prices, and
roads and ring roads (Figure 1.73a). Change in levels requires highly accessible sites. In the early twentieth
of accessibility, due to private transport as opposed to century, public transport made the central city the
public transport, explains why areas on the edge of town most accessible part of town. Beyond the centre is a
are often now more accessible than inner areas. manufacturing zone that also includes high-density,
low-quality housing to accommodate the workers.
Burgess’s concentric model (1925) As the city grows and the central business district
This is the basic model (Figure 1.73b). Burgess (CBD) expands, the concentric rings of land use are
assumed that new migrants to a city moved into pushed further out. The area of immediate change
inner city areas where housing was cheapest and it next to the expanding CBD is known as the zone in
was closest to the sources of employment. Over time transition (usually from residential to commercial).
residents move out of the inner city area as they
become wealthier. In his model, housing quality and Hoyt’s sector model (1939)
social class increase with distance from the city centre. Homer Hoyt’s sector model emphasises the importance
Land in the centre is dominated by commerce as this of transport routes and the incompatibility of certain
a
O = city centre b Concentric zone model (Burgess, 1925)
Retail A = changeover from retail
• model based on Chicago in
to office 4
Offer price
the 1920s
B = changeover from office 3
• the city is growing spatially
to residential
due to immigration and 2
Office natural increase
• the area around the CBD has 1
the lowest status and highest
Residential density housing
• residents move outwards with
increasing social class and their
i homes are taken by new migrants
O A B Distance Key to diagrams b and c
1 CBD (central business district)
Retail 2 Zone in transition/light
Office Residential
manufacturing
ii 3 Low-class residential
Offer prices of retail, office and residential 4 Medium-class residential
uses with distance from the city centre: 5 High-class residential
i section across the urban value surface 6 Heavy manufacturing
ii plan of the urban value surface
c Sector model (Hoyt, 1939) d Latin American city structure
Zone of peripheral
squatter settlements
3
Zone of active
6
improvement of
4 housing
CBD
2 Zone of better
residences
3 1 5 (upgraded/self-built)
2
Upper class
4
3
6
▲ Figure 1.73 Bid rent theory and urban land use models
49

land uses (Figure 1.73c). Sectors develop along

important routeways, while certain land uses, such Activities
as high-class residential and manufacturing industry, N
deter each other and are separated by buffer zones or
physical features.
Naucalpan Ecatapec
Urban land use in developing
countries City Centre
Netzahualcoyoti
There are a number of models of cities in
developing countries. One of the most common is
the model of a Latin American city (Figure 1.73d).
The CBD has developed around the colonial core,
0 5
and there is a commercial avenue extending
km
from it. This has become the spine of a sector
containing open areas and parks, and homes for Rich Commercial and industrial areas
the upper- and middle-income classes. These areas Middle-class Ciudades perdidas ( ’slums of despair’)
have good-quality streets, schools and public Poor Main roads

services. Further out are the more recent suburbs,
with more haphazard housing and fewer services. ▲ Figure 1.74 Urban land use in Mexico City
More recent squatter housing is found at the edge Study Figure 1.74.
of the city. Older and more established squatter 1 Describe the pattern of land use in Mexico City.
housing is found along some sectors that extend 2 To what extent does the pattern of land use in
in towards the city centre. Conditions in these Figure 1.74 conform to:
areas near the city centre are better than in the a the model of land use in Figure 1.73(d)
more recent areas at the edge. In addition, those b any of the characteristics described in
living in the central areas are closer to centres Figures 1.73(a)–(c)?
of employment and are more likely to find work.
Industrial areas are found scattered along major
transport routes, with the latest developments at
Internal structure of towns
the edge. and cities
Land use zoning in developing The central business district
countries The central business district (CBD) is the commercial
A number of models describe and explain the and economic core of the city (Figure 1.75), the
development of cities in developing countries. area that is most accessible to public transport and
These include several key points: the location with the highest land values. It has a
number of characteristic features:
» The rich generally live close to the city centre
whereas the very poor are more likely to be » Multistorey development — high land values force
found on the periphery. buildings to grow upwards, so the total floor space
» Better-quality land is occupied by the wealthy. of the CBD is much greater than the ground space.
» Segregation by wealth, race and ethnicity is » Concentration of retailing — high levels of
evident. accessibility attract shops with high range and
» Manufacturing is scattered throughout threshold characteristics, such as department
the city. stores in the most central areas, while specialist
shops are found in less accessible areas.
50

Internal structure of towns and cities
CBD core and the frame are closely connected and

the CBD core may advance into the frame, just as the
frame may advance into the core as parts of the CBD
become run down.
Residential zones
In most developed countries, as a general rule,
residential densities decrease with distance from the
CBD. This is due to a number of reasons:
» Historically, more central areas developed first and
supported high population densities.
▲ Figure 1.75 Singapore’s CBD » Large numbers of workers were densely packed into
inner city areas to be close to manufacturing jobs
» Concentration of public transport — there is a (Figures 1.77a and b).
convergence of bus routes on the CBD. » There is greater availability of land with increased
» Concentration of offices — centrality favours office distance from the CBD.
development. » Improvements in transport and technology allow
» Vertical zoning — shops occupy the lower floors people to live further away from their place of
for better accessibility, while offices occupy upper work in lower-density areas (Figure 1.77c).
floors. » Wealthy households may be able to afford to live
» Functional grouping — similar shops and similar in more attractive areas, such as close to rivers,
functions tend to locate together (increasing their high ground and open spaces/parks.
thresholds). » Some communities might desire to live away from
» Low residential population — high bid rents can other communities — this may be based on levels
only be met by luxury apartments. of wealth, ethnicity or government policy.
» Highest pedestrian flows — due to the attractions » Some communities may have to locate in areas
of a variety of commercial outlets and service where building may be difficult (Figure 1.77d).
facilities.
» Traffic restrictions are greatest in the CBD — However, this pattern can be disrupted by:
pedestrianisation has reduced access for cars since » low densities in the CBD, as residential land use
the 1960s. cannot compete with commercial land use to meet
» The CBD changes over time — there is an the high bid rents
assimilation zone (the direction in which the CBD » the location of high-rise peripheral estates,
is expanding) and there is a discard zone (the increasing densities at the margins of the urban
direction from which it is moving away). area (Figure 1.77e)
There are, however, many problems in the CBD, such » ‘green-belt’ restrictions, which artificially raise
as a lack of space, the high cost of land, congestion, population densities in the suburbs.
pollution, a lack of sites, planning restrictions and Population densities tend to change over time, with
strict government controls. peak densities decreasing and average densities
increasing.
The core–frame concept The pattern of population density declining with
The core-frame concept suggests that the CBD can be distance can be observed in many cities, but this pattern
divided into two — an inner core where most of the also changes over time. After a period of expansion,
department stores and specialist shops are found, and city centres start to decline following suburbanisation.
an outer frame where coach and train stations, offices This is sometimes followed by a repopulation of the
and warehouses may be located (Figure 1.76). The inner city if the centre is redeveloped.
51

Core and frame elements of the CBD

Concentration
of banks/businesses Absence of
Multistorey manufacturing
development industry
Multi-let
Transport
residences, often
terminals
old villas
FRAME
Office area, Concentration
Some e.g. solicitors of department
vertical stores, chain
zoning Parking stores, specialist
retail outlets
Small shops,
CORE PLVI
low-grade shops Car
Shops requiring
sales/service
large areas of
Specialist Parking land
services, e.g.
medical
Some derelict
Wholesalers, land
High density of Zo warehouses
ne Area of highest
pedestrians – zones of in
tra Limited light shopping quality
maximum accessibility, nsit
ion manufacturing
often pedestrianised and c
hange
areas and shopping
Low residential Functional zoning – similar
population activities concentrate and
cluster, e.g. banks/shoe shops
PLVI = peak land value intersection: the highest rated, busiest, most accessible part of a CBD
Factors influencing CBD decline

Rise in car ownership leads to
Investors and businesses
increased personal mobility and Planning policies can encourage
are attracted by peripheral
the rise of ‘leisure’ shopping urban expansion and provide
sites that have good access
and environments, and ‘out-of-town’ developments
often lower costs City councils, determined to
Costs of development and attract new industry/inward
upkeep of CBDs are high investment, offer greenfield
Factors influencing
(business rates, rents, and sites for development
CBD decline
land costs) Companies find peripheral
locations cheaper, and nearer
Investment in city centres customers and staff who live
often lack a coordinated plan in the leafy suburbs
Progressive suburbanisation City centres are perceived as
Congestion reduces leads to urban sprawl; the city dirty, unsafe, with an ageing
accessibility of CBDs centre may be many miles away environment and poor
infrastructure
▲ Figure 1.76 The core–frame model
52

a b
c d
▶ Figure 1.77 Contrasting residential

patterns: (a) inner city housing, Stratford,
London; (b) inner city housing, Little India,
Singapore; (c) suburban housing, Oxford;
(d) water village, Bandar Seri Bagawan,
Brunei; (e) high-density, suburban housing,
Singapore
53

Case study: Gentrification and relocation in Cape Town, South Africa

In South Africa, the phenomenon of gentrification is History
commonly associated with the resurrection of downtown
Johannesburg and the rebirth of Woodstock in Cape In the middle of the nineteenth century, notably after
Town. Both areas share a common denominator for the arrival of the railway line, Woodstock became a
gentrification: a growing middle class with disposable fashionable seaside suburb with a beach that stretched
incomes and a taste for all things ‘designer’. as far as the Castle of Good Hope. However, in the
1870s and 1880s Woodstock grew rapidly due to ease of
Site access to the harbour, improved transport and increased
Woodstock is an inner-city suburb of Cape Town, South industrialisation. The first glass manufactured in South
Africa. It is located between the docks of Table Bay and the Africa was made at the Woodstock Glass Factory in 1879.
lower slopes of Devil’s Peak, about 1 km east of the centre of By the 1950s Woodstock had ceased to be a seaside resort.
Cape Town (Figure 1.78). Woodstock covers an area of less However, many people began to move into Woodstock during
than 5 km2 and has a population of over 11, 500. This gives it the 1970s and 1980s, creating the foundation for the urban
a population density of approximately 2300 per km2. renewal that was to start in the late 1990s (Figure 1.79).
Urban renewal
Many of the lower parts of Woodstock became run down in
ATLANTIC N
the second half of the twentieth century, and litter, crime and
OCEAN
drugs became serious issues (compare this with some of the
issues in Detroit — see pages 67–68). But young professional
workers took advantage of affordable Victorian semi-detached
Woodstock homes, many of these being renovated and restored.
Fashionable restaurants, ICT and other businesses and
Blikkiesdorp offices have sprung up in converted warehouses, abandoned
buildings and even in the former Castle brewery (Figure 1.80).
FALSE BAY
0 10 km
▲ Figure 1.78 Location of Woodstock and Blikkiesdorp,

Cape Town ▲ Figure 1.80 Services in Woodstock
▶ Figure 1.79 Road network

in Woodstock
54

Contrasting views of gentrification

There are different views on the regeneration of this
part of Cape Town. Some claim that any upgrading
or regeneration will be labelled ‘gentrification’,
with negative connotations of less wealthy local
people being forced out by profit-hungry developers.
However, another view is that these early developers
are out-of-work young professionals who, seeing
an opportunity, through hard work make the best of
their creativity and contacts. Neighbourhoods with
the right mix of potential and urban decay attract
students, young professionals and artists in search of
cheap accommodation. Once they have made the area
acceptably safe and more economically viable, the area
can become the target for property developers to enter
the market. This causes the rents and the price of land ▲ Figure 1.81 Living conditions in Blikkiesdorp
to rise, forcing the poorer residents to cash in and comprises approximately 1600 one-room structures. Its
sell their properties. Cape Town’s ‘design community’ population today is estimated at around 15,000.
has recently made Woodstock its home. Here, artists The official name of Blikkiesdorp is ‘Symphony Way
and young designers still manage to retain a foothold, Temporary Relocation Area’. It is a relocation camp
though they may have to settle for smaller studios and made up of corrugated iron shacks. The structures
higher rents. have walls and roofs made of thin tin and zinc sheets.
Often, the problem with gentrification is as much Washing, sanitation and water facilities are shared
about the people who are displaced as it is about those between four of these structures.
who manage to stay on but feel increasingly alienated by
the changing image of their neighbourhood. For those Conditions and criticisms
who stay on, the problems of traffic congestion and car Blikkiesdorp is regarded as unsafe and it has a high
security issues increase. But there is much more at stake crime rate and substandard living conditions. Extremes
for many local residents than the loss of parking. of weather mean that it can be extremely hot or cold, and
According to the Anti-Eviction Campaign, some sometimes very windy, blowing sand through the shacks.
families have not been able to afford the escalating Residents have been reported to be suffering from
rates of Woodstock and other central areas, leading depression.
to their eviction and removal to such locations as
Blikkiesdorp. Case study analysis
1 Compare the site and situation of Woodstock and
Relocating the urban poor: Blikkiesdorp, Blikkiesdorp, as shown in Figure 1.78.
Cape Town 2 Describe the pattern of roads as seen in Figure 1.79.
Blikkiesdorp, which is Afrikaans for ‘Tin Can Town’, 3 Identify and comment on the types of service shown in
was given its name by residents because of the row- Figure 1.80.
upon-row of tin-like, one-room structures throughout 4 Describe the living conditions as suggested by
the settlement (Figure 1.81). It was built in 2007 and Figure 1.81.
Industrial areas » areas that require access to water — for example,

where industries such as imports and exports are
There are a number of industrial zones in most cities located close to docks
in developed countries. These include: » radial transport routes, for example Samsung
» traditional inner-city areas close to railways and/or electronics at Suwon, South Korea
canals » areas where there is good access and good
» industries needing access to skilled labour, such as availability of land, for example the Hyundai car
medical instruments; those needing access to the works at Busan, South Korea
CBD, such as fashion accessories; and those that » edge-of-town/greenfield suburban sites close to
require an urban market for distribution, for example airports.
newspapers and bakeries — these industries have
traditionally located close to the CBD
55

Activity
1 Outline the advantages of the industrial sites shown in Figure 1.82.
a b
▲ Figure 1.82 Industrial location in cities: (a) Hyundai car works, Busan; (b) the port of Barcelona
Large cities are attractive for industries for many as private transport is the main form of transport,
reasons: the volume of traffic for the roads is too great. In
» many capital cities, such as Paris and Moscow, are contrast, towards the edge of town there are larger
the major manufacturing centres of their country motorways and ring roads. These take advantage of
» cities are large markets the space available. Natural routeways, such as river
» port cities have excellent access to overseas valleys, are important for the orientation of roads.
markets and goods However, given that many cities are in lowland areas,
» cities are major centres of innovation, ideas and constraints of the natural environment are generally
fashion not great.
» a variety of labour is already available, including
skilled and unskilled workers, decision makers, The rural–urban fringe
politicians and innovators. The rural–urban fringe is the area at the edge of a
city where it meets the countryside. There are many
Open spaces pressures on the rural–urban fringe. These include:
In general, the amount of open space increases » urban sprawl
towards the edge of town. This is because the value » more housing
of land is lower towards the edge, and there is more » industrial growth
land available. Nevertheless, there are important » recreational pressures for golf courses and sports
areas of open space in many urban areas. Central stadia
Park in New York is a good example. In the centre, » transport
any areas of open land tend to be small. Many of » agricultural developments.
the open spaces are related to areas that are next to
The nature of the pressure depends on the type
rivers or formerly belonged to wealthy landowners.
of urban fringe (Table 1.15). For example, an area
Transport routes of growth, such as Barra de Tijuca outside Rio de
Janeiro, can be contrasted with an area of decline,
Most city centres are characterised by small,
such as some parts of Detroit.
congested roads. As the roads were built when the
cities were still small, they are quite small. Now,
56

Table 1.15 Issues in the urban fringe
Land use Positive aspects Negative aspects

Agriculture Some areas have Farms often suffer
well-managed litter, trespass and
farms and vandalism; some land is
smallholdings. left derelict in the hope
that planning permission
for development will be
granted.
Development Some Some developments,
developments such as out-of-town
are well sited and shopping areas, cause
landscaped, such serious pollution.
as business and Many businesses are
science parks. unregulated, e.g. scrap
metal/caravan storage.
Urban services Some, such as Mineral workings, sewage
reservoirs or works, landfill sites and
cemeteries, may Sunday markets (car boot
be attractive. sales) can be unattractive
and polluting.
Transport Some cycleways Motorways destroy
infrastructure improve access countryside, especially
and promote new near junctions.
development.
Recreation and Country parks, Stock car racing and
sport sports fields scrambling erode
and golf courses ecosystems and create
can lead to localised litter and
conservation. pollution.
Landscape Conservation There may be degraded ▲ Figure 1.83 An out-of-town shopping centre in Bandar Seri
and nature areas may be land, e.g. land ruined Begawan, Brunei
conservation included at the by fly-tipping; many
edge of the city. conservation areas are
under threat.
The growth of out-of-town The changes in retailing have been brought about by:
shopping centres » suburbanisation of more affluent households
Shopping in many more developed countries has » technological change, for example more families
changed from an industry dominated by small firms own a deep-freezer
to one being led by large companies. The retailing » economic change, with higher standards of living,
revolution has focused on superstores, hypermarkets especially including car ownership
and out-of-town shopping centres (Figure 1.83 and » traffic congestion and inflated land prices in city
Table 1.16). These are located on ‘greenfield’ suburban centres
sites with good accessibility and plenty of space for » social changes, such as more working women.
parking and future expansion. The increasing use of The initial out-of-town developments came in the
out-of-town shopping centres, and the trend for less late 1960s and early 1970s. Now more than 20 per
frequent shopping, has led to the closure of many cent of shopping expenditure in developed countries
small shops that relied on regular sales of daily items. takes place in out-of-town stores.
57

Table 1.16 The advantages and disadvantages of out-of-town shopping centres
Advantages Disadvantages
There is plenty of free parking They destroy large amounts of undeveloped greenfield sites
There is lots of space, so shops are not cramped They destroy valuable habitats
They are new developments, so are usually quite attractive They lead to pollution and environmental problems at the edge
of town
They are easily accessible by car An increase in impermeable surfaces (shops, car parks, roads
etc.) may lead to an increase in flooding and a decrease in water
quality
Being large means the shops can sell large volumes of goods They only help those with cars (or those lucky enough to live
and often at slightly lower prices on the route of a courtesy bus) — people who do not benefit
might include the elderly and those without a car or who
cannot drive
Individual shops are larger, so can offer a greater range of Successful out-of-town developments may take trade away from
goods than smaller shops city centres and lead to a decline in sales in the CBD
Being on the edge of town means the land price is lower, so Small businesses and family firms may not be able to compete
the cost of development is kept down with the large multinational companies that dominate out-
of-town developments — there may be a loss of the ‘personal
touch’
Developments on the edge of town reduce the environmental They cause congestion in out-of-town areas
pressures and problems in city centres
Many new jobs may be created both in the short term Many of the jobs created are unskilled
(construction industry) and in the long term (retail industry
and linked industries such as transport, warehousing,
storage, catering etc.)
Activities
Study Figure 1.84.
1 What are the advantages of this site for the
supermarket?
2 Which population groups benefit from out-of-town
developments such as the one shown in the
photograph? Give reasons for your choice.
3 Describe the land uses shown in Figure 1.85a–d, which
show contrasting areas in Bandar Seri Begawan,
Brunei. Identify each of the main land uses and their
likely location in the city.
▲ Figure 1.84 An out-of-town shopping centre near

Oxford, UK
58

a b
▲ Figure 1.85 Land use in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei
Edge towns: a new form of development

on the rural–urban fringe
Case study: Barra da Tijuca — an ‘edge city’ in Brazil
Barra da Tijuca is a recent ‘edge city’ — an exclusive edge- a lack of public transport and services, difficult access,
of-town development — and is now a key Olympic site. Land overcrowding and poor maintenance.
in southern Rio de Janeiro was already fully developed by The 2016 Olympic Park was built on the lowlands of
the early 1960s. At that time, Lucio Costa, a French-born Jacarepagua to the west of Barra. Improving sanitation
urban planner, produced a plan to develop the area known systems to reverse long-term pollution of the surrounding
as Jacarepagua, with Barra da Tijuca as its centre. lagoons and canals was the first stage. Power lines were
Barra da Tijuca holds many attractions for Rio’s expanding laid underground. The site of the athletes’ village for Rio
rich middle class, with a pleasant environment, mountain 2016, ‘Ilha Pura’, became a new neighbourhood after the
views, forests, lagoons and 20 km of beaches — but it is still games. Thirty-one apartment blocks were built — larger
only 30 minutes away by motorway from the increasingly than London’s athletes’ village — and families were able
congested and polluted city centre. The area expanded from to move into these after the event.
2500 inhabitants in 1960 to 98,000 in 1991, growing by 139 per However, the existing Jacarepagua race track and
cent during the 1980s. Barra is the most recent example of fishing community were demolished, as the infrastructure
the decentralisation of Rio’s wealthy population. for the 2016 Olympic Games was built.
By contrast, the lowlands of Jacarepagua are an area
of flat scrub, marshland, lagoons and coastal spits, but it
Case study analysis
had the potential for enlarging the urban area by a further 1 Describe the situation of Barra da Tijuca.
122 km2. Its neighbourhoods include Anil, Gardenia 2 Comment on population changes in Barra since 1961.
Azul and Cidade de Deus, and the area was developed 3 Suggest how the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games
from the 1960s onwards. However, it still suffers from influenced the development of Barra.
59

Case study: Land use in New York

New York City’s land area covers about 825 km2. The landmark buildings such as the Rockefeller Centre and the
distribution of commercial land use is dominated by Empire State Building. Commercial areas occupy less than
two areas, Midtown Manhattan and Downtown (Lower) 4 per cent of the city’s land, but they use space intensively.
Manhattan (Figure 1.86a–c). Lower Manhattan is the centre Most of the city’s 3.6 million jobs are in commercial areas,
for finance and banking, containing Wall Street and the ranging from the office towers of Manhattan and the
Stock Exchange. In contrast, midtown Manhattan has the regional business districts of downtown Brooklyn, to the
main shops (Fifth Avenue), theatres (Broadway), hotels and local shopping corridors throughout the city.
a Commercial use
Westchester County
Lot area % of city
Commercial 2380 ha 3.8
Long Island Sound
Parking facilities 863 ha 1.4
Open space
Bronx
New Jersey
Manhattan
Queens
Nassau
County
Brooklyn
Staten
Island
Atlantic Ocean
0 15 km
▲ Figure 1.86a Commercial land use in New York
60

Industrial uses — warehouses and factories — Brooklyn, and northwest and eastern Bronx (Table 1.17).
occupy 4 per cent of the city’s total lot area. They are In contrast, medium- to high-density residential buildings
found primarily in the South Bronx, along either side of (three or more dwelling units) contain more than two-
Newtown Creek in Brooklyn and Queens, and along the thirds of the city’s housing units but occupy 12 per cent
western shores of Brooklyn and Staten Island. Riverfront of the city’s total lot area. The highest-density residences
locations are very important. are found mainly in Manhattan, and 4- to 12-storey
Low-density residences, the largest use of city land, are apartment houses are common in many parts of the
found mostly in Staten Island, eastern Queens, southern Bronx, Brooklyn and Queens.
b Industrial use
Westchester County
Lot area % of city
Industrial / manufacturing 2319 ha 3.7
Long Island Sound
Transportation / utility 4665 ha 7.5
Open space
Bronx
New Jersey
Manhattan
Queens
Nassau
County
Brooklyn
Staten
Island
Atlantic Ocean
0 15 km
▲ Figure 1.86b Industrial land use in New York
61

Public facilities and institutions — including schools, preserves, cemeteries, amusement areas, beaches,
hospitals and nursing homes, museums and performance stadiums and golf courses. Approximately 8 per cent of
centres, places of worship, police stations and fire houses, the city’s land is classified as vacant. Staten Island has
courts and detention centres — are spread throughout the the most vacant land, with more than 2145 hectares;
city and occupy 7 per cent of the city’s land. Manhattan has the least, with less than 160.
Approximately 25 per cent of the city’s lot area is
occupied by public parks, playgrounds and nature
c Residential use
Westchester County
Lot area % of city
One and two family 16 978 ha 27.4
Long Island Sound
Multi family 7458 ha 12.0
Mixed-resident / commercial 1664 ha 2.7
Open space
Bronx
New Jersey
Manhattan
Queens
Nassau
County
Brooklyn
Staten
Island
Atlantic Ocean
0 15 km
▲ Figure 1.86c Residential land use in New York
62

Table 1.17 Land use (%) in New York City by borough
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Bronx 18.1 15.5 2.7 4.3 3.8 2.8 11.6 31.1 2.0 4.3 3.8 100
Brooklyn 22.7 16.0 3.4 3.1 4.9 4.2 6.0 33.9 1.8 3.1 0.9 100
Manhattan 1.3 23.9 12.2 10.2 2.4 6.6 11.7 25.1 1.7 3.0 1.9 100
Queens 36.2 10.6 1.5 3.2 3.7 11.8 4.5 19.7 1.3 5.2 2.3 100
Staten Island 33.6 3.1 0.5 3.4 2.9 7.8 9.6 20.7 0.5 17.5 0.5 100
New York City 27.4 12.0 2.7 3.8 3.7 7.5 7.3 25.4 1.4 6.9 1.8 100
Key
1 Low-density residential areas 7 Public facilities and institutions
2 High-density residential 8 Open space
3 High-density apartments/commercial 9 Parking facilities
4 Commercial/office 10 Vacant land
5 Industrial/manufacturing 11 Miscellaneous
6 Transport/utility 12 Total
Case study analysis 3 Compare the distribution of low-density residential

Refer to Figure 1.86 and Table 1.17. areas with that of high-density residential areas. How
1 Describe the distribution of commercial land in New do these compare with the distribution of apartments?
York City. 4 Compare and contrast the main land uses in Manhattan
2 Comment on the distribution of industrial land. with those in Queens.
Activities
Table 1.18 Urban land use in Seoul (%)
Table Residential
Commercial
Urbanised area Industrial
Residential 18.9 Green
Commercial and business 5.9 Parks
Mixed residential and business 13.0 Green belt
Industrial 1.2
Public facilities 5.1 ang
ng
Ha
Transport 10.5
Urban infrastructure 1.1
Derelict 1.8
Total 57.5
Forest and open space
Rivers and lakes 8.1
Forest 31.9
0 5 km
Inaccessible (steep slopes) 2.5
Total 42.5 ▲ Figure 1.87 Land use in Seoul
63

1 a Using the data in Table 1.18, draw a pie chart to

show land uses in Seoul.
b Comment on the results you have drawn.
2 Refer to Figures 1.87 and 1.88.
a Describe the distribution of industrial land use on
the map and the photo.
b Describe, and suggest reasons for, the distribution
of open space (green, parks and green belt).
c Describe the distribution of commercial land use.
▲ Figure 1.88 Land-use in downtown Seoul
Problems associated with industrialising countries (NICs) are thought to be at

risk of high levels of indoor air pollution, especially
urban growth those living in slums.
LICs and NICs have weaker economies and so
A number of problems are associated with the growth investment in pollution control is minimal. Instead,
of urban areas. These include: such countries favour industrialisation and the
» pollution (air, noise, water, light) use of cheap, inefficient energy resources, such as
» inequality lignite and low-grade coal, as a source of energy. By
» housing issues contrast, HICs — which may have gone through the
» traffic congestion process of deindustrialisation — have the capital and
» conflicts over land-use change. the technology to tackle air pollution.
One of the major sources of pollution is motor
These problems are found in most large cities vehicles. At present, LICs/NICs account for about
worldwide. Cities in developing countries have the 10 per cent of the world’s motor vehicles and
added problems of shanty housing and squatter about 20 per cent of the world’s cars, but some
settlements. countries, such as India and China, are expanding
Air pollution their car industries as a key part of their economic
development. Cars and other vehicles in LICs tend
Poor air quality affects half the world’s urban to be less fuel-efficient and produce more pollution
population. Each year thousands of people die because they are older, poorly serviced and lack
because of poor air quality, and many more are clean, environmentally friendly technology.
seriously affected. The problem is increasing as
population growth increases in urban areas, with Noise pollution
industrial development and the increase in the Road traffic noise is related to traffic volume,
number of vehicles worldwide. The world’s population traffic composition, speed, reflection of noise from
is growing by about 90 million people each year. This barriers, retaining walls or mitigation techniques,
increases the demand for energy, transport, heating weather conditions, terrain and road surface. Noise
and so on. More and more people are living in urban disturbance may cause people in urban areas to move
areas. In low-income countries (LICs) population or consider moving from cities of high population
growth is very rapid, and cities have fewer resources density to quieter environments. Noise from road
to cope than cities in high-income countries (HICs). traffic and other sources has been associated with
In many LICs, indoor air pollution is high due to raised blood pressure, coronary heart disease,
the burning of fuelwood and paraffin for cooking and psychological stress and annoyance, and sleep
heating. Up to 700 million people in LICs and newly disturbance.
64

Problems associated with urban growth
Water pollution Inequality

Water pollution is a major problem in many cities as In all cities there is inequality. There are contrasts between
a result of the large number of people, industries and the rich and the poor. In most HICs, the poor are located
vehicles that might discharge pollutants into rivers. in inner-city areas, edge-of-town estates and high-rise
Some rivers and lakes have become so polluted that flats, whereas, in LICs, the poor tend to be located in
they have even caught fire. The most famous case is shanty towns or informal settlements. There are important
the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, USA, which caught variations in terms of educational achievements, access
fire in 1969, but there have been recent cases in to healthcare, employment opportunities and so on. One
China in 2014, for example when a river in Wenzhou, way of showing inequality is a Lorenz curve. This shows
Zhejiang Province caught fire, and in 2017 when the the proportion of income that the rich and the poor
Bellandur Lake in Banglalore, India caught fire. It have. Figure 1.91 shows a Lorenz curve for inequality in
regularly forms a froth due to the amount of pollution Brazil. It shows that the top 10 per cent of households
in it (Figure 1.89). have 40 per cent of the wealth and that the bottom
25 per cent have less than 5 per cent of the wealth.
100
Key
90
Perfect equality diagonal
80
Percentage of wealth 70
Wealth
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of total households
▲ Figure 1.89 Toxic froth from Bellandur Lake, Bangalore
▲ Figure 1.91 Lorenz curve to show inequality in Rio de Janeiro
Light pollution Housing issues

Light pollution (Figure 1.90) refers to excessive artificial Provision of enough quality housing is also a major
lighting. It is common in large urban and industrial problem in LICs. There are at least four aspects to the
areas, and can have an impact on human health, management of housing stock:
leading to loss of sleep and headaches, and is disruptive
» quality of housing — with proper water,
to nocturnal animals. It is also a waste of energy.
sanitation, electricity and space
» quantity of housing — having enough units to
meet demand
» availability and affordability of housing
» housing tenure (ownership or rental).
Increased demand for housing is generated by:
» people moving to urban areas in search of work
and a higher standard of living
» longer life expectancy
» young people leaving home earlier
» more families splitting up and moving into
separate homes
» more people preferring modern houses with good
▲ Figure 1.90 Light pollution in Singapore’s CBD facilities.
65

Greenfield and brownfield sites Traffic congestion

A greenfield site is a site that has not previously Traffic congestion has many impacts. It can
been developed. Most greenfield sites are on the delay journeys and make people late for work,
edge of town, although not necessarily so. A appointments, school etc. It increases fuel
brownfield site is a site that has previously been consumption and adds to vehicular emissions of
used, and has become derelict. It has to be made greenhouse gases and other pollutants. It may lead
safe before it can be used for housing or other to frustration and ‘road rage’, and it can have a
development (Figure 1.92). negative impact on people’s health (stress and poor
air quality). In 2013 the World Health Organization
announced that air pollution could cause cancer.
Diesel fumes are carcinogenic, and air pollution has
a causal link with respiratory diseases.
Conflicts over land-use change

The Dharavi slum in Mumbai is a prime site for
development. The Indian property developer Mukesh
Mehta wants to develop Dharavi into an international
business destination. However, to do this would
displace up to 1 million people to the edge of the
city, in places that offer few economic prospects.
Dharavi is home to thousands of small-scale, informal
industries, which generate around $650 million annually.
For many people, working in Dharavi is a means of
escaping poverty. The informal economy accounts for
▲ Figure 1.92 A brownfield site: Stratford, London before the the overwhelming majority of India’s economic growth
2012 Olympic Games and as much as 90 per cent of employment.
Table 1.19 Greenfield and brownfield sites compared
Greenfield sites Brownfield sites

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Land may be accessible Habitat destruction Redevelopment of Land may be contaminated
disused land
Cheaper land Reduction in biodiversity Widespread air and water
Does not harm the pollution
People prefer more space and Increased pollution
environment
pleasant environments Congestion
Increased impermeability leads to
Creates jobs locally
Allows planners a free rein flooding Overcrowding
Provides a boost to
Easier to plan for Increased traffic on the roads and Land is expensive
local economies
infrastructural developments cross-city commuting
May use existing
infrastructure
66

Case study: Urban problems in New York and Detroit

New York expanded in terms of population and employment. Only 20
per cent of the workers in Westchester County (a New York
New York’s population is declining and changing:
suburb and one of the wealthiest counties in the USA) now
• The total population has fallen by over 10 per cent in commute into the city for their work.
the last decade. Up to 25 per cent of its citizens now live in poverty. A good
• The white population has fallen from 87 per cent to example of an inner city area is the South Bronx. There,
65 per cent since 1950. the average income is 40 per cent that of the country as a
• The middle-class population has fallen by 2 million in whole, and one-third of residents are on welfare support.
the past 20 years. New York’s problems arise from:
• The number of elderly residents has risen by
• changes in the composition of the labour force
21 per cent since 1950.
• the high living standards that the US economy
• New York has one of the largest black populations in
guarantees for most citizens
the country, making up 9.1 per cent of the population.
• the social strains set up by the continuing existence
• The population of the South Bronx has declined by
of an undereducated, unskilled, underpaid and
nearly 50 per cent.
underprivileged minority
• Almost 1 million New Yorkers depend on welfare payments.
• the massive outward movement of the middle class,
The inner areas are declining both in terms of population spurred on by good roads and increased living standards
and employment. Much of the housing and industry is dated • the counter-movement of lower-income families into
(Figure 1.93). By contrast, the suburban periphery has the inner city.
Urban decline in Detroit

Detroit was once the USA’s fourth largest city. Indeed,
in 1960 it had the highest per capita income in the USA.
Now up to 104 km2 of the 360 km2 inner city have been
reclaimed by nature. Up to 40,000 buildings and parcels
of land are vacant (Figure 1.94). Property prices have
fallen by 80 per cent or more. In 2013 there was a three-
bedroom house on Albany Street for sale at $1.Detroit is
the largest US city to declare bankruptcy. Its long-term
debts are estimated at over $18 billion, or $27,000 for
every resident.
Between 1900 and 1950, Detroit prospered. General
Motors (GM), Ford and Chrysler made most of the cars
sold in the USA. Detroit’s population increased from
▲ Figure 1.94 Detroit — a forsaken city

▲ Figure 1.93 Old tenement housing in New York
67

Population change in Detroit (millions)

18 July 2013
1940–45
Detroit files for bankruptcy
1903 ‘The arsenal of 1973
Ford Motor Co. founded democracy’ Oil crisis 2012 Murder rate tops
1959
1970s levels
1908 Motown
General Motors founded Records 1967
founded Race riots 2009 Car industry bail-out
1913
Ford pioneers assembly-line
production 2.0
1925 1974
‘Murder capital’ of USA 1.5
Population
Chrysler Corp. founded
(millions)
1.0
0.5
0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2013
Year
▲ Figure 1.95 Population change in Detroit

about 300,000 in 1900 to 1.8 million in 1950, but fell to just for copper. Only one-third of its ambulances are in working
700,000 in 2013 (Figure 1.95). order.
Many of the people are poor and relatively poorly educated However, there is some hope. Urban farms are
— over 80 per cent have no more than a high school diploma. appearing. Young people — especially artists and
Delivering services to sparsely populated neighbourhoods musicians — are moving into Detroit to make use of the
would be difficult even if the city could afford it. abandoned and affordable urban spaces. Policies set in
The causes of Detroit’s troubles are complex. They include: place, such as low rents, good universities and tax breaks,
are attempting to attract businesses back to the city.
• fading car sales and therefore less tax revenue from
the city’s large firms
450
• a shrinking population — many of the richer people
have moved away from the city 400
• very high pension and social welfare costs — the city
Thousands of people
has an ageing population. 350

Detroit has paid the price for being too dependent on
300
a single industry — the motor car. It attracted many
black workers from the American south to work in its 250
factories, and inequalities in working conditions and living
conditions led to race riots in 1943 and 1967. Many white 200
people abandoned the city during the ‘white flight’ of the
1950s, 1960s and 1970s. 150
Only 30 per cent of the jobs available in the city
are taken by Detroit residents. Over 60 per cent of 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Detroit’s population who work, do so outside of the city. Year
Unemployment had reached 30 per cent by 2013. Over 33 ▲ Figure 1.96 Change in manufacturing employment in Detroit
per cent of Detroit’s population and nearly 50 per cent of
its children live below the poverty line. Nearly 50 per cent
of Detroit adults are ‘functionally illiterate’ and 29 schools Case study analysis
closed down in 2009 alone. Detroit’s population is now 1 a Suggest reasons for Detroit’s growth between 1900
81.6 per cent Afro-American. and 1950.
According to a report in The Economist, law and order b Suggest why Detroit’s population declined after 1950.
has completely broken down in the inner city, and drugs c Suggest the likely impacts of a falling population size.
and prostitution are commonplace. Detroit’s murder rate is 2 Describe the trend in manufacturing employment in
at a 40-year high. Of the city’s 85,000 street lights, half are Detroit between 1990 and 2010 (Figure 1.96). Suggest
usually out of service because thieves have stripped them the likely impacts of the changes you have described.
68

Case study: Problems in Seoul

Housing shortage Traffic congestion
Seoul’s population grew from 2.5 million in 1960 to over Like New York, Seoul experiences massive traffic congestion.
10 million in 1990 and over 20 million in the Greater Seoul In 1975 Korea manufactured fewer than 20,000 cars. By
region by 2005. In-migration and the trend towards nuclear 1994 there were over 2 million cars registered in the Seoul
families (two generations) rather than the extended family area. Despite improvements to the motorway network, the
(three generations in the one house) have created a major increase in the population of Seoul and the number of cars
housing shortage, despite massive building programmes in the area mean that congestion has increased. In addition,
(Figure 1.97). Less than 45 per cent of the land around many of the roads in central Seoul are relatively small and
Seoul is available for urban development due to the steep unable to handle the large volumes of traffic.
terrain and surrounding mountains.
The type of housing is changing too. The typical one- Pollution
storey, one-family house with an inner courtyard is being As Seoul has grown the amount of air and water pollution
replaced by high-rise apartment blocks. Such flats have has increased. A good example is the Cheong Gye Cheon
increased from 4 per cent of housing in 1970 to 35 per River in central Seoul (Figure 1.98a). It had become heavily
cent in 1990 and 50 per cent in 2005. Until recently most polluted with lead, chromium and manganese, and was
of the housing was to the north of the river, but a number a health risk. Restoration of the river has been a central
of satellite towns have been built to the south of the river. part of the regeneration of central Seoul (Figure 1.98b).
This has evened out population density, which on average Previously, up to 87 per cent of the city’s sewage flowed
is over 16,000 people per km2 (Table 1.20). untreated into the Hangang River. Now Seoul has the
capacity to treat up to 3 million tonnes of sewage each day.
a
▲ Figure 1.97 High-rise buildings in Seoul b
Table 1.20 Population densities in selected cities
City Population/km2
Seoul 16,364
Tokyo 13,092
Beijing 4,810
Singapore 4,773
London 4,671
Paris 8,084
New York 9,721
▲ Figure 1.98 The Cheong Gye Cheon River in
Los Angeles 3,037 central Seoul: (a) in the 1950s; (b) natural section
following restoration
Activities
1 Suggest several different reasons why there is
poverty in New York.
2 Why is air pollution a problem in large cities?
3 Describe the conditions in Cheong Gye Cheong, as
shown in Figure 1.98.
69

1.7 Urbanisation
Key questions
H What is urbanisation?
H What are the reasons for rapid urban growth?
H What are the impacts of urban growth on both urban and rural areas?
H What are the strategies to reduce the negative impacts of urban growth?
the migrants send home. On the other hand, there

may not be enough people to keep services running,
and agricultural productivity may decline.
Urbanisation may lead to people becoming better
off. The growth of China’s cities and industries since
the 1990s has led to millions of people becoming
richer and having a higher standard of living than
before. On the other hand, if there are insufficient
jobs, housing and other services, people’s lives may
be quite poor. Unemployment, underemployment,
overcrowding and pollution are common in informal
▲ Figure 1.99 Glenmore, South Africa (squatter) settlements. In the rural areas, land may
be abandoned and farm productivity declines (due to
loss of young labourers), while in farmland close to
Urbanisation is an increase in the percentage of
the city, it may be converted to urban land use.
a population living in urban areas. It is one of the
More than two-thirds of the world’s urban
most significant geographical phenomena of the
population is now in Africa, Asia, Latin America and
twentieth century. Urbanisation takes place when the
the Caribbean. The population in urban areas in
urban population is growing more rapidly than the
developing countries will grow from 1.9 billion in
population as a whole. It is caused by a number of
2000 to 3.9 billion by 2030. In developed countries,
interrelated factors, including:
however, the urban population is expected to
increase very slowly, from 0.9 billion in 2000 to
» migration to urban areas
1 billion in 2030.
» higher birth rates in urban areas due to the
The overall population growth rate for the world
youthful age structure
for that period is 1 per cent, while the growth rate
» higher death rates in rural areas due to diseases,
for urban areas is nearly double, at 1.8 per cent. At
unreliable food supply, famine, natural hazards,
that rate, the world’s urban population will double
decreased standard of living in rural areas, poor
in 38 years. Growth will be even more rapid in the
water, hygiene and medication
urban areas of developing countries, averaging
» rural areas being reclassified as urban areas (this
2.3 per cent per year, with a doubling time of
would normally accompany the above factors).
30 years.
Urbanisation can lead to a decline in population The urbanisation process (Figure 1.100) in developed
in rural areas and a change in age structure. Many countries has stabilised, with about 75 per cent of the
of those who leave are young adults, and so the population living in urban areas. Latin America and
population in rural areas ages. In addition, there the Caribbean were 50 per cent urbanised by 1960 but
is a ‘brain-drain’ whereby more of the most able here urbanisation is now about 75 per cent. Africa is
and innovative of the population move in search of still predominantly rural, with only 37.3 per cent living
a better life. The rural area may benefit from less in urban areas in 1999, but with a growth rate of 4.87
pressure on resources and from the remittances that per cent, the continent of Africa has the fastest rate
70

The characteristics of squatter settlements (slums)
of urbanisation. By 2030, Asia and Africa will each in Bangladesh and many cities in India and China.
have more urban dwellers than any other major area Strong economic performance by such cities is the
of the world. Two aspects of this rapid growth have most important factor in explaining this. This growth
been the increase in the number of large cities and the attracts many young migrants, for whom birth rates
historically unprecedented size of the largest cities. are higher in urban areas, and death rates are lower
Mass urbanisation in
there too.
100
most developed nations: Given the association between economic growth
Urban population as % of total population
90 rate of urbanisation
slows but achieves and urbanisation, a steady increase in the level of
80 highest level; most
people now live in towns MEDCs 5 urbanisation in low-income nations is only likely
70
Economic take-off 4 to take place if they also have a steadily growing
60
begins: rapid rural-to- In advanced economies a
fifth phase may be seen
economy.
urban migration leads Cs
50
to an accelerating NI where people begin to move
rate of urbanisation 3 back to semi-rural areas:
The characteristics of
40
counterurbanisation of
30 lifestyle reasons
s
LLEDCs DC
LE
squatter settlements
20 2 Maturing economy: Reverse trend
1 rates of urbanisation for rural % of
10 continue to rise population
0
The rural society
phase: low levels of
urbanisation largely
steadily as towns
develop and enlarge (slums)
rural population of
subsistence farmers
The UN defines a slum household as one or a group
of individuals living under the same roof in an urban
▲ Figure 1.100 The process of urbanisation area, lacking one or more of the following five
amenities:
A megacity is a city with more than 10 million
people. In 1950 there were only two megacities: 1 durable housing — a permanent structure
New York City and Tokyo. In 2000 there were 18 providing protection from extreme climatic
megacities, 424 cities with a population of 1 to conditions
10 million, and 433 cities in the 0.5 to 1 million 2 sufficient living space — no more than three
category. By 2016, there were 31 cities with a people sharing a room
population over 10 million and, of these, 24 were 3 access to improved water — water that is
in developing countries (Table 1.21). sufficient, affordable and can be obtained without
Most of the world’s megacities had slower extreme effort
population growth rates during the 1980s and 1990s, 4 access to improved sanitation facilities — a
and most of the larger cities are significantly smaller private toilet or a public one shared with a
than had been expected. For instance, Mexico City reasonable number of people
had around 18 million people in 2000 — not the 5 secure tenure — protection against forced
31 million predicted in 1980. Kolkata in India had eviction; most squatter settlements are illegal and
around 13 million inhabitants in 2000, not the have no legal basis.
40–50 million people predicted in the 1970s. The total number of slum dwellers in the world
Several factors help to explain this: stood at about 980 million people in 2015.
» In many cities in the developing world, slow This represents about 32 per cent of the world’s
economic growth (or economic decline) attracted urban population, but 78.2 per cent of the urban
fewer people. population is in LICs. Slums are typically located
» The capacity of cities outside the very large on land that planners do not want: steep slopes,
metropolitan centres to attract a significant floodplains, edge-of-town locations and/or close to
proportion of new investment was limited. major industrial complexes.
» Lower rates of natural increase have occurred, as Despite the success of the United Nation’s
fertility rates have come down. Millennium Development Goal 1 (MDG 1), ‘Reduce
extreme poverty by half’, more than 200 million people
However, there were some large cities whose in sub-Saharan Africa and more than 190 million in
population growth rates remained high from the south and east Asia still live in slums (Table 1.22).
1980s through to the 2010s, for example Dhaka
71

1.7 Urbanisation
Table 1.21 Populations of the world’s megacities, 1950–2030 (millions)
Rank 1950 1975 2000 2016 2030 (projected)

1 New York 12.3 Tokyo 26.6 Tokyo 34.4 Tokyo 38.1 Tokyo 37.2
2 Tokyo 11.3 New York 15.9 Mexico City 18.1 Delhi 26.4 Delhi 36.1
3 Mexico City 10.2 New York 17.8 Shanghai 24.5 Shanghai 30.7
4 São Paulo 17.1 Mumbai 21.3 Mumbai 27.8
5 Mumbai 16.1 São Paulo 21.3 Beijing 27.7
6 Shanghai 13.2 Beijing 21.2 Dhaka 27.4
7 Kolkata 13.1 Mexico City 21.1 Karachi 24.8
8 Delhi 12.4 Osaka 20.3 Cairo 24.5
9 Buenos Aires 11.8 Cairo 19.1 Lagos 24.2
10 Los Angeles 11.8 New York 18.6 Mexico City 23.9
11 Osaka 11.2 Dhaka 18.2 São Paulo 23.4
12 Jakarta 11.1 Karachi 17.1 Kinshasa 20.0
13 Rio de Janeiro 10.8 Buenos Aires 15.3 Osaka 20.0
14 Cairo 10.4 Kolkata 15.0 New York 19.9
15 Dhaka 10.2 Istanbul 14.4 Kolkata 19.1
16 Moscow 10.1 Chongqing 13.7 Guangzhou- 17.6
Guangdong
17 Karachi 10.0 Lagos 13.7 Chongqing 17.4
18 Metro Manila 10.0 Manila 13.1 Buenos Aires 16.9
19 Guangzhou- 13.1 Manila 16.7
Guangdong
20 Rio de Janeiro 13.0 Istanbul 16.7
21 Los Angeles 12.3 Bangalore 14.8
22 Moscow 12.3 Tianjin 14.6
23 Kinshasa 12.1 Rio de Janeiro 14.2
24 Tianjin 11.6 Chennai 13.9
25 Paris 10.9 Jakarta 13.8
26 Shenzhen 10.8 Los Angeles 13.2
27 Jakarta 10.5 Lahore 13.0
28 Hyderabad 10.5 Hyderabad 12.8
29 Bangalore 10.4 Shenzhen 12.7
30 London 10.4 Lima 12.2
31 Channai 10.2 Moscow 12.2
32 Lima 10.1 Bogota 12.0
33 Bangkok 10.1 Paris 11.8
34 Johannesburg 11.6
35 Bangkok 11.5
36 London 11.5
37 Dar es Salaam 10.8
38 Ahmadabad 10.5
39 Luanda 10.4
40 Ho Chi Min City 10.2
72

Table 1.22 Urban populations and slum populations in the

world’s major regions (per cent), 1990, 2005 and 2014
The housing crisis in developing
Major region or Urban population Slum population
countries
area 1990 2005 2014 1990 2005 2014 Provision of enough quality housing is another a major
Developing 34.8 43.0 48.4 46.2 35.6 29.7 problem in developing countries. There are at least
regions four aspects to the management of housing stock:
Northern Africa 45.7 49.4 51.4 34.4 13.4 11.9
Sub-Saharan 27.1 33.0 37.4 70.0 63.0 55.9 » quality of housing — with proper water,
Africa sanitation, electricity and space (Figures 1.101
Latin America and 70.5 76.9 79.5 33.7 25.5 21.1 and 1.102)
the Caribbean » quantity of housing — having enough units to
Eastern Asia 33.9 48.3 58.9 43.7 33.0 26.2 meet demand
Southern Asia 26.5 30.8 34.4 57.2 40.0 31.3 » availability and affordability of housing
Southeastern Asia 31.6 41.3 47.0 49.5 34.2 28.4 » housing tenure (ownership or rental).
Western Asia 61.1 65.9 69.6 22.5 25.8 24.9
Oceania 24.4 23.4 23.0 24.1 24.1 24.1
Interesting note
Some of the world’s largest slums could be
‘millionaire’ cities. Neza-Chalco-Itza in Mexico
City has a population of 4 million people. Orangi
Town in Karachi has an estimated population of
1.5 million and Dharavi in Mumbai has a population
of over 1 million residents. Khayelitsha in Cape
Town had 400,000 in 2005, and Kibera in Nairobi has
a population of between 200,000 and 1 million.
▲ Figure 1.101 Poor-quality housing in Oisins, Barbados
Activities
1 a Choose an appropriate method to show the global
distribution of people living in slums (Table 1.22).
b Where is the frequency of slum dwellers highest?
Where is it lowest?
c Comment on your conclusions.
2 Describe one environmental problem that is the
result of rapid urban growth.
3 Explain why natural hazards may have a major
impact in areas of slum housing.
Slum upgrading
The 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
include one specifically for urban areas: SDG 11 — ▲ Figure 1.102 Derelict housing in Cuba
‘Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,
resilient and sustainable’. Target 11.1 states: ‘By There are a variety of possible solutions to the
2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and housing problem:
affordable housing and basic services and upgrade » government support for low-income, self-built housing
slums’. Other relevant SDGs include: » subsidies for home building
» SDG 1 — End poverty in all its forms everywhere
» SDG 6 — Ensure availability and sustainable
management of water and sanitation for all.
73

1.7 Urbanisation
» flexible loans to help shanty town dwellers » improve sanitation

» slum upgrading in central areas » prevent families from moving into areas that are
» improved private and public rental housing physically unsafe
» support for the informal sector/small businesses » encourage households to improve the quality of
operating at home their accommodation.
» site and service schemes
A sensible approach is to destroy slums as seldom
» encouragement of community schemes
as possible, on the grounds that every displaced
» construction of health and educational services.
family needs to be rehoused, and removing families
is often disastrous. Governments should also avoid
Housing the urban poor building formal housing for the very poor. Sensible
Governments of developing countries are unable to governments will attempt to upgrade inadequate
solve their housing problems. The best that they could accommodation by providing infrastructure and
be expected to do in an environment of general poverty services of an appropriate standard.
is to improve living conditions. They could try to: There are no easy solutions to housing problems in
developing countries because poor housing is merely
» reduce the number of people living at densities of
one manifestation of general poverty. Decent shelter
more than 1.5 individuals in each room
can never be provided while there is widespread poverty.
» increase access to electricity and drinking water
Case study: Squatter settlements in Rio de Janeiro

Photochemical smog is a constant N
Huge areas of sprawling shanty towns
problem – generated by slow-moving traffic
Overall more than 700 different areas
Up to 40% of city population live in favelas
A city of marked inequality has led to high
levels of crime in some areas, e.g. Centro Lapa
New spontaneous
settlements on Rising urbanisation and industrialisation have
periphery led to severe sewage and chemical pollution
Guanabara
Nova Iguaçu Bay Problem of communications linking Rio and Niterói
New areas of
local authority Nilópolis
housing – very São Gonçalo
basic standard Niterói
Rio
Some dereliction – deindustrialisation
of some heavy industries, e.g.steel
Extensive sprawl along beautiful Mountainous relief limits space for building and makes the
coastal areas, e.g. Barra development of an effective transport route difficult and
costly, e.g. constructing the Lagoa–Barra tunnel
Many shanty towns, such as Vidigal, are built on the Algal blooms and eutrophication 0 10
side of hills (only available land) so prone to landslips Urban area
in the Lagoa Rodrigo channel
km
▲ Figure 1.103 Slums in Rio de Janeiro
Millions of people have migrated from rural areas and largely in the outer suburbs and the rural–urban
other urban areas in Brazil to Rio de Janeiro in search of fringe). As spontaneous settlements are forced to
work and a better standard of living. The problem is that develop on available land, most of the sites have been
there are neither enough jobs nor houses for everyone. used in the central and inner urban areas. Many favelas
Therefore, many migrants are forced to make their own were moved to outer suburban areas. In inner urban
homes (on land they do not own) and get whatever casual areas, newly established favelas were frequently forced
work they can, often in the informal sector. to develop on steep hillsides, where landslides are a
Rio de Janeiro has many slum communities or threat. About 40 per cent of Rio’s population are favela-
comunidade. The natural increase in population is much dwellers. They occupy just 6.3 per cent of Rio’s land
higher in the most recent favelas (squatter settlements, area (Figure 1.103).
74

There are four main types of slum in Rio: • generating employment, for example by creating
cooperatives of dressmakers, cleaners and
• squatter settlements or favelas — dense invasions
construction workers, and helping them to establish
of land, with self-built housing, on land lacking in
themselves in the labour market
infrastructure
• improving education and providing relevant courses
• illegal subdivisions of land and/or housing
such as ICT
• invasions — irregular occupations of land still in the
• giving residents access to credit so that they can buy
process of becoming fully established, generally found
construction materials and improve their homes.
in ‘risky’ areas such as around and beneath viaducts,
under electricity lines, on the edge of railways or in The project has been used as a model of its type. The
public streets and squares government is also helping people to become home-owners.
• corticos — old decaying housing that has been rented The mountainous relief of Rio means there is not a great
out without any legal basis; these are mainly located in amount of building space available. Development has
the central areas and the port area. consequently moved out (decentralised) to create ‘edge
towns’ such as Barra da Tijuca. Barra is an example of
Population growth is very rapid in some slums. For
decentralisation of the rich and upper classes.
example, Rio das Pedras, located in a flooded swamp
A number of developments have taken place to try
area, grew to 18,000 within its first 2 years.
to improve the quality of the education system. Amigos
The steep mountains that surround the narrow, flat
da Escola (school friends) encourages people from
coastal strips of land have affected the physical growth of
the community to volunteer their skills to improve
Rio. The mountainous relief limits the space for building and
opportunities offered by their local schools. Bolsa Escola
makes the development of an effective transport network
(school grants) gives monthly financial incentives to low-
more difficult. The few existing transport routes have to be
income families to keep their children at school.
used by everyone, which leads to traffic congestion. The
Rocinha is a central favela with a population of about
mountains surrounding the city trap photochemical smog
200,000 inhabitants (Figure 1.104). Over 90 per cent of
created by exhaust fumes, resulting in poor air quality.
the buildings are now constructed from brick and have
Raw sewage has been draining straight into the bay, with
electricity, running water and sewerage systems. Rocinha
population growth and industrial growth in Rio worsening
has its own newspapers and radio station. There are food
the problems this causes. Today there is no marine life
and clothes shops, video rental shops, bars, a travel agent
left in much of the bay, commercial fishing has decreased
and there was even a McDonald’s at one stage.
by 90 per cent in the last 20 years, and swimming from
beaches in the interior of the bay is not advisable. The
Lagoa Rodrigo de Freitas is the lake inland from Ipanema
and Leblon. Here, in February 2000, the release of raw
sewage led to algal blooms and eutrophication, which
resulted in the death of 132 tonnes of fish.
Managing the housing problem in Rio
Areas of spontaneous housing in Rio de Janeiro used to
be bulldozed without warning. However, the authorities
were unable to offer enough alternative housing with the
result that the favelas grew again. The authorities have
now allowed these areas to become permanent.
The Favela Bairro Project (Favela Neighbourhood Project)
began in Rio in 1994. It aimed to recognise the favelas as ▲ Figure 1.104 Rocinha, Rio de Janeiro
neighbourhoods of the city in their own right and to provide
Many of these improvements and developments are the
the inhabitants with essential services. Approximately 120
result of Rocinha’s location close to wealthy areas such
medium-sized favelas (those with 500–2500 households)
as São Conrado and Copacabana. Many of the residents
were chosen. The primary phase of the project addressed
work in these wealthy areas that surround Rocinha, and
the built environment, aiming to provide:
although monthly incomes are low, they are not as low as
• paved and formally named roads elsewhere in the city and in Brazil. These regular incomes
• water supply pipes and sewerage/drainage systems have allowed improvements to be carried out by the
• crèches, leisure facilities and sports areas residents themselves.
• relocation for families who were living in high-risk
areas, such as areas subject to frequent landslides Case study analysis
• channelled rivers to stop them changing course. 1 What proportion of Rio’s population live in slums?
2 How much of Rio’s land is occupied by slums?
The second phase of the project aimed to bring the favela 3 Describe the different types of slum in Rio.
dwellers into mainstream society and keep them away 4 Suggest why there is a housing shortage in Rio.
from crime. This is being done by:
75

1.7 Urbanisation
New cities a
For more developed countries there are more

options. At one end of the scale are new towns
and cities, such as Brasilia in Brazil, Canberra in
Australia and Gongju-Yongi in South Korea. Gongju-
Yongi is a 42 billion-dollar scheme to reduce the
importance of Seoul as Korea’s capital by 2020
(Figure 1.105). The relocation is necessary to ease
chronic overcrowding in Seoul, redistribution of the
state’s wealth and to reduce the danger of a military
attack from North Korea. Previous developments
have concentrated huge amounts of money, power
and up to half of Korea’s population in Seoul.
Construction of Gongju-Yongi began in 2007. b
Another impressive scheme is the Malaysian new
town of Putrajaya (Figure 1.106).
▲ Figure 1.106 Putrajaya. (a) Landscaping, (b) new buildings

and roads, (c) the mosque
▲ Figure 1.105 Gongju-Yongi — the proposed new capital

for South Korea: planning board (top) and the scene in 2007
(bottom)
76

Strategies to reduce the negative impacts of urbanisation
Strategies to reduce » issues caused by limited availability of land, water

and services
the negative impacts of » problems such as toxic hazardous waste, pollution
of water, air and soil, and industrial ‘accidents’
urbanisation such as that at Bhopal in 1985.
Attempts to turn cities green can be expensive.
Managing environmental problems Increasingly local governments are monitoring the
Environmental issues that most cities have to deal environment to check for signs of environmental
with include: stress, and then applying some form of pollution
» water quality management, integrated management or conservation
» dereliction in order to protect the environment.
» air quality
» noise
Managing transport in cities
» environmental health of the population. Air quality in many urban areas is declining due to
a mix of increased number of vehicles (Table 1.24),
There are a range of environmental problems in industrial emissions and large numbers of people
urban areas (Table 1.23). These vary over time as cooking over open fires indoors. Most attempts to
economic development progresses. The greatest deal with air quality focus on vehicles (Table 1.25),
concentration of environmental problems occurs in although there is some evidence of factories being
cities experiencing rapid growth (Figure 1.107). This relocated to improve air quality, such as before the
concentration of problems is referred to as the Brown Beijing Olympic Games in 2008.
Agenda. It has two main components:
Table 1.23 Environmental problems in urban areas
Problems (and examples) Causes Possible solutions
Waste products and waste • Solids from paper, packaging and toxic waste • Improved public awareness: recycling, landfill
disposal — 25 per cent of all increase as numbers and living standards rise sites, incineration plants
urban dwellers in developing • Liquid sewage and industrial waste both • Development of effective sanitation systems
countries have no adequate increase exponentially and treatment plants, including recycling of
sanitation and no means of
• Contamination and health hazards from poor brown water for industrial use
sewage disposal
systems of disposal, e.g. rat infestation and • Rubbish management
waterborne diseases
Air pollution — air in Mexico • Traffic, factories, waste incinerators and • Closure of old factories and importation of
City is ‘acceptable’ on fewer power plants produce pollutants clean technology, e.g. filters
than 20 days annually • Use of cleaner fuels
• Some specialist chemical pollution
• Issues of acid deposition • Re-siting of industrial plants, e.g. oil
refineries in areas downwind of settlements
Water pollution (untreated • Leaking sewers, landfill and industrial waste • Control of sources of pollution at source by
sewage into the Ganges • In some developing countries, agricultural regulation and fining; development of mains
from cities such as Varanasi) pollution from fertilisers and manure is a drainage systems and sewers
problem • Removal of contaminated land sites
Water supply (overuse • Aquifer depletion, ground subsidence and low • Construction of reservoirs, pipeline
of groundwater led to flow of rivers construction from long-distance catchment,
subsidence and flooding in desalination of salt water
Bangkok) • Water conservation strategies
Transport-related issues • Rising vehicle ownership leads to congestion, • Introduction of cleaner car technology
(average speed of traffic in noise pollution, accidents and ill-health due (unleaded petrol and catalytic converters);
São Paulo is 3 km/hour) to release of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide monitoring and guidelines for various
and, indirectly, low-level ozone pollution levels; movement from private cars
• Photochemical smog formation closely to public transport; green transport planning
related to urban sprawl • Creation of compact and more sustainable cities
77

1.7 Urbanisation
a b
▲ Figure 1.107 Environmental problems: (a) Seoul — a city experiencing rapid economic growth; (b) Castries — a city in a
developing country
Table 1.24 Traffic problems in cities

Developed world Developing world
Increased number of motor vehicles Private car ownership is lower
Increased dependence on cars as public transport declines Less dependence on the car, but growing
Major concentration of economic activities in CBDs Many cars are poorly maintained and are heavy polluters
Inadequate provision of roads and parking Growing centralisation and development of CBDs increases
traffic in urban areas
Frequent roadworks
Heavy reliance on affordable public transport
Roads overwhelmed by sheer volume of traffic
Journeys are shorter but getting longer
Urban sprawl results in low-density built-up areas, and
increasingly long journeys to work Rapid growth has led to enormous urban sprawl and longer
journeys
Development of out-of-town retail and employment leads to
cross-city commuting Out-of-town developments are beginning as economic
development occurs, e.g. Bogota, Colombia
Table 1.25 Attempts to manage the transport issue

‘Carrots’ ‘Sticks’
Park-and-ride schemes — parking at the terminal for a major High car parking charges in city centres, e.g. Copenhagen
bus or train route, e.g. Oxford (UK), Brisbane (Australia) (Denmark), London
Subsidised public transport systems, e.g. Zurich (Switzerland), Restricted city-centre parking, e.g. Copenhagen
Brisbane
Road tolls and road pricing: congestion charges, e.g. Bergen
Modern electronic bus systems with consumer information (Norway) and central London, so that people have to pay to
on frequency, e.g. Curitiba (Brazil); rapid transit systems — drive through congested areas of the city centre
supertrams on dedicated tracks, e.g. Zurich, or underground
trains, e.g. Cairo (Egypt)
Providing bus lanes to speed up buses, e.g. Oxford, London
78

Urban agriculture Sustainable development

Urbanisation leads to a decline in the amount of in Curitiba
agricultural land available, and at the same time Curitiba, a city in southwest Brazil (Figure 1.108),
results in an increased demand for food from the urban is an excellent model for sustainable urban
population. The phrase ‘urban agriculture’ initially development. It has experienced rapid population
sounds like a contradiction in terms. However, the growth, from 300,000 in 1950 to over 2.1 million
phenomenon has grown in significance in cities in in 1990, but has managed to avoid all the problems
the developing world over the past 20 years. Evidence normally associated with it. This success is largely
suggests that, in some cities, urban agriculture may due to innovative planning:
already occupy up to 35 per cent of the land area, may
employ up to 36 per cent of the population, and may » Public transport is preferred over private cars.
supply up to 50 per cent of urban fresh vegetable needs. » The environment is used rather than changed.
Food produced locally in urban areas may have » Cheap, low-technology solutions are used rather
several added benefits. First, it employs a proportion than high-technology ones.
of the city’s population. In Addis Ababa dwellers can » Development occurs through the participation of
save between 10 and 20 per cent of their income citizens (bottom-up development) rather than
through urban cultivation. It also diversifies the top-down development (centralised planning).
sources of food, resulting in a more secure supply N
(Table 1.26). BRAZIL
Table 1.26 Urban agriculture issues

PARAGUAY São Paulo
Rio de
Advantages Concerns Paraná Janeiro
Vital or useful supplement Conflict over water supply, Curitiba
to food procurement particularly in arid or semi-arid
Atlantic Ocean
strategies areas
Various environmental Health concerns, particularly A 0 400
NTIN
benefits from use of contaminated wastes GE km
AR URUGUAY
Employment creation for Conflicting urban land issues National borders
the jobless Provincial boundaries
Provides a survival strategy Focus on the urban cultivation
for low-income urban activities rather than in relation ▲ Figure 1.108 Location of Curitiba in Brazil
residents to broader urban management
issues Table 1.27 Sustainable solutions to flooding in Curitiba
Urban agriculture makes Urban agriculture can benefit Problems (1950s/60s) Solutions (late 1960s
use of urban wastes only the wealthier city dwellers onwards)
in some cases Many streams had been covered Natural drainage was
to form underground canals preserved — these natural
which restricted water flow floodplains are used as parks
Activities
Activities Houses and other buildings had Certain low-lying areas are
been built too close to rivers off-limits
1 Describe the environmental problems shown in
Figure 1.107. New buildings were built on Parks have been extensively
2 a Outline the causes of environmental problems in poorly drained land on the planted with trees; existing
cities. periphery of the city buildings have been
b Suggest why these problems might be increasing. converted into new sports
c Suggest reasons why the potential solutions might and leisure facilities
not work. An increase in roads and Bus routes and cycle paths
concrete surfaces accelerated integrate the parks into the
runoff urban life of the city
79

1.7 Urbanisation
Transport Everything is geared towards the speed of the journey

and convenience of passengers:
Transport in Curitiba is highly integrated. The road
network and public transport system have structural » A single fare allows transfer from express routes to
axes. These allow the city to expand but keep shops, interdistrict and local buses.
workplaces and homes closely linked. There are five » Extra-wide doors allow passengers to crowd on quickly.
main axes to the three parallel roadways: » Double- and triple-length buses allow for rush hour
loads.
» express routes — a central road with two express
bus lanes The rationale for the bus system was economic as
» direct routes well as sustainability. A subway would have cost up
» local roads. to $80 million per km whereas the express busways
were only $200,000 per km. The bus companies are
Curitiba’s mass transport system is based on the paid by the kilometre of road they serve, not the
bus. Interdistrict and feeder bus routes complement number of passengers. This ensures that all areas of
the express bus lanes along the structural axes. the city are served.
Case study: Urban change in Shanghai

For 700 years Shanghai has been one of Asia’s major
ports, and it has a varied history. It thrived until 1949,
when China closed itself to trade with the west. This
changed Shanghai from an international centre of
production and trade to an inward-looking city. During
the 1970s, China began slowly reopening its economy to
the world, and Shanghai was designated one of 14 open
cities. The Shanghai Economic Zone was established
in 1983, and in the early 1990s an ambitious major
programme of redevelopment was started, especially
in the eastern hinterland around Pudong (Figure 1.109).
The neighbouring cities of Suzhou and Wuxi have
slowly merged with Shanghai to create one continuous
megalopolis. Over 7700 km2 of the Yangtze River Delta
Economic Zone became urban between 2000 and 2010.
▲ Figure 1.109 Housing in Pudong, Shanghai
Since economic reforms began in China in 1978,
between 150 million and 200 million Chinese have N
migrated from rural to urban areas. This may be the
largest population movement in human history. China
now has over 100 millionaire cities. Shanghai has a
population of over 17 million and it is expected to reach
23 million by 2020. In 2015, there were over 13 million
workers in the city. 2
0 800 km
Site New Three 1 3

Gorges Zone
Shanghai developed on a flat, low-lying alluvial plain on
the banks of the Yangtze river (Figure 1.110). Shanghai is Shanghai
4
also located at the confluence of the Huangpu and Suzhou Xiamen
rivers — so it has an excellent location for shipping 5
Shantou
and trade. From 1844, British, French, American and East
China
Priority Shenzen
Japanese traders owned land in Shanghai. By 1920, it was development 6 Sea
Zhuhai
China’s largest and most important city but after the end areas
of the Second World War and following the Communist Special
economic zones
1 North China Energy 4 Shanghai Economic Zone
Industrial Zone
Revolution in 1949, the foreign influence declined. Open cities 2 Huaihal Economic Zone
5 Minnan Delta Economic
Region
Autonomous
regions 3 Yangtze Delta Region 6 Pearl River Delta Zone
▲ Figure 1.110 The situation of Shanghai in China
80

Economic change growth rate of over 20 per cent — more than twice the
national average. In 2009, Shanghai was ranked the
Between 1949 and 1976, political influences, such as the
seventh largest city in the world, with a population of
Great Leap Forward (1958–60) and the Cultural Revolution
15 million.
(1966–76), focused attention away from rural areas, foreign
Since 1990, the city’s manufacturing sector has steadily
influence and capitalist development. During this period
contracted, shedding almost a million jobs, while the
one million people were returned to the countryside.
business services, finance and real estate sectors have
However, in 1979, the first generation of Special
expanded. Rising demand for highly skilled labour has led
Economic Zones was created. Although Shanghai was not
to further in-migration, resulting in an increasing disparity
one of them, it benefited from relaxed housing restrictions
in wealth between rich and poor. Shanghai’s experience
such as the subdivision and subletting of housing.
does lend support to the general hypothesis that world
In 1984, Shanghai was declared open to foreign
city status inevitably leads to a widening gap between rich
development. For much of the next 20 years, Shanghai’s
and poor.
economic growth rate was over 12 per cent per annum.
In 2006, Yangshan deepwater port was opened in
In 1990, a new CBD was created in the Pudong area
order to accommodate larger ships than could enter
(Figure 1.111). Banks, stock exchanges and insurance
the Huangpu and Suzhou rivers. Yangshan was built
companies moved in. By 2000, over 3000 skyscrapers had
on an island about 40 km southeast of Shanghai and
been built, including the Shanghai Financial Centre.
connected by a 35 km bridge. It is now the world’s
Provincial boundary
largest port. In 2015, it handled over 36 million
Railway containers, compared with 31 million in Singapore (the
Shanghai city world’s second largest port).
Satellite city
Ch
on Suburban town Today, Shanghai is a city-state within China. It is
gm
ing Airport part of the Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone, the
Isl (N = national
Ya
an
d I = international) fastest-growing urban area in the world, containing 16
ng
Jiangsu tze
Riv
megacities including Shanghai. The region has 75 million
Province
er
Ch
N people and earns 25 per cent of China’s GNP — 50 per
3
an
xin Tunnel cent of its foreign direct investment. The city has been
gI
4
sla
nd described as the largest construction site in the world:
Bridge 4000 buildings with more than 24 storeys were under
2 0 10 km
Suzh
ou R PUDONG construction in 2010.
iver
N Housing and demographic issues

1 5 I
Housing shortages and overcrowding problems are acute.
1
Rive
r Almost half the population lives in less than 5 per cent of
u
ngp the total land area, and in central Shanghai population
Hua
6 3 density reaches 40,000–160,000 people per square
kilometre (Figure 1.112). Population pressure is caused by
Bridge
in-migration, overcrowding, disparities in wealth and the
ZHEJIANG
2
social insecurity of Shanghai’s poor ‘floating population’.
PROVINCE From the 1990s, whole neighbourhoods were demolished.
Yangshan Port
Over two million residents were moved to the outer suburbs
to live in better-quality accommodation. Many poorer
▲ Figure 1.111 Land use in Shanghai people are unaware of their property rights. As property
prices increase, they are given insufficient compensation.
Having by 1990 established a strong industrial They cannot afford alternative housing in their old
base, the city was well placed to take advantage neighbourhoods.
of the new opportunities offered by globalisation. The Shanghai government has established a series of
It became a major centre for export manufacturing important policies to address these problems:
based on automobiles, biotechnology, chemicals and
steel, and its service industry sector (trade, finance, • a combination of widespread family planning and
real estate, tourism, e-commerce) helped to diversify medical care, which has controlled fertility levels
its economy. Between 1990 and 2000, Shanghai began among the young immigrant population
to re-emerge as a world city. Foreign investment was • compulsory work permits
attracted. Over half the world’s top 500 transnational • educational initiatives to improve immigrant job
corporations and 57 of the largest industrial enterprises opportunities.
set up in Shanghai, contributing to an annual regional
81

1.7 Urbanisation
Density (people/km2)
<2000
2000–3999
4000–9999
10 000–19 999
20 000–29 999
>30 000
▲ Figure 1.113 Shanghai’s rural–urban fringe

N
Shanghai has the highest cancer mortality rate in China,
and until recently had the reputation of being the tenth most
0 20 polluted city in the world. Industry generated over 72 per
cent of carbon dioxide emissions, 9 per cent coming from
km
transport systems, and the remainder from domestic use.
Coal-fired power stations provide 75 per cent of China’s
▲ Figure 1.112 Population density in Shanghai
electricity, but contribute to serious emissions of suspended
These initiatives have reduced population density in the particulate matter, nitrous oxides and sulfur dioxide.
heart of the city and increased it in the suburban satellite Motor vehicle emissions are particularly harmful in
cities such as Songjiang. This has been a successful the presence of strong sunlight, when photochemical
strategy, although for many who have been moved out smog is formed. A product of this is low-level ozone, a
under the decentralisation policy, the journey back to the harmful irritant responsible for breathing difficulties.
centre for work is no advantage. Efforts to reduce air pollution levels have been moderately
Economic growth has attracted an increasing number successful: emissions of nitrous oxides have fallen from
of Chinese living overseas and foreign migrants to live in around 40 ppm to 32 ppm, and sulfur dioxide emissions
Shanghai. Many of these live in luxury, gated apartments. from 50 ppm to around 32 ppm over the same period.
Reducing particulate matter has proved to be a much
Water and air quality more difficult task.
Water quality in Shanghai is a concern: less than 80 per The government has responded to pollution problems
cent of waste water and storm water is treated, although by upgrading the city’s transport systems and attempting
this is set to rise to 90 per cent by 2020. The construction to limit the growth in car ownership.
industry generates 30,000 tonnes of building waste per day, Transport
and municipal landfill sites have almost reached capacity.
Nevertheless, since the 1990s there have been marked The Shanghai authorities have invested heavily in
improvements in sanitation, and almost all households transport. Eight tunnels and four bridges have been built
have access to piped water, electricity and a means of waste over/under the Huangpu river. Shanghai’s underground
disposal. Over 99 per cent of the population have access system, with a daily capacity of 1.4 million, is now linked
to tap water, although the average daily intake is just over to Pudong airport by the world’s fastest commercial
100 litres of water per person per day. magnetic levitation train — MAGLEV — capable of
The amount of garbage produced in Shanghai has risen reaching 431 km per hour. Other strategies to improve
from over two million tonnes in 1978 to over 107 million safety have been pedestrianisation and a reduction in the
tonnes in 2015. Shanghai had less than 4000 km of number of bicycles, currently estimated at 9 million and a
sewerage pipes in 2000, but by 2015 this had risen to cause of many road accidents.
over 20,000 km. In 2000, less than 50 per cent of urban Bus lanes have been introduced and over 150 km
sewage was treated but, by 2015, approximately 90 per of cycle/moped lanes have been created. Shanghai
cent of urban sewage was treated. Municipal organic developed a metro system in 1995. An international
waste is now used as fertiliser in the surrounding rural airport was built in 1999 and a second terminal added in
areas (Figure 1.113). 2008. It was planned to expand this fourfold by 2015.
82

Rail transport is the key feature of Shanghai’s public • Renewable energy will be used — especially solar
transport. The urban rail network developed in less panels and wind turbines.
than 20 years and carries 5 million passengers daily. • Food will be locally sourced from local farmers and
Approximately 25 per cent of the city is covered by fishermen — about one-third of the land in Shanghai
railways, serving 40 per cent of the city’s population. is currently used for food production and about one
million people still work on the land there.
Coastal flooding • Farming will be made more efficient by the introduction
Like many global ports, Shanghai is under threat from of organic fertilisers.
coastal flooding, partly due to its low elevation at only • Direct links between farmers and Shanghai restaurants
4 metres above sea level, but also from monsoons and are being developed.
tropical cyclones. Future hazard events will be aggravated • Farm tourism is being encouraged through weekend
by climate change and the possibility of a rise in sea level. breaks.
The problem is compounded by subsidence, which has been
Problems associated with Dongtan:
caused by over-abstraction of groundwater and the weight
of high-rise buildings. Shanghai sank by 2.6 metres between • There may be conflicts over water resources — planned
1921 and 1965, and in 2002 alone by 10.22 millimetres. golf courses may use vast amounts of water.
• Dongtan’s first phase — by 2010 — housed mainly
Shanghai master plan tourist industries: hardly a sustainable use.
In 2000 Shanghai introduced the New Master Plan for • Commuting to Shanghai is inevitable, leading to a
Shanghai (2000–20). This includes the whole area and the ‘middle-class’ ghetto.
development of three satellite cities (new towns). This • The extensive natural areas of freshwater marshes,
is to reduce congestion and high population densities in saltmarshes and tidal creeks will experience major
central Shanghai. pressures for development.
Dongtan is located on the alluvial island of Chongming.
The rapid development of Shanghai has presented
It is a new city planned to produce zero waste, and to
the government and planners with some challenging
use energy from clean renewable sources such as wind,
problems, only some of which have been resolved. The
solar and biofuels. Grasses will be grown on rooftops
question is whether Shanghai can maintain the principles
and rainfall will be harvested. The city was planned to be
of sustainability while growing at such a rapid pace.
compact and car-free — its residents cycling or walking
to school/work or to the shops and services. Links to
Case study analysis
downtown Shanghai — over 50 km away — include new
bridges and tunnels. 1 On what river is Shanghai situated?
However, these links threaten to replace the 2 What are the advantages of Shanghai’s site for its
sustainable eco-city with a middle-class suburb for economic development?
Shanghai workers. It could also attract holiday homes 3 Describe the situation of Shanghai as shown in
and retirement homes. Figure 1.109.
Advantages of Dongtan: 4 Suggest reasons to help explain the rapid growth of
Shanghai’s population.
• Housing will include affordable housing as well as 5 Explain why Shanghai has a problem with air quality
luxury flats. and water quality.
• Waste will be treated, rather than discharged into the
Yangtze. Landfills are to be allowed, and sewage will be
processed for irrigation and composting.
83

1.7 Urbanisation
End-of-theme questions
Topic 1.1 Population dynamics 1 a Define the term ‘international migration’.
b Identify the three largest flows of migrants to
Population (billions) destinations in developing and in developed
5.3
2013 countries (Figure 1.115).
2050 2 a Which country is the major destination for
4.3
international migrants?
b What are the reasons for the popularity of this
destination country?
2.4 2.2 c Suggest why India appears as both a country of
origin and destination.
1.1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.7
3 a What is a refugee?
0.6
0.4 0.4 b Suggest and justify one migration corridor that has
been a route for refugees.
All Africa Sub-Saharan Latin America/ Asia North America Europe 4 Discuss the barriers to international migration.
Africa Caribbean
▲ Figure 1.114 Population by world region, 2013 and 2050

Topic 1.3 Population structure
1 a Describe the distribution of the world’s population
by region in 2013 (Figure 1.114). Under age 18
b Using the data provided, calculate the total Age 18–64
Change in population
population of the world in 2013 and the world’s Age 65+
2291
2115
projected population in 2050.
(thousands)
c What is the total increase in population forecast to be? 1535

2 a To what extent does the projected population growth 917
to 2050 vary by world region? 514
295 221 234
b Discuss the reasons why population growth is −190
forecast to be much higher in some world regions
than in others. 2000 to 2001 2005 to 2006 2010 to 2011
▲ Figure 1.116 Changes in US population (in thousands) by
3 Suggest why these population forecasts might turn out age group 2000–2001, 2005–2006, 2010–2011
to be inaccurate.
Topic 1.2 Migration 1 a Study Figure 1.116. By how much did the total
population of the USA increase between:
Destination: developing countries i 2000 and 2001
Origin Destination ii 2005 and 2006
Bangladesh India 3.2 iii 2010 and 2011?
India United Arab 2.9 2 a To what extent did population change vary between
Emirates
Russian Federation Kazakhstan 2.4 the three age groups?
Afghanistan Pakistan 2.3 b What demographic trend do the data and your
Afghanistan Iran (Islamic 2.3 analysis of them illustrate?
Rep.) c Explain the reasons for this trend.
China China, Hong Kong 2.3
SAR 3 a Explain a simple calculation/ratio that could be
State of Palestine Jordan 2.1 used to compare the working and non-working
Myanmar Thailand 1.9 populations of the USA.
India Saudi Arabia 1.8 b What concerns might the US government have about
Burkina Faso Còte d’Ivoire 1.5
the changing population structure of the country?
Destination: developed countries
Origin Destination
Mexico USA 13.0
Russian Federation Ukraine 3.5
Ukraine Russian Federation 2.9
Kazakhstan Russian Federation 2.5
China USA 2.2
India USA 2.1
Philippines USA 2.0
Puerto Rico USA 1.7
Turkey Germany 1.5
Algeria France 1.5
▲ Figure 1.115 Main international migration corridors, 2013

(total migrant populations in millions)
84

Topic 1.4 Population density and Topic 1.5 Settlements and service provision
distribution
NEPAL
0 75 150km
INDIA
MYANMAR
Persons per km2 0 1–5 6–25 26–250 251–1000 1001
▲ Figure 1.117 Population density and distribution in Bangladesh
1271.1
1017.4
People per km2
763.0
508.7
254.3
0.0
1961 1968 1975 1982 1990 1997 2004 2011
▲ Figure 1.118 Increase in population density in Bangladesh

▲ Figure 1.119 Map of Kenmare
1 a Define the terms:
i population density
ii population distribution. a Suggest why a settlement developed at Kenmare
b Describe the population density and distribution in (Figure 1.119: 9070, 9171)
Bangladesh (Figure 1.117). b What type of settlement is Kenmare?
c Suggest likely reasons for the variations in c Describe the nature of the settlement in 9075.
population density. Suggest reasons for this.
2 a Describe the changes in the average population density d Identify the services that are found in Kenmare.
in Bangladesh between 1961 and 2011 (Figure 1.118). e Suggest a simple hierarchy (with three layers) of
b Discuss the reasons for such significant change in settlements in the Kenmare area.
population density.
c Suggest where the largest increases in population
density occurred.
85

1.7 Urbanisation
Topic 1.6 Urban settlements
▲ Figure 1.120 1:50,000 map of part of Kowloon and Hong Kong Island
86

1 Give a four figure square reference for the central 5 Identify two forms of recreational activity shown on the
business district, Hong Kong Island (Figure 1.120). map.
2 Describe the location of the built environment on Hong 6 a Identify an area that is likely to have industrial
Kong Island. activity.
3 Describe the road pattern (network) in grid square 0869. b Suggest why this area has potential for economic
4 Suggest two contrasting ways in which physical activity.
geography has influenced the development of Hong Kong.
Topic 1.7 Urbanisation
(1970) 1 Urbanisation (2000)

1:4,300,000
0 50 km Sokcho Urban population Sokcho
(thousand persons)
Dongdcheon
..... Over 1,000
Uijeongbu Chuncheon
....... 500 –1,000 Chuncheon
Gangneung Uijeongbu
Incheon Gangneung
Gangwon−do ........ 200 –500 Goyang Guri Gangwon−do
Incheon ........ Under 200 Seoul
Seoul BucheonGwangmyeone Hanam Donghae
Anyang Gwacheon Seongnam
Gyeonggi−do Samcheok
Wonju
Gunpo Urwong Wonju
Suwon Ansan Suwon
Gyeonggi−do Teabaek
Osan
Chungju Pyeonglaek Jecheon
Chungju
Chungcheongbuk−do Chungcheongbuk−do
Asan Yeongju
Cheongiu Cheongiu
Cheonan Seosan Cheonan
Chungcheongnam−do Andong Chungcheongnam−do Mungyeong Andong
Gyeongsangbuk−do Gongju Gyeongasngbuk−do

Daejeon Sangju
Boryeong
Gumi Pohang
Gimcheon Pohang Daejeon
Yeongcheon
Iri Gunsan Gimcheon
Iksan
Gunsan
Jeonju Daegu Gyeongju Daegu
Gimie Gyeongju
Urbanisation rate Jeonju
Gyeongsan
Jeollabuk−do Over 80% Jeollabuk−do
65 –80% Jeong-eup
Namwon Gyeongasangnam−do Ulsan
Gyeongasangnam−do Ulsan Miryang
50 –65%
Changwon
Jinju Masan 35 –50%
Masan Gimhae
Under 35% Gwangju Jinju
Gwangju Suncheon Samcheonpo Jinhae Busan
Naju Gwangyang Jinhae
Busan Suncheon
Jeollanam−do
Jeollanam−do Sacheon Geoje
Chungmu Youcheon Tongyeong
Mokpo
Yeosu Mokpo Yeosu
Jeju
Jeju
Jeju−do Jeju−do
Seogwipo
▲ Figure 1.121 Urban population and urbanisation in South Korea, 1970 and 2000
1 Define the term ‘urbanisation’. 3 What factors led to an increase in urbanisation?

2 a Describe the changes in urbanisation in South 4 Outline the positive economic and social effects of
Korea between 1970 and 2000 (Figure 1.121). urbanisation.
b Describe the changes in urban growth in South 5 Comment on the negative effects of urbanisation.
Korea between 1970 and 2000.
87

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THEME 2
The natural
environment
Topics
2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes
2.2 Rivers
2.3 Coasts
2.4 Weather
2.5 Climate and natural vegetation
This theme investigates aspects of physical geography. It

looks at the distribution and impacts of earthquakes and
volcanoes, and the attempts to manage them. It considers
the work of rivers — their processes and resulting
landforms — and the hazards and potential benefits that
they offer to people. Coastal processes and landforms
are analysed, and the opportunities and potential hazards
of living in a coastal environment are considered. This
theme also looks at the features that make up the
weather. It also explains how they can be measured and
recorded. The interaction between climate, vegetation
and soils is considered with regard to equatorial and hot,
desert environments.
89

2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes
Key questions
H What are the main types and features of volcanoes and earthquakes?
H Where do earthquakes and volcanoes occur?
H What are the causes of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and what is
their effect on people and the environment?
H What are the hazards and opportunities posed by volcanoes?
H What can be done to reduce the impacts of earthquakes and volcanoes?
Interesting notes
H The greatest volcanic eruption in historic
times was Tambora in Indonesia in 1815. Some
50–80 km3 of material was blasted into the
atmosphere.
H In 1883 the explosion of Krakatoa was heard
from as far away as 4776 km.
H The world’s largest active volcano is Mauna
Loa in Hawaii, which is 120 km long and over
100 km wide.
▲ Figure 2.1 Impacts of the Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat

Types of volcano
The shape of a volcano depends on the type of lava
it contains. Very hot, runny lava produces gently
Types and features of sloping shield volcanoes, while thick material
volcanoes and earthquakes produces cone volcanoes (Figure 2.2). These may
be the result of many volcanic eruptions over a long
period of time. Part of the volcano may be blasted
Volcanoes away during an eruption. The shape of the volcano
A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust through also depends on the amount of change there has
which hot molten magma (lava), molten rock and been since the last volcanic eruption. Cone volcanoes
ash are erupted onto the land. Most volcanoes are are associated with destructive plate boundaries,
found at plate boundaries although there are some whereas shield volcanoes are characteristic of
exceptions, such as the volcanoes of Hawaii, which constructive boundaries and hotspots (areas of
are located at an isolated hotspot. Some eruptions weakness in the middle of a plate).
let out so much material that the world’s climate The chamber refers to the reservoir of magma
is affected for a number of years. Magma refers to located deep inside the volcano. A crater is the
molten materials inside the Earth’s interior. When depression at the top of a volcano following a
the molten material is ejected at the Earth’s surface volcanic eruption. It may contain a lake. A vent is
through a volcano or a crack at the surface, it is the channel that allows magma within the volcano to
called lava. reach the surface in a volcanic eruption.
90

Types and features of volcanoes and earthquakes
Shield volcano Composite or cone volcano » drilling for oil/natural gas (fracking)
Clouds of ash and dust » coal mining.
Volcanic
bomb Crater Earthquake intensity: the Richter and
Layers of ash Main pipe Mercalli scales
and lava In 1935, Charles Richter of the California Institute of
Main Side
vent pipe
Technology developed the Richter scale to measure
the magnitude (strength or force) of earthquakes
Lava
Side
flow
(Table 2.1). These are measured on a seismometer
vent
and shown on a seismograph (Figure 2.3). By
contrast, the Mercalli scale (Table 2.2) relates
ground movement to things that you would notice
happening around you. Its advantage is that it allows
ordinary eyewitnesses to provide information on
Magma
chamber
the strength of the earthquake. The Richter scale is
logarithmic. This means that an earthquake of 6.0 is
▲ Figure 2.2 Two types of volcano ten times greater than one of 5.0, and one hundred
times greater than one of 4.0.
Active volcanoes are those that have erupted in Table 2.1 The world’s largest earthquakes of the twentieth and
recent times, such as Mt Pinatubo in 1991 and twenty-first centuries (Richter scale)
Montserrat in 1997, and could erupt again. Dormant Place Date Strength
volcanoes are volcanoes that have not erupted Chile 1965 9.5
for many centuries, but may erupt again, such as Alaska 1961 9.2
Mt Rainier in the USA. Extinct volcanoes are not 2004 9.1
Southeast Asia
expected to erupt again. Kilimanjaro in Kenya is an
Honshu, Japan 2011 9.0
excellent example of an extinct volcano. The Le Puys
Kamchatka, Russia 1952 9.0
region of France is an area of extinct volcanoes,
Chile 1960 8.9
which continue to influence settlements and
Kansu, Japan 1920 8.6
tourism.
Tokyo, Japan 1923 8.3
Earthquakes Mexico City 1985 8.1
Tangshen, China 1976 8.0
Earthquakes involve sudden, violent shaking of
Erzincan, Turkey 1939 7.9
the Earth’s surface. They occur after a build-up of
North Peru 1970 7.7
pressure causes rocks and other materials to give
way. Most of this pressure occurs at plate boundaries Izmit, Turkey 1999 7.2
when one plate is moving against another.
Earthquakes are associated with all types of plate
boundary. The focus refers to the place beneath the
ground where the earthquake takes place. Deep-focus
earthquakes are associated with subduction zones.
Shallow-focus earthquakes are generally located
along constructive boundaries and along conservative
boundaries. The epicentre is the point on the ground
surface immediately above the focus.
Some earthquakes are caused by human activity,
such as:
» nuclear testing
» building large dams ▲ Figure 2.3 A seismograph reading
91

2.1 EarthquakEs and volcanoEs
Table 2.2 The Mercalli scale

Activities
Strength Observations
1 Describe the main characteristics of:
I Rarely felt a a shield volcano
b a cone volcano.
II Felt by people who are not moving, especially on
2 What is the difference between an active volcano and
upper floors of buildings
a dormant volcano?
Hanging objects may swing 3 What are the advantages of the Richter scale over
the Mercalli scale? What are the advantages of the
III The effects are noticeable indoors, especially
Mercalli scale over the Richter scale?
upstairs
4 The Richter scale is logarithmic. How much stronger
The vibration is like that experienced when a is an earthquake of 7.0 compared with one of 5.0 on
truck passes the Richter scale?
IV Many people feel it indoors; a few outside
Some are awakened at night
Crockery and doors are disturbed, and standing
Distribution of earthquakes
cars rock and volcanoes
V Felt by nearly everyone — most people are The distribution of the world’s volcanoes and
awakened earthquakes is very uneven (Figure 2.4). They are
Some windows are broken, plaster becomes mostly along plate boundaries which are regions
cracked and unstable objects topple of crustal instability and tectonic activity. About
Trees may sway and pendulum clocks stop 500,000 earthquakes are detected each year
by sensitive instruments. Most of the world’s
VI Felt by everyone — many are frightened
earthquakes occur in linear chains (such as along
Some heavy furniture moves, plaster falls the west coast of South America) along all types of
Structural damage is usually quite slight plate boundary. Some earthquakes appear in areas
VII Everyone runs outdoors away from plate boundaries, such as in the mid-west
of the USA. These earthquakes could still be related
Noticed by people driving cars
to plate movement as the North American plate is
Poorly designed buildings are damaged moving westwards. Some earthquakes are the result of
VIII Damage to ordinary buildings — many collapse human activity. The building of large dams and deep
Well-designed ones survive but suffer slight reservoirs increases pressure on the ground. Mining
damage removes underground rocks and minerals, which
Heavy furniture is overturned and chimneys fall
may cause collapse or subsidence of the overlying
materials. Testing of nuclear weapons underground
IX Damage occurs even to buildings that have been has been known to trigger earthquakes too.
well designed
There are over 1300 active volcanoes in the world,
Many are moved from their foundations many of them under the ocean. Three-quarters of the
Ground cracks and pipes break world’s active volcanoes are located in the ‘Pacific
X Most masonry structures are destroyed; wooden
Ring of Fire’, the area around the Pacific Ocean.
ones may survive Good examples include Mt Pinatubo (Philippines),
Krakatoa (Indonesia) and Popacatapetl (Mexico).
Railway tracks bend and water slops over banks
These volcanoes are related to plate boundaries,
Landslides and sand movements occur notably destructive plate boundaries (for example,
XI No masonry structure remains standing; bridges Mt St Helens in the USA and Soufrière in Montserrat
are destroyed in the Caribbean) and constructive boundaries (for
Large cracks occur in the ground example, Eldfell volcano on Heimaey, Iceland). The
continuing eruption of Soufrière in Montserrat occurs
XII Total damage
at the boundary of the North American and Caribbean
Waves are seen on the surface of the ground and plates. Some volcanoes, such as Mauna Loa and
objects are thrown into the air
Kilauea in Hawaii, and Teidi on Tenerife, are located
92

Plate tectonics
Figure 2.4 World

distribution of volcanoes volcanoes
and earthquakes earthquakes
over hotspots. These are isolated plumes of rising cause of earth movement is huge convection
magma that have burned through the crust to create currents in the Earth’s interior, which rise towards
active volcanoes. the Earth’s surface, drag continents apart and cause
them to collide. These events happen because
the Earth’s interior consists of semi-molten layers
Activities (magma), so the Earth’s surface or crust (composed
1 Describe the global distribution of earthquakes as of plates) moves around on the magma. There are
shown in Figure 2.4. seven large plates (five of which carry continents)
2 What is the difference between shallow-focus and and a number of smaller plates (Figure 2.5).
deep-focus earthquakes?
The main plates are the Pacific, Indo-Australian,
Antarctic, North American, South American,
African and Eurasian plates. Smaller ones include
Plate tectonics the Caribbean, Iranian, Arabian and Juan de Fuca
Plate tectonics is a set of ideas that describe and plates. These move relative to one another, and
explain the global distribution of earthquakes, when they collide create tectonic activity and new
volcanoes, fold mountains and rift valleys. The landforms.
Aleutian
North Trench
American Eurasian Plate
Plate Hellenic Plate
Aleutian Juan de Iranian Plate
Japan
Trench Fuca Plate
Trench
Anatolian Arabian
Philippine
Plate Plate Mariana

Plate
Caribbean Trench
Pacific Mid-Atlantic
Cocos Plate
Plate Ridge African Pacific
Plate
Plate Plate
East South Java
Tonga Pacific American Trench
Trench Rise Peru/Chile Plate
Plate boundary Indo-Australian
Trench uncertain Plate
Figure 2.5 The Antarctic

Antarctic Plate
world’s main tectonic Plate Scotia Plate
plates
93

The structure of the Earth Continental crust is mostly formed of granite. It

is less dense than the oceanic crust. Because it is
There are four main layers within the Earth (Figure 2.6): more dense the oceanic crust plunges beneath the
» The inner core is solid. It is five times denser than continental crust when they come together.
surface rocks.
» The outer core is semi-molten.
» The mantle is semi-molten and about 2900 km thick. Plate movement and boundaries
» The crust is a solid and is divided into two main There are a number of different types of plate
types: oceanic crust and continental crust. The boundary (Figure 2.7 and Table 2.3). These include:
depth of the crust varies between 10 km and 70 km. constructive boundaries, in which new oceanic crust
▲ Figure 2.6 The structure of the Earth
a Constructive boundary b Convergent (destructive) boundary

Plate 1 Plate 2
Plate 1 Plate 2
Rift valley Mid-ocean ridge Continental
Oceanic trench
Oceanic crust crust
Oceanic crust
Lithosphere
Lithos
ph
er
e
Asthenosphere Asthenosphere
c Convergent boundary (collision) d Conservative boundary

Plate 1 Plate 2
Plate 1 Plate 2
Transform fault
Continental
crust
Continental crust
Lithosphere Lithosphere
Asthenosphere Asthenosphere
▲ Figure 2.7 Types of plate boundary

94

Plate tectonics
Table 2.3 Types of plate boundary

Constructive/divergent boundary Two plates move apart from each other causing sea-floor spreading; new oceanic crust is
formed, creating mid-ocean ridges; volcanic activity is common, e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge
(Europe is moving away from North America)
Convergent (destructive) boundary The oceanic crust moves towards the continental crust and sinks beneath it due to its greater
density; deep-sea trenches and island arcs are formed; the continental crust is folded into fold
mountains; volcanic activity is common, e.g. Nazca plate sinks under the South American plate
Convergent (collision) boundary Two continental crusts collide; as neither can sink they are folded up into fold mountains,
e.g. The Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate to form the Himalayas
Conservative boundary Two plates slip sideways past each other but land is neither destroyed nor created, e.g.
San Andreas fault in California
is being created; destructive boundaries, in which

older crust is destroyed; collision zones, where plates Activities
are folded and crumpled; and conservative plates, 1 Name the type of plate boundary located:
where plates slip past each other, causing earthquakes a off the west coast of central America
to occur. Different plate boundaries are associated b in the south Atlantic Ocean
c where the Arabian plate meets the Iranian plate.
with different tectonic activities: volcanic eruptions, 2 Where in the world is plate movement most rapid?
folding and earthquake activity (Figure 2.8).
a b
c d
▲ Figure 2.8 Tectonic activities: (a) folded landscape, Himalaya foothills; (b) Thingvellir rift valley, Iceland; (c) volcanic eruption
of Soufrière, Montserrat with the former capital city Plymouth in the foreground; (d) tourists standing by the boiling mud springs,
Soufrière, St Lucia
95

Causes of earthquakes and been 17 eruptions here in recorded history: Mt Pelée

(1902) accounted for most deaths and the Soufrière Hills
volcanoes volcano has been active since 1995. Kick ’em Jenny is an
active submarine volcano, north of Grenada. All of the
Earthquakes are caused by the build-up of pressure
volcanoes are associated with subduction zones.
that results from plate movement. Consequently many
earthquakes are found close to plate boundaries.
This is illustrated clearly by tectonic activity in the
Caribbean (Figure 2.9). The Caribbean plate is one of
the smaller surface plates of the Earth. Earthquakes
occur all around its periphery, and volcanoes erupt
on its eastern and western sides (Figure 2.10). The
Caribbean plate moves more slowly, at about 1–2 cm a
year, while the North American plate moves westward
at about 3–4 cm a year. Many earthquakes and
tsunamis have occurred in the northeastern Caribbean
region, where the movement of plates is rapid and
complicated. There are a number of hazards related to
earthquakes (see Table 2.7 on page 99) and the impact
on the death rate has been significant (Table 2.4). ▲ Figure 2.9 St John’s Cathedral, Antigua, rebuilt following the
devastating earthquake of 1843
There are 25 potentially active volcanoes in the
Caribbean, all of them in the eastern region. There have
90°W 85° 80° 75° 70° 65° 60° 55°
NORTH AMERICAN PLATE
Puerto
MEXICO Rico
Tre 20°N
n ch
nch
ma n Tre
Cay
CARIBBEAN PLATE MONTSERRAT

15°
Ac
a
10°
pu
SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE

lc o
Tr
e
nc
h
Divergent plate boundary Ocean trench

(plates moving apart)
Volcanic arc
NAZCA PLATE Convergent plate boundary
COCOS PLATE Active volcano
(plates colliding)
Transform plate margin Major earthquake
0 500 km (plates sliding past each other)
Direction of plate movement
▲ Figure 2.10 Distribution of plates and tectonic hazards in the Caribbean

96

Natural hazards
Table 2.4 Major earthquakes in the Caribbean Supervolcanoes tend to be much larger than ‘normal’
Date Location Deaths Magnitude volcanoes — the Yellowstone magma chamber, for
1902 Guatemala 2,000 7.5 example, is over 50 km wide. The likely impacts of a
1907 Jamaica 1,600 6.5 VEI 8 eruption include:
1918 Puerto Rico 116 7.5 » almost complete loss of life within about 1000 km
1931 Nicaragua 2,400 5.6 of the eruption
1946 Dominican Republic 100 8.0 » destruction of all crops and livestock, leading to a
1972 Nicaragua 5,000 6.2 global famine
1976 Guatemala 23,000 7.5 » economic and social devastation.
1985 Mexico 9,500 8.0
1986 El Salvador 1,000 5.5
2001 El Salvador 844 7.7 Activities
2001 El Salvador 315 6.6 1 Study Figure 2.10.
2010 Haiti 300,000 7.0 a What are the two plates responsible for tectonic
activity in Montserrat?
Volcanic eruptions eject many different types b Which two plates are likely to have caused the
of material. Pyroclastic flows are superhot earthquake that affected Mexico City in 1985?
c Describe what happens when the North American
(700°C) flows of ash and pumice (volcanic rock) plate meets the Caribbean plate.
moving at speeds of over 500 km/hr. In contrast, 2 a Choose a suitable diagrammatic method to
ash is very fine-grained but very sharp volcanic show the relationship between the magnitude of
material. Cinders are small rocks and coarse an earthquake and the loss of life, as shown in
volcanic materials. The volume of material ejected Table 2.4.
b Describe the relationship shown in your diagram.
varies considerably from volcano to volcano c Suggest reasons for the relationship (or lack of
(Table 2.5). one) shown in your answer to 2a.
Table 2.5 The world’s biggest volcanic eruptions
Eruption Date Volume of material
ejected (km3) Natural hazards
Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland 2010 0.14
All natural environments provide opportunities
Mt St Helens, USA 1980 1
and challenges for human activities. Some of the
Vesuvius, Italy 79 3
challenges can be described as ‘natural hazards’.
Mt Katmai, USA 1912 12
A natural hazard is a natural event that causes
Mt Pinatubo, Philippines 1991 5
damage to property and/or disruption to normal
Krakatoa, Indonesia 1883 18
life, and may cause loss of life. Natural hazards
Tambora, Indonesia 1815 80
involve hydrological, atmospheric and geological
events. They are caused by the impact of natural
Volcanic strength events on the social and economic environment in
which people live. Some groups of people are more
The strength of a volcano is measured by the volcanic
vulnerable to natural hazards and have greater
explosive index (VEI). This is based on the amount of
exposure to them.
material ejected in the explosion, the height of the
Since the 1960s more people have been affected by
cloud it causes, and the amount of damage caused.
natural hazards. Reasons for this include:
Any explosion above level 5 is considered to be very
large and violent. » a rapid increase in population, especially in
A supervolcano is a volcano of VEI 8. The scale developing countries
is logarithmic, so VEI 8 is 10 times more powerful » increased levels of urbanisation, including more
than VEI 7, 100 times more powerful than VEI 6 and shanty towns, which are often located in hazardous
1000 times more powerful than VEI 5 (Mt Pinatubo, environments
1991). The last VEI 8 was 74,000 years ago (Mt Toba, » changing land use in rural areas, which results in
Indonesia). flash floods, soil erosion and landslides
97

» increased numbers of people living in poverty who Table 2.6 Hazards associated with volcanic activity
lack the resources to cope with natural hazards Direct hazards Indirect hazards Socio-economic impacts
» changes in the natural environment, causing Pyroclastic Atmospheric Destruction of settlements
increased frequency and intensity of storms, floods flows ash fallout
Loss of life
and droughts. Volcanic Landslides
Loss of farmland and
A hazard refers to a potentially dangerous event or bombs
Tsunamis forests
(projectiles)
process. It becomes a disaster when it affects people Acid rainfall Destruction of
and their property (Figure 2.11 and Table 2.6). Lava flows
infrastructure — roads,
Risk suggests that there is a possibility of loss of life Ash fallout airstrips and port facilities
or damage. Risk assessment is the study of the costs Volcanic gases Disruption of
and benefits of living in a particular environment. communications
Lahars
There are two very different ways of looking at (mudflows)
people’s vulnerability:
Earthquakes
» One view is that people choose to live in
hazardous environments because they understand
the environment. In this situation people choose
to live in an area because they feel the benefits
outweigh the risks.
» Another view is that some people live in hazardous
environments because they have very little choice
over where they live, as they are too poor to move.
Volcanic eruptions
People often choose to live in volcanic areas because
they are useful. For example:
» Some countries, such as Iceland and the
Philippines, were created by volcanic activity. ▲ Figure 2.12 Tourists gather around the geyser at Geysir,
» Volcanic soils are rich, deep and fertile, and allow Iceland — one of the benefits of tectonic activity
intensive agriculture to take place.
» Volcanic areas are important for tourism (Figure 2.12). Earthquakes
» Some volcanic areas are seen by people as being
symbolic and are part of the national identity, such The extent of earthquake damage is influenced by a
as Mt Fuji in Japan. number of factors:
» Strength of earthquake and number of
aftershocks — the stronger the earthquake
the more damage it can do. For example, an
earthquake of 6.0 on the Richter scale is 100
times more powerful than one of 4.0; the more
aftershocks there are, the greater the damage that
is done.
» Population density — an earthquake that hits
an area of high population density, such as
in the Tokyo region of Japan, could inflict far
more damage than one that hits an area of low
population and low building density.
» The type of buildings — developed countries
generally have better-quality buildings, more
▲ Figure 2.11 A building buried by a mudflow in Plymouth, emergency services and the funds to cope with
Montserrat — one of the disadvantages of tectonic activity disasters. People in developed countries are more
98

Natural hazards
likely to have insurance cover than those in It became a global disaster, killing between 180,000
developing countries. and 280,000 people from nearly 30 countries, many
» The time of day — an earthquake. during a of them foreign tourists.
busy time, such as rush hour, may cause more The cause of the tsunami was a giant earthquake
deaths than one at a quiet time. Industrial and and landslide, which resulted from the sinking of the
commercial areas have fewer people in them on Indian plate under the Eurasian plate. Pressure had
Sundays, and homes have more people in them at built up over many years and was released in the
night. earthquake, which reached 9.0 on the Richter scale.
» The distance from the centre (epicentre) of the The main impact of the 2004 tsunami was on the
earthquake — the closer a place is to the centre Indonesian island of Sumatra, the closest inhabited
of the earthquake, the greater the damage that is area to the epicentre of the earthquake. More than
done. 70 per cent of the inhabitants of some coastal
» The type of rocks and sediments — loose villages died. Aside from Indonesia, Sri Lanka
materials can act like liquid when shaken; solid suffered more from the tsunami than anywhere
rock is much safer and buildings should be built on else — at least 31,000 people are known to have
level areas formed of solid rock. died there, mostly along the southern and eastern
» Secondary hazards — these include mudslides, coastlines.
tsunamis (large sea waves), fires, contaminated
water, disease, hunger and hypothermia
(Table 2.7).
Table 2.7 Earthquake hazards and impacts

Primary hazard Secondary hazard Impacts
Ground shaking Ground failure and Total or partial
soil liquefaction destruction of building
Surface faulting
structures
Landslides and
rockfalls Interruption of water
supplies
Debris flows and
mudflows Breakage of sewage
disposal systems
Tsunamis
Loss of public utilities
such as electricity and
gas
Floods from collapsed ▲ Figure 2.13 The 2004 tsunami caused widespread damage
dams around the countries bordering the Indian Ocean
Release of hazardous
material
Fires Activities
Spread of chronic illness 1 What is a natural hazard?
2 Suggest reasons why natural hazards appear to be
increasing in frequency.
3 How may volcanic activity be a benefit to people?
The South Asian tsunami, 2004 4 Describe the direct and indirect hazards associated
The term tsunami is the Japanese for ‘harbour wave’. with volcanic activity in the Caribbean.
5 What are the potential impacts of volcanic activity on
About 90 per cent of these events occur in the Pacific people’s lives and livelihoods?
basin. Tsunamis are generally caused by earthquakes 6 Why was the 2004 tsunami considered to be a ‘global
(usually in subduction zones) but can also be caused disaster’?
by volcanoes, for example Krakatoa (1883), and 7 a Describe the main hazards associated with
landslides, for example Alaska (1964). Tsunamis have earthquakes.
b Briefly explain any three of the impacts of
the potential to cause widespread disaster, as in the earthquakes.
case of the South Asian tsunami 2004 (Figure 2.13).
99

Managing volcanoes Dealing with earthquakes

There are a number of ways in which the impacts of People cope with earthquakes in a number of ways. The
volcanic eruptions can be reduced. These include: three basic options from which they can choose are:
» spraying lava flows with water to cool them down » do nothing and accept the hazard
and cause them to solidify — this was successfully » adjust to living in a hazardous environment —
carried out in Heimaey, Iceland strengthen your home
» digging diversion channels to divert lava flows » leave the area.
away from settlements — this has been successful The main ways of dealing with earthquakes include:
on Mt Etna, Sicily
» adding ‘cold’ boulders to a lava flow in an attempt » better forecasting and warning
to cool the lava and stop it moving. » building design, building location and emergency
procedures.
However, if the eruption is a pyroclastic flow, there is
little that can be done to prevent the impacts apart There are a number of ways of predicting and
from evacuation. monitoring earthquakes. These include:
» measuring crustal movement — small-scale
Predicting volcanoes movement of plates
The main methods of predicting volcanoes include: » recording changes in electrical conductivity
» seismometers, to record swarms of tiny earthquakes » noting strange and unusual animal behaviour, for
that occur as the magma rises example among fish (e.g. carp)
» chemical sensors, to measure increased sulfur » checking historical evidence — there are possibly
levels trends in the timing of earthquakes in some regions.
» lasers, to detect the physical swelling of the
volcano Building design
» measurement of small-scale uplift or subsidence, A single-storey building responds quickly to earthquake
changes in rock stress and changes in radon gas forces (Figure 2.14). A high-rise building responds slowly,
concentration and shock waves are increased as they move up the
» ultrasound, to monitor low-frequency waves in the building. If the buildings are too close together, vibrations
magma, resulting from the surge of gas and molten may be amplified between buildings and increase damage.
rock, as happened with Mt Pinatubo, El Chichon The weakest part of a building is where different elements
and Mt St Helens. meet. Elevated motorways are therefore vulnerable in
earthquakes because they have many connecting parts.
Pounding between
Simple profiles adjacent buildings Complex masses
Single storey Multistorey Stepped profile Varied height Angled wings Soft storey
Difficult sites Reinforcement

Original
slope
Cut
Fault
Fill
Soft soil Bracing soft storey Steeled-framed Deep foundation
building
▲ Figure 2.14 Buildings designed for earthquakes
100

Natural hazards
Certain areas are very much at risk from earthquake

damage — notably areas with weak rocks, faulted
(broken) rocks, and soft soils. Many oil and water
pipelines in tectonically active areas are built on
rollers so that they can move with an earthquake
rather than fracture (Figure 2.15).
Safe houses
Billions of people live in houses that cannot
withstand shaking. Yet safer ones can be built
cheaply, using straw, adobe or old tyres, by applying
a few general principles (Figure 2.16).
In rich cities in fault zones, the added expense of
making buildings earthquake resistant has become a
fact of life. Concrete walls are reinforced with steel, for
instance, and a few buildings even rest on elaborate
shock absorbers. Strict building codes were credited
with saving thousands of lives when a magnitude 8.8
earthquake hit Chile in February 2010. But in less
developed countries, like Haiti, conventional earthquake
engineering is often unaffordable, even though there are
some cheap solutions.
▲ Figure 2.15 Pipeline on rollers
Pakistan Haiti Peru Indonesia

Most destructive quake 8 October 2005 12 January 2010 31 May 1970 26 December 2004
Location Northern Pakistan/Kashmir Port-au-Prince area Chimbote Sumatra
Magnitude 7.6 7.0 7.9 9.1
Fatalities 75,000 222,500 70,000 227,900 (including the global tsunami
deaths)
Light roofs Crown

In Haiti heavy beam
concrete roofs collapsed on
many homes; sheet-metal
roofs on wooden trusses are Corner
more resistant column
Bamboo
Light walls and gables

Lightweight structures are
subject to smaller forces Reinforced walls Mesh
and are less likely to fall The reinforcing rods
when the ground shakes need not be made
of metal. Natural Shock
Quake-resistant
materials such as absorbers
houses are being built
eucalyptus or Tyres filled
in Pakistan – of straw.
bamboo work with stones or
The compressed bales
well too sand and
are held together by
fastened
nylon netting and Small windows In Peru the walls of Confined masonry between floor
sandwiched between Small, regularly spaced some adobe houses In Indonesia and and
layers of plaster openings create fewer have been reinforced elsewhere, brick walls foundation
weak spots in walls. But with a plastic mesh can be framed and can serve as
the bigger problem in to prevent collapse connected to the roof cheap
Haiti was that walls were by corner columns and a ground-motion
not properly reinforced crown beam of absorbers for
reinforced concrete. many types of
In a quake the structure building
moves as a unit
▲ Figure 2.16 Safe houses
101

In Peru in 1970 an earthquake killed more than built on more sophisticated shock absorbers, but it
70,000 people, many of whom died when their would also cost much less — and so is more likely
houses crumbled around them. Heavy, brittle walls of to get built in Indonesia. In northern Pakistan,
traditional adobe — cheap, sun-dried brick — cracked straw is available. Traditional houses are built of
instantly when the ground started to move. Existing stone and mud, but straw is far more resilient, and
adobe walls can be reinforced with a strong plastic warmer in winter.
mesh installed under plaster. During an earthquake,
those walls crack but do not collapse, allowing
occupants to escape. Plastic mesh could also work as a
Activities
reinforcement for concrete walls in Haiti and elsewhere. 1 Study Figure 2.16. In what ways can building design
reduce the impact of earthquakes?
Researchers in India have successfully tested a
2 What is meant by the term ‘safe house’? Briefly
concrete house reinforced with bamboo. A model explain how houses can be made ‘safe’.
house for Indonesia rests on ground-motion 3 In what ways is it possible to predict volcanoes?
dampers — old tyres filled with bags of sand. Such 4 What is a pyroclastic flow? What are the dangers
a house might be only a third as strong as one associated with pyroclastic flows?
Case study: Volcanic eruptions in Montserrat’s Soufrière Hills

Montserrat is a small island in the Caribbean, which has (Figure 2.17). The largest settlement, Plymouth, with a
been seriously affected by a volcano since 1995. The cause population of just 4000, was covered in ash and had to be
of the volcano is the plunging of the South American and abandoned (Figure 2.18). This has had a severe impact on
North American plates under the Caribbean plate. Rocks Montserrat because Plymouth was the centre for all the
at the edge of the plate melt and the rising magma forms government offices, and most of the shops and services,
volcanic islands. such as the market, post office and cinema.
In July 1995, the Soufrière Hills volcano became active The hazard posed by the volcano was just one aspect
after being dormant for nearly 400 years. At first it gave of the risk experienced on Montserrat. For the refugees
off clouds of ash and steam. Then in 1996 the volcano there were other hazards. For example, up to 50 people
erupted. It caused mudflows and finally it emitted lava had to share a toilet. Sewage tanks in the temporary
flows. Part of the dome collapsed, boiling rocks and ash shelters were often not emptied for weeks on end. The
were thrown out and a new dome was created. Ash, steam risk of contaminated water and the spread of diseases
and rocks were hurled out, forcing all the inhabitants such as cholera is greatly increased by large numbers of
out of the south, the main agricultural part of the island people living in overcrowded, unhygienic conditions.
48
47
83 84 85 86 87
▲ Figure 2.17 1:25,000 map of Soufrière and Plymouth
102

Natural hazards
By 2002 Montserrat was experiencing something of a

boom. The population, which had dropped in size from
over 11,000 before the eruption to less than 4000 in
1999, had risen to over 9000. The reason was very clear:
there were many jobs available on the island. There
were many new buildings, including new government
offices, a renovated theatre, new primary schools
and lots of new housing in the north of the island.
There was even a new football pitch and stadium built
(Figure 2.20). There were plans to build a new medical
school and a school for hazard studies. These have not
been built.
▲ Figure 2.18 Volcanic hazards in Plymouth, Montserrat
The southern third of the island had to be evacuated

(Figure 2.19). All public services (government, health and
education) had to be removed to the north of the island.
Montserrat’s population fell from 11,000 to 4500. Most
fled to nearby Antigua; some ‘refugees’ stayed on in
Montserrat, living in tents.
The risk of eruptions continues — scientists do not
know when the current activity will cease.
▲ Figure 2.20 Montserrat’s new football pitch
N
However, by the summer of 2009, it was very clear that
Davy Hill conditions on Montserrat had changed. The population
Northern had fallen to a little over 5000. There are two main
Zone reasons why Montserrat’s population has declined.
0 4 The first is the relative lack of jobs. Although there was
St Peter’s St John’s
an economic boom in the early 2000s, once the new
km
buildings were built, many of the jobs disappeared.
Central Zone
There are still plans to redevelop the island — a new
Salem urban centre is being built at Little Bay but that will
not be complete until 2020. The museum has been built,
Exclusion Zone but not much else (Figure 2.21). So there are some
jobs available, but not on the scale as before. Second,
one of the new developments on Montserrat was a
new airstrip. Once this was built, the UK government
Plymouth Soufrière Hills
(abandoned) volcano
and the US government stopped subsidising the ferry
that operated between Antigua and Montserrat. This
made it more difficult to get to Montserrat — both for
visitors and for importing basic goods. Thus the number
No admittance except for of tourists to the island fell and the price of goods on
Exclusion Zone scientific monitoring the island rose. Many Montserratians were against the
and national security matters. airstrip and campaigned unsuccessfully for the port to
Residential area only. All residents be kept open. It is possible to charter a boat and sail
in state of alert. All have rapid to Montserrat, but that is much more expensive than
Central Zone means of exit 24 hours a day.
taking a ferry.
All residents must have hard hats
and dust masks.
Significantly lower-risk,
Northern Zone suitable for residential and
commercial occupation.
▲ Figure 2.19 The exclusion zone, Montserrat
103

Soufrière dome collapsed, causing a tsunami that affected

some coastal areas of Guadeloupe, and English Harbour
and Jolly Harbour in Antigua. The Guadeloupe tsunami was
1 metre high whereas the one experienced in Antigua was
20–30 cm. No one was injured in the tsunami, but flights were
cancelled between Venezuela and Miami, and to and from
Aruba, due to the large amount of ash in the atmosphere.
So volcanic activity in Montserrat may be quiet at the
moment, but the volcano continues to have a major impact on
all those who remain on the island. The economic outlook for
the island is not looking good — and that is largely related to
the lack of aid, the difficulty and cost of reaching Montserrat,
and the small size of the island and its population.
Case study analysis

▲ Figure 2.21 The new museum of Montserrat Study Figure 2.17.
1 What is the height of the highest point on the map?
With fewer jobs in construction, a declining tourist sector (The name of the highest point is Chance’s Peak, but
and rising prices, many Montserratians left the island this is not shown on the extract.)
for a second time. Many went to Antigua and others went 2 How far is it from Chance’s Peak to Sugar Bay,
to countries such as Canada, the USA and the UK. Much Plymouth (the main settlement on the map)?
of the aid that was given to Montserrat following the 3 What is the average gradient of the volcano (height/
eruptions of 1997 has dried up. The UK provided over $120 distance)? Express your answer as a 1 in x slope.
million of aid but announced in 2002 that it was phasing 4 Describe the shape of the volcano.
out any further funds. Neverthless, in 2004 it announced a 5 Suggest why a settlement was built at Sugar Bay,
$60 million aid deal over 3 years. Plymouth.
The volcano has been relatively quiet for the last few years, 6 Outline the hazards to Plymouth as shown in
although an event in May 2006 went relatively unreported. The Figure 2.18.
Case study: The Christchurch earthquakes, 2010–12

Christchurch is New Zealand’s second-largest about 80–90 km southeast of the current surface location
urban area with a population of 386,000. The 2010 of the Australia–Pacific boundary.
Christchurch earthquake (also known as the Canterbury By August 2012, over 11,000 aftershocks of magnitude
or Darfield earthquake) was a 7.1 magnitude 2.0 or more had been recorded, including 26 over
earthquake, which struck the South Island of New magnitude 5.0, and 2 over magnitude 6.0.
Zealand at 4.35 am (local time) on 4 September
2010. Aftershocks continued into 2012. The strongest
Impacts
aftershock was a 6.3 magnitude earthquake, which There were relatively few casualties compared with, for
occurred on 22 February 2011. Because this was so example, the 2010 Haiti earthquake. The Haiti earthquake
close to Christchurch it was much more destructive, occurred in similar proximity to an urban area, and also at
with 185 people being killed. a shallow depth, and was of very similar strength. The lack
of casualties in New Zealand was partly due to the fact that
2010 earthquake the earthquake happened in the early hours of a Saturday
The 2010 earthquake’s epicentre was 40 km west of morning, when most people were asleep, and many of them
Christchurch, at a depth of 10 km. Insurance claims from in timber-framed homes. Moreover, building standards in
the earthquake were confirmed as being between $2.3 New Zealand are high. Following the 1848 Marlborough and
billion and $2.9 billion. Private insurance and individual 1855 Wairarapa earthquakes, which both seriously affected
costs may reach as high as $3.3 billion. Wellington, building standards were introduced. These
Earthquakes with an intensity of VIII on the Mercalli were further strengthened following the 1931 Hawke’s Bay
scale (significant property damage, loss of life possible) earthquake. In contrast, Haiti has much lower building
could occur, in the Christchurch area, on average every 55 standards, which are poorly enforced, and many buildings
years. Around a hundred faults have been identified in the are made of handmade non-reinforced concrete, which is
region, some as close as 20 km to central Christchurch. extremely vulnerable to seismic damage. Ground shaking
However, the 2010 earthquake occurred on a previously in populated areas of Canterbury was also generally less
unknown fault. The earthquake epicentre was located strong than for the Haiti earthquake.
104

Natural hazards
Sewers were damaged, and water lines were broken. The The total cost to insurers of rebuilding was originally
water supply at Rolleston, southwest of Christchurch, was estimated at $12 billion. However, by April 2013, the
contaminated. Power to up to 75 per cent of the city was total estimated cost had escalated to $33 billion. Some
disrupted. Christchurch International Airport was closed economists have estimated that it will take the New
following the earthquake and flights were cancelled. Zealand economy 50 to 100 years to completely recover.
Although smaller in magnitude than the 2010 quake,
Emergency response and relief efforts the earthquake was more damaging and more deadly for a
Christchurch’s emergency services managed the early number of reasons:
stages of the response. Over 40 search and rescue
personnel and three sniffer dogs were brought from North • The epicentre was closer to Christchurch.
Island to Christchurch the day of the earthquake. • The earthquake was shallower, at 5 km underground,
whereas the September earthquake was measured at
2011 earthquake 10 km deep.
The February 2011 Christchurch earthquake (Figure 2.22) • The February earthquake occurred during lunchtime
was a powerful natural event that severely damaged the on a weekday, when the CBD was busy.
city, killing 185 people. The 6.3 magnitude earthquake • Many buildings were already weakened from previous
struck the region at 12.51 pm on Tuesday 22 February, earthquakes.
local time. The earthquake was centred 2 km west of the • Liquefaction was significantly greater than that of the
port town of Lyttleton and 10 km southeast of the centre of 2010 earthquake, causing the upwelling of more than
Christchurch. The earthquake was probably an aftershock 200,000 tonnes of silt.
following the September 2010 earthquake. The increased liquefaction caused significant ground
movement, undermining many foundations and destroying
Kermadec
infrastructure.
Trough Up to 80 per cent of the water and sewerage
Fault line
N systems were severely damaged. There was damage
Relative Kermadec to roads and bridges, which hampered rescue efforts.
movement Trough
Auckland Around 10,000 houses would need to be demolished,
per year
NORTH and liquefaction damage meant that some parts of
0 km 300 ISLAND 47 mm Christchurch could not be rebuilt on. Nevertheless, in
Hikurangi Christchurch, New Zealand’s stringent building codes
NEW ZEALAND Trough limited the disaster.
Magnitude of
PACIFIC
Infrastructure and support
earthquake Wellington PLATE At 5 pm, local time, on the day of the earthquake, 80 per
6.3 41 mm cent of the city had no power. However, power was restored
AUSTRALIAN t
to over 80 per cent of households within 5 days, and to
ul Christchurch 95 per cent within 2 weeks. Wastewater and sewerage
PLATE
e Fa
n systems had been severely damaged, so households had
pi 38 mm
Al
to establish emergency latrines. Over 2000 portaloos and
SOUTH 5000 chemical toilets were brought in from other parts
ISLAND of the country and overseas, with 20, 000 more chemical
37 mm toilets placed on order from the manufacturers.
Emergency management
A full emergency management programme was in place
▲ Figure 2.22 Plate movement and the Christchurch earthquake
within 2 hours. The government response was immediate
This earthquake caused widespread damage across and significant, and a national emergency was declared.
Christchurch, especially in the central city and eastern The New Zealand fire service coordinated the search and
suburbs. The damage was intensified on account of rescue — rescue efforts continued for over a week, then
the 4 September 2010 earthquake and its aftershocks. shifted into recovery mode.
Significant liquefaction affected the eastern suburbs,
Case study analysis
producing around 400,000 tonnes of silt.
People from more than 20 countries were among 1 What was the strength of the earthquakes in (a) 2010
the victims. Of the 185 victims, 115 people died in the and (b) 2011?
six-storey Canterbury Television (CTV) building, which 2 Which two plates were responsible for the
collapsed and caught fire during the earthquake, while earthquakes?
another 18 died in the collapse of PGC House, and eight 3 Comment on the relative movement of the two plates.
were killed when masonry fell on a bus. Between 6600 4 Explain why the 2011 earthquake resulted in more
and 6800 people were treated for minor injuries. deaths than the 2010 earthquake.
105

Activities
1 Study Table 2.3 on page 95. c Photo (c) shows a volcanic eruption of Soufrière,
a Describe what happens at a subduction zone. Montserrat, with the former capital city Plymouth in
b At what types of plate boundary are volcanoes likely the foreground. Suggest the likely hazards of living
to occur? close to a volcano.
c Which types of plate boundary produce fold mountains? d Photo (d) shows tourists at the boiling mud springs
2 Study Figure 2.8 on page 95, which shows a variety of at Soufrière in St Lucia. Suggest some of the
tectonic landscapes. advantages of living in a tectonically active region.
a Describe the general appearance of the land in e Suggest why the volcano on Montserrat and the mud
photo (a). Suggest how it may have been formed. springs in St Lucia have the same name: Soufrière.
b Photo (b) shows a rift valley at Thingvellir in Iceland. What does this tell us about the processes involved
At which type of plate boundary are rift valleys in these tectonic boundaries?
found? How might they be formed?
Case study: Nepal, 2015: an earthquake in an LEDC

The April 2015 Nepal earthquake — magnitude 7.8 — and how large. Rapid urban growth in Kathmandu has
occurred as a result of the Indian plate colliding with the contributed to the increased vulnerability of the region.
Eurasian plate. In the geological past, India was dragged Over 9000 people died in the main earthquake and over
by an oceanic plate, which subducted below the Eurasian 200 people were killed in an aftershock of 7.3 in May 2015.
plate. That process is now pulling the continental plate Around 18,000 people were injured and some 450,000 were
of India against the continental plate of Eurasia. The two displaced. The worst affected areas were Sindhupalchok,
plates are converging at a rate of 45 mm per year, and this where over 2000 people died, and Kathmandu, where over
is responsible for the formation of the Himalayas. Although 1000 people died and 180 buildings were destroyed. Fatalities
this is an active plate boundary, there have only been four were much lower in rural parts of Nepal as most people
earthquakes in the previous century within 250 km of the were outdoors, and were not affected by collapsing buildings.
2015 earthquake. The largest — a magnitude 8.0 event in The Tibeto-Burman people, who are considered to be a lower
1934 — is believed to have killed over 10,000 people. caste within Nepalese society, were badly affected, as they
The epicentre of the earthquake was 80 km north of tend to live on the steepest and highest slopes, and these
the capital, Kathmandu, with a shallow focus of 15 km were harder to reach after the earthquake.
(Figure 2.23). It occurred around midday. There were over The earthquake also triggered a number of avalanches
300 aftershocks, some reaching magnitudes of over 7.0. throughout the Himalayas; 19 people were killed on
Although earthquakes are common in the region, it is Mount Everest. Much of Nepal’s cultural heritage was also
not possible to predict when they will happen, or where, damaged by the earthquake.
The economic cost of the
earthquake is estimated at about
N US$7 billion — around 35 per cent of
Nepal’s GDP. The Asian Development
Bank provided a US$3 million grant
for emergency relief, including
temporary shelters (the monsoon
season began a few months after
the earthquake), food, blankets and
cooking utensils. The relief operation
involved some 90 per cent of the
Nepalese army and 17,000 police.
Case study analysis
Kathmandu 1 Which two plates were involved
Earthquake epicentre
in the Nepal earthquake of 2015?
Distance from Estimated affected
epicentre population by district - 2 How strong was the main
(km) severity class (25/04) earthquake, and how many
0 Light
100 Moderate aftershocks were there?
150
200
Severe
Strong 3 Outline the impacts of the
0 90 km
Very strong earthquakes on:
a loss of life
▲ Figure 2.23 Areas affected by the April 2015 Nepal earthquake b economic losses.
106

2.2 Rivers
Key questions
H What are the main hydrological characteristics and processes that operate
within rivers and drainage basins?
H How do rivers erode, transport and deposit?
H What are the main erosional and depositional features associated with rivers?
H What are the advantages and disadvantages of rivers?
H How can the impacts of floods be managed?
For example, there is more erosion in the upper part,

while there is more deposition in the lower course.
This is related to the changes in a river downstream.
Figure 2.25 shows that velocity, discharge and load
increase downstream, whereas gradient and the size
of load decrease downstream.
Upstream Downstream
Discharge
Occupied channel width
Water depth
Water velocity
Load quantity
Load particle size
Channel bed roughness

Slope angle (gradient)
▲ Figure 2.25 Changes in a river downstream
▲ Figure 2.24 Waterfall, Powerscourt, Ireland

Energy in a river
Changing-channel This determines a stream’s ability to erode, transport
or deposit. There are two types of energy:
characteristics » potential energy, provided by the weight and
Downstream changes elevation of the water
» kinetic energy, produced by gravity and the flow of
Rivers have three main roles: to erode the river the water.
channel, to transport materials, and to create new
erosional and depositional landforms. Most rivers About 95 per cent of energy is used to overcome
have three main zones — a zone of erosion, a zone friction with the bed and banks. The rougher the
of transport and a zone of deposition. Erosion, channel the more energy will be lost. In a smooth
transport and deposition are found in all parts of a channel there is very little frictional loss and
river, although one process tends to be dominant. therefore there is more energy available for work.
107

2.2 RiveRs
Channel shape the channel, and river forces. Solid rock allows only slow
changes, whereas alluvium allows rapid changes. Silt
The efficiency of a stream’s shape is measured by its and clay produce steep, deep, narrow valleys (the fine
hydraulic radius — that is, the cross-sectional area material being cohesive and stable) whereas sand and
divided by wetted perimeter (Figure 2.26). The higher gravel promote wide, shallow channels.
the ratio the more efficient the stream and the smaller
the frictional loss. The ideal form is semi-circular. Channel roughness
There is a close relationship between velocity, Channel roughness causes friction, which slows down the
discharge and the characteristics of the channel in which velocity of the water. Friction is caused by irregularities in
the water is flowing. These include depth, width, channel the riverbed, boulders, trees and vegetation, and contact
roughness and hydraulic geometry. The width/depth ratio between the water and the bed and bank.
(w/d) is a good measure of comparison. The shape of Discharge is the volume of water passing a given
the channel is also determined by the material forming point over a set time (Figure 2.27). Normally it
is expressed in m3/sec (cumecs). It is found by
Channel efficiency is measured by the hydraulic radius i.e. cross-
sectional area divided by wetted perimeter. It is affected by river multiplying the cross-sectional area and the mean
level and channel shape. velocity. Steeper slopes should lead to higher
River
Flood − high friction velocities because of the influence of gravity.
Bankfull − maximum Discharge (Q) normally increases downstream, as does
efficiency (low friction)
Below bankfull −
width, depth and velocity. By contrast, channel roughness
high friction decreases. The increase in channel width downstream is
normally greater than that in channel depth. Large rivers,
Shape
Stream A Cross-sectional area Discharge = velocity × cross-sectional area
Wetted perimeter distance (m)
Cross-section Cross-sectional area Velocity = = m/sec
5m 5m at bankfull stage time (sec)
area = 40 m2
8m
Very efficient (low relative friction)
Stream B
2m Cross-section area = 40 m2 2m Flow
20 m
Bankfull width
Inefficient (high friction)
m
0
.1
Wetted perimeters Hydraulic radius
g
e.
Stream A: 5 + 5 + 8 = 18 m Stream A: 40/18 = 2.22 m Depth th
ng
Stream B: 2 + 2 + 20 = 24 m Stream B: 40/24 = 1.66 m
Le
Wetted perimeter
▲ Figure 2.26 Wetted perimeter and cross-sectional area ▲ Figure 2.27 Discharge
Activities
Table 2.8
Table
Site 1 2 3 4 5
Gradient 1:8 1:14 1:26 1:45 1:85
Width (m) 1.3 1.6 2.4 4.1 8.3
Depth (m) 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.6
Velocity (cm/sec) 13 16 21 28 34
Discharge ... ... ... ... ...
Bedload size (cm) 25 21 12 7 2
Shape Angular Angular Sub-angular Rounded Rounded
Cross-sectional area (m2) ... ... ... ... ...
108

Drainage basins
Study the data in Table 2.8. velocity of the river, (ii) the load and (iii) the work of
the river?
1 a Describe how the ratio of width/depth varies with
2 Study Figure 2.25.
distance from the source of the river.
a Describe how the amount and size of load varies
b Work out (i) the cross-sectional area and (ii) the
downstream.
discharge of the stream for each site. How and why
b Suggest reasons for the changes you have identified.
do these change downstream?
c State a reason why the channel bed roughness
c Describe the changes in bedload size and shape as
decreases downstream.
you proceed downstream. What processes cause
d How might the nature of the load affect the type
these changes to take place?
and amount of erosion carried out by the river? Give
d If the channel between sites 4 and 5 were
reasons for your answer.
straightened, what effect would it have on (i) the
with a higher w/d ratio, are more efficient than smaller In studying rivers, reference is made to the basin’s
rivers with a lower w/d ratio, because less energy is hydrological cycle. In this the drainage basin is
spent in overcoming friction. Thus, the carrying capacity taken as the unit of study rather than the global
increases and a lower gradient is required to transport the system. The basin cycle is an open system: the main
load. Although river gradients decrease downstream the input is precipitation, which is regulated by various
load carried is smaller, and therefore easier to transport. means of storage.
The hydrological cycle refers to the movement
Drainage basins of water between atmosphere, lithosphere and
biosphere. At a global scale, it can be thought of as
A drainage basin is an area within which water supplied a closed system with no losses from the system. In
by precipitation is transferred to the ocean, a lake or contrast, at a local scale the cycle has a single input,
larger stream. It includes all the area that is drained by precipitation (PPT), and two major losses (outputs),
a river and its tributaries (smaller rivers that join the evapotranspiration (EVT) and runoff (Figure 2.29).
larger river) and is the main unit for the study of rivers.
The confluence is the point where a smaller river joins a
P
larger river. Drainage basins are divided by watersheds — P T
P CP P
Soil
imaginary lines separating adjacent basins (Figure 2.28). E

I Rock
Aeration
Zone
Mediterranean Sea er table
OF TF Wat
River
Zone of
Saturation
GWF
Saturated rock and soil I Infiltration OF Overland flow (very fast)

P Precipitation T Transpiration TF Throughflow (quick)
Water movement E Direct evaporation of GWF Groundwater flow
intercepted precipitation (baseflow) (slow)
Niger CP Channel precipitation
Nile
▲ Figure 2.29 Basin hydrological cycle

Congo-Zaïre
Indian
Atlantic Ocean
Ocean
Water can be stored at a number of places within the
cycle. These stores include vegetation, surface, soil
moisture, groundwater and water channels. The global
Zambezi
hydrological cycle also includes stores in the oceans
and the atmosphere.
Inland drainage Human modifications are made at every scale. Good
Watersheds
Orange examples include large-scale changes of channel flow,
irrigation and drainage, and abstraction of groundwater
and surface water for domestic and industrial use.
▲ Figure 2.28 Drainage basins in Africa
109

2.2 RiveRs
Precipitation Evaporation
The main characteristics that affect local hydrology Evaporation is the process by which a liquid or a
are the amount of precipitation, seasonality, solid is changed into a gas. Its most important source
intensity, type (snow, rain etc.), geographical is from oceans and seas. Evaporation increases under
distribution and variability. For rain to occur, three warm, dry, windy conditions.
factors must be in place: Factors affecting evaporation include temperature,
humidity, and windspeed. Of these, temperature is
» Air is saturated — that is, it has a relative
the most important factor. Other factors include water
humidity of 100 per cent. quality, depth of water, size of water body, vegetation
» It contains particles of soot, dust, ash, ice etc.
cover and colour of the surface (albedo or reflectivity
» Its temperature is below dew point — that is, the
of the surface — see Table 2.9).
temperature is at the level where the relative humidity is
100 per cent, saturation is complete and clouds form. Table 2.9 Albedo values
Clouds are tiny droplets suspended in air, while rain Surface Albedo (%)
droplets are much larger. Therefore cloud droplets Water (sun’s angle over 40°) 2–4
must get much larger, although not necessarily by
Water (sun’s angle less than 40°) 6–80
normal condensation processes. There are a number of
theories to suggest how raindrops are formed. Fresh snow 75–90
There are three main types of rainfall: Old snow 40–70
Dry sand 35–45
» cyclonic — uplift of air within a low-pressure area
(warm air rises over cold air); it normally brings low to Dark, wet soil 5–15
moderate intensity rain and may last for a few days Dry concrete 17–27
» orographic — a deep layer of moist air is forced to Black road surface 5–10
rise over a range of hills or mountains Grass 20–30
» convectional — heating causes pockets of air to
Deciduous forest 10–20
rise and cool.
Coniferous forest 5–15
Interception Crops 15–25

Tundra 15–20
Interception refers to water stored by vegetation.
There are three main components:
Evapotranspiration
» interception loss — water that is retained by plant
Transpiration is the process by which water vapour
surfaces and later evaporated away or absorbed by
is transferred from vegetation to the atmosphere. The
the plant
combined effects of evaporation and transpiration are
» throughfall — water that either falls through gaps in
normally referred to as evapotranspiration (EVT). EVT
the vegetation, or drops from leaves, twigs or stems
represents the most important aspect of water loss,
» stemflow — water that trickles along twigs and
accounting for the removal of nearly 100 per cent of
branches and finally down the trunk.
the annual precipitation in arid areas and 75 per cent
Interception loss varies with vegetation. For in humid areas. Only over ice and snow fields, bare
example, in German beech forests in summer it is up rock slopes, desert areas, water surfaces and bare soil
to 40 per cent of rainfall, whereas in winter it is only will purely evaporative losses occur.
about 20 per cent. Interception is less from grasses The distinction between actual EVT and potential
than from deciduous woodland. Interception losses evapotranspiration (P.EVT) lies in the concept of
are greater from coniferous forests because: moisture availability. Potential evapotranspiration
is the water loss that would occur if there was
» pine needles allow individual accumulation
an unlimited supply of water in the soil for use
» freer air circulation allows more evapotranspiration.
by the vegetation. Rates of potential and actual
From agricultural crops, and from cereals in particular, evapotranspiration for South Africa are shown in
interception loss increases with crop density. Figure 2.30.
110

Drainage basins
a Potential b Actual
20° 25°
20°
Pretoria 25° 25°
Johannesburg Pretoria
Johannesburg
Port Nolloth
Bloemfontein Durban
Port Nolloth Bloemfontein Durban
30° 30°
mm
< 1400 mm
1400
< 1400
30° 1600
East London 1400
1800
2000 East London 1600
2200 1800
2400 2000
Port Elizabeth 2600 Cape Town
2800 Port Elizabeth 2200
10° 20° > 3000 35° 15° 25° >2400
▲ Figure 2.30 Rates of potential and actual evapotranspiration for South Africa
Infiltration Infiltration is affected by the same factors that

influence overland runoff, but in a different way.
Infiltration is the process by which water soaks into For example, duration (length) of rainfall decreases
the ground. The infiltration capacity is the maximum infiltration, as does existing moisture in the soil,
rate at which rain can enter the soil/ground. raindrop size, steep slope and a lack of vegetation
Infiltration capacity decreases with time through a cover.
period of rainfall until a more or less constant value
is reached (Figure 2.31). Infiltration rates of 0–4 mm/
hour are common on clays, whereas rates of 3–12 mm/
Overland flow
hour are common on sands. Vegetation also increases Overland flow refers to water moving over the
infiltration. On bare soils, infiltration rates may reach surface. It is also called surface runoff. Overland
10 mm/hour. On similar soils covered by vegetation, rates flow occurs in two main ways: when precipitation
of between 50 and 100 mm/hour have been recorded. exceeds the infiltration rate, and when the
Infiltrated water is chemically rich as it picks up minerals soil is saturated. Overland flow and infiltration
and organic acids from vegetation and soil. are inversely related, as shown in Figure 2.32.
Overland flow generally has a high suspended
3.0 load.
Pasture
2.5
Corn Throughflow
Throughflow refers to water flowing through the soil
Infiltration rate (cm h–1)
2.0
in natural pipes and between soil horizons.
Soil moisture
1.5
Soil moisture is the subsurface water in soil and
subsurface layers above the water table. From here
1.0 water may be:
» absorbed
0.5
» held
» transmitted downwards towards the water table
0 » transmitted upwards towards the soil surface and
00 6 120 180 200 300
Minutes
the atmosphere.
▲ Figure 2.31 Infiltration and time
111

2.2 RiveRs
Duration of rainfall Antecedent soil moisture Soil porosity

Precipitation (P)
Surface Infiltration
P (mm /h)
P (mm /h)
(mm / h)
runoff
Infiltration Surface
(dry soil) runoff
Infiltration Infiltration
Duration of rainfall Time (wet soil) Porosity
Vegetation cover Raindrop size Surface Slope angle

Surface runoff Surface
(bare earth) runoff
P (mm / h)
P (mm / h)
P (mm / h)
runoff
Surface runoff (forest)
Infiltration Infiltration
(forest) Infiltration
Infiltration
(bare earth)
Time Raindrop size Slope angle
▲ Figure 2.32 Factors affecting infiltration
In coarser-textured soils much of the water is held streams rapidly. In addition, aquifers maintain stream
in fairly large pores at fairly low suctions, while very flow during long dry periods. Rocks that do not hold
little is held in small pores. In the finer-textured clay water are impermeable rocks (e.g. clay), and prevent
soils the range of pore sizes is much greater and, in large-scale storage and transmission of water.
particular, there is a higher proportion of small pores
in which water is held at very high suctions. a In humid regions
Aquifer
» Field capacity refers to the amount of water held recharge
Intermittent
in the soil after excess water drains away — that Major
perennial discharge area Unsaturated
is, saturation or near saturation. Artesian discharge area zone
» Wilting point refers to the range of moisture content discharge area
Minor
area
in which permanent wilting of plants occurs. perennial
discharge
s area
Groundwater month
ye a r s
years
Groundwater refers to subsurface water. The upper decades
layer of the permanently saturated zone is known as es
Aquitards
mille centuri
nnia
the water table. The water table varies seasonally —
in Britain it is higher in winter following increased
levels of precipitation. Most groundwater is found
within a few hundred metres of the surface, but has
been found at depths of up to 4 km beneath the
surface (Figure 2.33). b In semi-arid regions
Groundwater accounts for 96.5 per cent of all Aquifer recharge area
freshwater on Earth. However, while some soil water
Minor perennial
may be recycled within a matter of days or weeks, discharge area
groundwater may not be recycled for as long as
20,000 years. Hence, in some places, groundwater is
cent uri
considered a non-renewable resource.

Aquifers (rocks that contain significant quantities
es
d e ca d e s
of water) provide a great reservoir of water.
Aquifers are permeable rocks such as sandstones Aquitard (low permeability)
millennia
and limestones. This water moves very slowly and
Near aquiclude (impermeable layer)
acts as a natural regulator in the hydrological cycle
by absorbing rainfall, which otherwise would reach ▲ Figure 2.33 Groundwater
112

River processes
The groundwater balance is shown by the formula: » hydraulic action — the force of air and water on
ΔS = Qr − Qd the sides of rivers and in cracks
» solution (or corrosion) — the removal of chemical
where ΔS is the change in storage (+ or −), Qr is
ions, especially calcium, which causes rocks to
recharge to groundwater and Qd is discharge from
dissolve.
groundwater.
Groundwater recharge occurs as a result of: There are many factors affecting erosion. These
include:
» infiltration of part of the total precipitation at the
ground surface » load — the heavier and sharper the load the
» seepage through the banks and bed of surface greater the potential for erosion
water bodies such as rivers, lakes and oceans » velocity and discharge — the greater the velocity
» groundwater leakage and inflow from adjacent and discharge the greater the potential for erosion
aquifers » gradient — increased gradient increases the rate
» artificial recharge from irrigation, reservoirs etc. of erosion
» geology — soft, unconsolidated rocks, such as
Losses of groundwater result from:
sand and gravel, are easily eroded
» evapotranspiration, particularly in low-lying areas » pH — rates of solution are increased when the
where the water table is close to the ground water is more acidic
surface » human impact — deforestation, dams and bridges
» natural discharge by means of spring flow and interfere with the natural flow of a river and
seepage into surface water bodies frequently end up increasing the rate of erosion.
» groundwater leakage and outflow into adjacent
aquifers Transport
» artificial abstraction, for example in the Thames
The main types of transport in a river (Figure 2.34)
basin in the UK.
include:
» suspension — small particles are held up by
River processes turbulent flow in the river
» saltation — heavier particles are bounced or
Erosion bumped along the bed of the river
» solution — the chemical load is dissolved in the
The main types of erosion include:
water
» abrasion (or corrasion) — the wearing away of » traction — the heaviest material is dragged or
the bed and bank by the load carried by a river rolled along the bed of the river
» attrition — the wearing away of the load carried » flotation — leaves and twigs are carried on the
by a river, which creates smaller, rounder particles surface of the river.
1 Mostly clay and silt

Wind-blown 2 Mostly sand Slope Bank
material failure calving
3 Mostly gravel and cobbles
Suspension
Suspended
load Suspended and
Suspension
Dissolved load dissolved load
1 plume
Settling
Deposition
3
Saltation
Rolling 2
Sliding
3 Bedload
▲ Figure 2.34 Types of transport in a river
113

2.2 RiveRs
Deposition » variations in the load, for example a tributary with

Deposition occurs as a river slows down and it loses its a coarse load might lead to a steepening of the
energy. Typically, this occurs as a river floods across gradient of the main valley
a floodplain or enters the sea, or behind a dam. It is » sea level changes — a relative fall in sea level
also more likely during low flow conditions (such as in will lead to renewed downcutting, which enables
a drought) than during high flow (flood) conditions — the river to erode former floodplains and form new
as long as the river is carrying sediment. The larger, terraces and knick-points.
heavier particles are deposited first, the smaller, lighter Rivers tend to achieve a condition of equilibrium, or
ones later. Features of deposition include deltas, grade, and erode the irregularities. There is a balance
levées, slip-off slopes (point bars), oxbow lakes, between erosion and deposition in which a river
braided channels and floodplains. adjusts to its capacity and the amount of work being
done. The main adjustments are in channel gradient,
Activities leading to a smooth, concave profile.
1 a Briefly describe the four main ways in which rivers
erode.
b Suggest how they will vary with (i) velocity of Cross-profiles
water, (ii) rock type and (iii) pH of water.
2 a What are the main types of transport? The cross-profile of the upper part of a river is
b How might the type and quantity of the river’s often described as V-shaped (Figure 2.35). Rivers
load vary between flood conditions and low flow in their upper course typically have a steep
conditions? gradient and a narrow valley. The rivers are shallow
and fast flowing. There is normally much friction
The long profile with large boulders, and much energy is used to
A number of processes, such as weathering and mass overcome friction. The processes likely to occur are
movement, interact to create variations in cross- and vertical erosion, weathering on the slopes, mass
long profiles (Figure 2.35). Irregularities, or knick- movement and transport. Features likely to be found
points, may be due to: include waterfalls, rapids, potholes, gorges and
interlocking spurs.
» geological structure, for example hard rocks In the middle course of the river, the valley is still
erode slowly, which can result in the formation of V-shaped but is less steep. Slopes are more gentle.
waterfalls and rapids A floodplain is beginning to form and meanders
Cross-section are visible. Processes in the middle course include
Upper Middle Lower erosion (both vertical and lateral), meandering,
valley valley valley transport and some deposition on the inner bends of
for cross-section
500
Altitude (m)
400 the meanders.

300 In contrast, in the lower course the cross-profile is
200 much flatter. Processes include erosion (on the outer
100
0 banks), transport and deposition (especially on the
inner bends and on the floodplain). Characteristic
Long
profile
features include levées, oxbow lakes, floodplains,
deltas and terraces.
Source
Upper
course
Knick-point
Features of erosion
Localised erosion by hydraulic action and abrasion,
Height
Middle
course
especially by large pieces of debris, may lead to
Lower
the formation of potholes (Figure 2.36). These are
Resistant rock course typically seen in the upper course of a river when the
load is larger and more rugged. Waterfalls frequently
Mouth occur on horizontally bedded rocks (Figure 2.37).
▲ Figure 2.35 Long and cross-profiles The soft rock is undercut by hydraulic action and
114

River processes
Resistant rock layer

Potholes formed by abrasion View from
above River
River bed Gorge
River flow
Abrasion Course Waterfall

of river
Former
position
Resistant of waterfall
rock
▲ Figure 2.36 Formation of potholes

Section
▲ Figure 2.38 Formation of a gorge of recession
Dolomite
creating a gorge-like landscape. Gorges may also be

Shale
formed as a result of:
Limestone
Shale » antecedent drainage pattern, for example the
Sandstone
River surface Rhine gorge
» collapse of underground caverns in Carboniferous
Sandstone limestone areas, for example the River Axe at
and shale
Wookey Hole, UK
» retreat of waterfalls, for example Niagara Falls
Sandstone
(Figure 2.39).
Plunge
Shale pool Plunge flow occurs where the river spills over a
sudden change in gradient, undercutting rocks by
▲ Figure 2.37 Formation of waterfalls hydraulic impact and abrasion, thereby creating a
waterfall. There are many reasons for this sudden
change in gradient along the river:
abrasion. The weight of the water and the lack of
support cause the waterfall to collapse and retreat. » a band of resistant strata, such as the resistant
Over thousands of years the waterfall may retreat limestones at Niagara Falls
enough to form a gorge of recession (Figure 2.38). » a plateau edge, such as Livingstone Falls on the
Where there are small outcrops of hard and soft rock, Congo river in D.R. Congo
rapids may develop rather than a waterfall. » a hanging valley, such as at Glencoyne,
Cumbria (UK)
» coastal cliffs, such as at Kimmeridge Bay,
Gorges and waterfalls
Dorset (UK).
Gorge development is common, for example where
the local rocks are very resistant to weathering The undercutting at the base of the waterfall
but susceptible to the more powerful river erosion. creates a precarious overhang, which will ultimately
Similarly, in arid areas where the water necessary for collapse. Thus a waterfall may appear to migrate
weathering is scarce, gorges are formed by episodes upstream, leaving a gorge of recession downstream.
of fluvial erosion. A rapid acceleration in downcutting The Niagara gorge is 11 km long due to the retreat
is also associated when a river is rejuvenated, again of Niagara Falls (Figures 2.38 and 2.39).
115

2.2 RiveRs
Case study: Niagara Falls

Most of the world’s great waterfalls are the result of the
undercutting of resistant cap rocks, and the retreat or
recession that follows.
The Niagara river flows for about 50 km between
Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. In that distance it falls just
108 m, giving an average gradient of 1:500. However,
most of the descent occurs in the 1.5 km above Niagara
Falls (13 m) and at the Falls themselves (55 m). The
Niagara river flows in a 2 km wide channel just 1 km
above the Falls, and then into a narrow 400 m wide
gorge, 75 m deep and 11 km long. Within the gorge the
river falls a further 30 m.
▲ Figure 2.39 Niagara Falls on the US/Canadian border
72
71
70
57 58 59 60
116 ▲ Figure 2.40 1:25,000 map of the Niagara Falls area

River processes
The course of the Niagara river was established about of water flowing over the Falls is controlled (due to the
12,000 years ago when water from Lake Erie began to spill construction of hydroelectric power stations), rates of
northwards into Lake Ontario. In doing so, it passed over recession have been reduced. In addition, engineering
the highly resistant dolomitic (limestone) escarpment. works in the 1960s reinforced parts of the dolomite that
Over the last 12,000 years the Falls have retreated were believed to be at risk of collapse. The Falls remain
11 km, giving an average rate of retreat of about 1 m/ an important tourist attraction, and local residents and
year. Water velocity accelerates over the Falls, and business personnel did not want to lose their prized asset.
decreases at the base of the Falls. Hydraulic action and
abrasion have caused the development of a large plunge
Case study analysis
pool at the base of the Falls, while the fine spray and Study Figure 2.40.
eddies in the river help to remove some of the softer 1 Which two countries share a border at Niagara Falls?
rock underneath the resistant dolomite. As the softer 2 In which direction is the Niagara river flowing?
rocks are removed, the dolomite is left unsupported 3 What is the map evidence that there is a gorge below
and the weight of the water causes the dolomite to Niagara Falls?
collapse. Hence the waterfall retreats, forming a gorge 4 Using map evidence, suggest how the Niagara Falls
of recession. and river have been used for human activities.
In the nineteenth century rates of recession were 5 Approximately how wide is Niagara Falls in squares
recorded at 1.2 m/year. However, now that the amount 5870–5871, and in 5772?
Case study: Victoria Falls

over the Falls its channel narrows from over 1.7 km to
just a few metres. This creates an increase in the river’s
velocity and causes much erosion and scouring.
The evolution of the Falls is complex. About 150 million
years ago molten rock formed fine-grained resistant
basalt, about 300 m thick, in the Victoria Falls area. As
the lava cooled it shrank, causing cracks or fissures to
appear in the rock. These fissures were later widened
by weathering, and were infilled by deposits of soft clay
and lime. Over time these deposits solidified to form
limestone. Continued tectonic processes caused large
east–west fissures to widen, allowing the limestone in the
fissures to be eroded.
The river’s course changed over time. Uplift caused
the ancient course of the river to be blocked, diverting
the river east into its present course. The river was
able to erode the soft sandy deposits on the surface,
but was unable to erode the harder basalt below. At the
time the edge of the basalt plain was some 100 km from
the present Victoria Falls. As the waterfall retreated
it occupied an east–west fissure filled with relatively
soft limestone. This it was able to erode easily and cut
▲ Figure 2.41 Victoria Falls on the Zambezi river back to within 8 km of the present waterfall. Then it
occupied a north–south fissure, until it cut back as far
Victoria Falls, on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe, is as the next east–west fissure. The present Victoria Falls
one of the world’s most spectacular waterfalls (Figure are believed to be similar to the previous falls, each
2.41). Like Niagara it has a resistant cap rock but, unlike of which has occupied a different fissure within the
Niagara, one of the dominant forces in the creation and resistant basalt.
development of Victoria Falls is plate tectonics. The
Case study analysis
Falls are nearly 2 km wide, up to 108 m deep, and during
1 Which two countries border Victoria Falls?
the rainy season over 5 million m3 of water passes over 2 Identify one similarity and one difference between
them per minute. During the dry season the volume is Victoria Falls and Niagara Falls.
much less, but the annual average is still an impressive 3 How much water, on average, flows over Victoria Falls?
550,000 m3 per minute. When the Zambezi river passes 4 Why has Victoria Falls altered its course over time?
117

2.2 RiveRs
Meanders E = Erosion D = Deposition

Rivers typically meander. This means that the water
does not follow a straight line but takes a curving
route (Figure 2.42). As a result of this there are D Meander D
variations in the speed across a river. Velocity is E
E
fastest on the outside bank and slowest on the inside E
D
E
bank, so there is erosion on the outer bank and D E D E
D
deposition on the inner bank. This produces a steep E
E
river cliff on the outer bank of a meander and a D
D
gentle slip-off slope on its inner bank.
1 2 3
Erosion A 1 Erosion and deposition around a meander.
F E
2 Increased erosion during flood conditions. The meanders
become exaggerated.
E
3 The river breaks through during a flood. Further deposition
causes the old meander to become an oxbow lake.
Deposition
B Dep
osit C ▲ Figure 2.43 Development of an oxbow lake
B A ion
F
a
D C
Erosion
D
▲ Figure 2.42 Cross-section through a meander
Oxbow lakes
Oxbow lakes are the result of erosion and deposition
(Figure 2.43). Lateral erosion, caused by fast flow in
the meanders, is concentrated on the outer, deeper
bank. During times of flooding, erosion increases.
The river breaks through and creates a new, steeper
channel. In time, the old meander is closed off by
deposition to form an oxbow lake.
Oxbow Line of bluffs Levées Terrace
lake
Floodplains b
Floodplain
The area covered by water when a river floods is

known as its floodplain (Figure 2.44a). When a river’s
discharge exceeds the capacity of the channel, water
rises over the river banks and floods the surrounding
low-lying area. Sometimes a floodplain will itself be
eroded following a fall in sea level. When this happens,
the remnants of the old floodplain are left behind
as river terraces (Figure 2.44b). These are useful for Sand and gravel Silt and sand Bedrock
settlement as they are above the new level of the ▲ Figure 2.44 a Flood plain, Port Meadow, Oxford, UK
floodplain and are free from flooding. b Formation of a floodplain and terraces
118

River processes
Levées Braided channels

When a river floods its speed is reduced, slowed down Braiding occurs when a river transports a very
by friction caused by contact with the floodplain. As heavy load in relation to its velocity. If a river’s
its velocity is reduced the river has to deposit some of discharge falls its competence and capacity are
its load. It drops the coarser, heavier material first to reduced. This forces the river to deposit large
form raised banks, or levées, at the edge of the river amounts of its load and multi-channels, or braided
(Figure 2.45a). This means that, over centuries, the channels, are formed. Braiding is common in rivers
levées are built up of coarse material, such as sand and that experience seasonal variations in discharge.
gravel, while the floodplain consists of fine silt and For example, in proglacial and periglacial areas
clay (Figure 2.45b). such as southern Iceland, most of the discharge
occurs in late spring and early summer, when snow
a and ice melt. This enables rivers to carry very large
loads, which are quickly deposited as discharge
decreases.
Deltas
A delta is a flat, low-lying deposit of sediment that
is found at a river’s mouth (Figure 2.46). For deltas
to be formed a river needs to:
» carry a large volume of sediment — for example,
rivers in semi-arid regions and in areas of intense
human activity
» enter a still body of water, which causes velocity to
fall; the water loses its capacity and competence,
b 1 hence deposition occurs, with the heaviest particles
deposited first and the lightest last.
Deposition is increased if the water is salty,
River level in flood Deposition
2 as this causes salt particles to group together,
become heavier, and be deposited. Vegetation also
increases the rate of deposition by slowing down
3 the water.
Sea or lake
Levée
Raised river bed
5
Fore-set beds
1 When the river floods, it bursts its banks. It deposits its
coarsest load (gravel and sand) closest to the bank and the
finer load (silt and clay) further away.
2, 3, 4 This continues over a long time, perhaps for centuries.
5 The river has built up raised banks called levées, consisting Top-set beds Bottom-set beds Turbidity
of coarse material, and a floodplain of fine material. current
▲ Figure 2.46 Formation of a delta
▲ Figure 2.45 a Levée in Devon, U.K. b Formation of
levées
119

2.2 RiveRs
Case study: The Rhône delta
Park boundary Nature reserve
Regional boundary Park or garden
Park visitor centre Ruins
Museum Castle 0 20
km
Place of interest
▲ Figure 2.47 Map extract of the Rhône delta
The Rhône river (Figure 2.47) divides into two main The Rhône delta is believed to be less than 1 million
distributaries 4 km north of Arles. The east branch, the years old. Deposition by the river is estimated to be about
Grande Rhône, is the larger of the two, and carries 17 million m3 each year, or about 50 tonnes every minute.
85 per cent of the Rhône’s water into the As the Mediterranean Sea has a very small tidal range,
Mediterranean. At Arles the river is just 2 m above sea there are no currents to carry away these deposits.
level and takes almost 50 km to reach the sea. The delta In addition, the Mediterranean is very saline. In the
is criss-crossed by numerous small islands, abandoned presence of salt water, clay and mud particles coagulate
channels and active levées. Most settlements and to form larger particles that cannot be held aloft by the
transport routes are located close to the river, where flow of the river. Hence there is rapid deposition at the
the land is slightly higher. Further away from the river, mouth of the delta.
the land is lower, swampy and frequently covered with There are a number of stages in the formation of a
water. The same pattern exists along the west branch, delta. The first is the development of sandbanks in the
the Petite Rhône. original mouth of the river. This causes the river to
Between these two limbs of the Rhône is a flat region divide, and then there is a period of repeated subdivision
characterised by many marshes and lakes (étangs), until there are a large number of distributaries flowing
known as the Camargue. The largest lake is the Étang de towards the sea. Each of the channels develops its
Vaccarès, which is less than 1 m deep. The étangs receive own set of levées, which has an impact on the human
most of their water from rainwater that becomes trapped environment (settlement and transport) as well as the
between the slightly higher riverine locations, and the physical environment (affecting the development of
sand bars and dunes at the coast. étangs between the main branches of the river). The
120

River hazards and opportunities
étangs may slowly accumulate sediment to form

marshes, or they may be drained and reclaimed to
form farmland or used by people in other ways.
Case study analysis 2 How wide is the Rhône delta when it meets the sea?
1 What is the length of: 3 What is the map evidence that:
a the Petit Rhône a conservation
b the Grande Rhône b tourism
between Arles and the sea? are important in the Rhône delta?
depressions (low-pressure systems) in autumn and

Interesting note
winter, which are both long in duration and wide in
There are 76 rivers that are over 1600 km long. areal coverage. By contrast, in India, up to 70 per
Four of them flow through Russia at some point cent of the annual rainfall occurs in 100 days in the
and four also flow through China at some point. summer southwest monsoon. Elsewhere, melting snow
may be responsible for widespread flooding.
River hazards and Physical causes

Rain
opportunities
Climatological Ice melt
Snow melt
Estuarine interactions between
Floods are a natural feature of all rivers. For most of Causes of
Part- stream flow and tidal conditions
the time a river is contained in its channel but at flood
climatological
Coastal storm surges
other times it may burst its bank and a flood occurs. Earthquake
Floods bring advantages such as water and fertile Other Landslide
alluvium (river deposits or silt), which allow farmers Dam failure
to grow crops. But the problem is that they may bring Human causes More rapid discharge in urban area
too much water and too much silt. The results can be due to impermeable surface and
increased number of drainage channels
devastating, as the experience of China shows, with
Urbanisation and urban growth
many disastrous floods over the centuries. (increase in impermeable surfaces)
River bank erosion can cause population Floodplain developments (increasing
displacement and socio-economic impacts. For Human-related causes risk of damage)
of flood/intensifying
example, the Meghna River in Bangladesh caused major Bridges, dams, obstructions
disruptions during the 1990s and 2000s. It eroded Changes in vegetation cover,
over 6 km of land between Meghna Roads and Highway e.g. agriculture
River engineering works, e.g. levées
Bridge, Meghna Ghat, destroying productive land and
causing residents to lose all their possessions. Among Human-induced climate change
the worst-affected areas were the villages of Shikarpur, ▲ Figure 2.48 Natural and human causes of floods
Kandargoan and Bhanipur. Many displaced farmers
become day labourers or rickshaw operators. They Flood intensifying conditions cover a range of factors
receive little assistance from the government, although that alter the response of a drainage basin to a given
most get some assistance from friends and relatives. As storm. These factors include topography, vegetation,
over 80 per cent of people are employed in farming, the soil type, rock type and specific characteristics of the
loss of land leads to widespread unemployment. drainage basin.
The causes of floods are natural. However, human The potential for damage by flood waters increases
interference intensifies many floods (Figure 2.48). A exponentially with velocity and speeds above 3 m
flood is a high flow of water that overtops the bank per second, and can undermine the foundations of
of a river. The primary causes of floods are mainly buildings. The physical stresses on buildings are
the result of external climatic forces. Secondary flood increased even more, probably by hundreds of times,
causes tend to be drainage basin specific. Most floods when rough, rapidly flowing water contains debris
in Britain, for example, are associated with deep such as rock, sediment and trees.
121

2.2 RiveRs
Other conditions that intensify floods include changes » failure of flood protection systems
in land use. Urbanisation, for example, increases the » changes in environmental conditions, for example
magnitude and frequency of floods in at least four clearance of trees and other vegetation and infilling
ways: of wetlands, which reduces flood retention capacities.
» The creation of highly impermeable surfaces, such Some environments are more at risk than others. The
as roads, roofs and pavements, increases runoff. most vulnerable include the following:
» Smooth surfaces served with a dense network of
» Low-lying parts of active floodplains and river
drains, gutters and underground sewers increase
drainage density. estuaries, for example in Bangladesh, where
» Natural river channels are often constricted by
110 million people live relatively unprotected on the
bridge supports or riverside facilities, reducing floodplains of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna
their carrying capacity. rivers. Floods caused by the monsoon regularly cover
» Due to increased storm runoff, many sewerage
20–30 per cent of the flat delta. In very serious
systems cannot cope with the resulting peak flow. floods up to half of the country may be flooded.
» Small basins subject to flash floods. These are
Deforestation is also a cause of increased flood especially common in arid and semi-arid areas.
runoff and a decrease in channel capacity. This occurs In tropical areas some 90 per cent of lives lost
due to an increase in deposition within the channel. through drowning are the result of intense rainfall
However, there is little evidence to support any direct on steep slopes.
relationship between deforestation in the Himalayas » Areas below unsafe or inadequate dams. In the
and changes in flooding and increased deposition USA there are about 30,000 sizable dams and 2000
of silt in parts of the lower Ganges–Brahmaputra communities are at risk from dams.
river basin. It is more likely due to the combination
of heavy monsoon rains in the Himalayas, steep In most developed countries the number of deaths
slopes, and the seismically unstable terrain, which from floods is declining, although the number of
ensure that runoff is rapid and sedimentation is high deaths from flash floods is changing very little. By
irrespective of the vegetation cover. contrast, the average national flood damage has been
The decision to live in a floodplain, for a variety increasing. The death rate in developing countries
of perceived benefits, is one that is fraught with is much greater, partly because warning systems and
difficulties. The increase in flood damage is related evacuation plans are inadequate. It is likely that the
to the increasing number of people living in hazard in developing countries will increase rather
floodplain regions. than decrease over time as more people migrate and
Floods are one of the most common of all settle in low-lying areas and river basins. Often newer
environmental hazards. This is because so many migrants are forced into the more hazardous zones.
people live in fertile river valleys and in low-lying
coastal areas. However, the nature and scale of
flooding vary greatly. For example, 10 per cent of the
Managing the impacts of
US population live within a 1:100 year flood zone. floods
In Asia, floods damage about 4 million hectares of Traditionally, floods have been managed by methods
land each year and affect the lives of over 17 million of ‘hard engineering’. The main hard engineering
people. Worst of all is China, where over 5 million structures include dams and reservoirs, levées,
people have been killed in floods since 1860. channel straightening and deepening (dredging),
Floods account for about one-third of all natural and creating flood relief channels (Figure 2.49). This
catastrophes, cause more than half the fatalities and are largely means dams, levées and straight channels
responsible for one-third of the economic losses. There that are wider and deeper than the ones they replace.
are a number of reasons for the increase in the number of Although hard engineering may reduce floods in
catastrophes and in the amount of damage they cause: some locations, they can cause unexpected effects
» a rising global population, including in vulnerable elsewhere in the drainage basin. Soft engineering
regions schemes include afforestation, land use zoning and
» construction in flood-prone areas river restoration.
122

Managing the impacts of floods
a b
▲ Figure 2.49 Hard engineering structures: (a) river defences, River Thames (London); (b) levées in Zermatt, Switzerland
Case study: Hard engineering — the Three Gorges Dam

The Three Gorges Dam is over 2 km wide and 100 m • The port at the head of the lake may become silted
high and the lake behind it is over 600 km long. It is an up as a result of increased deposition and the
important project for China. The Yangtze basin provides development of a delta at that point.
66 per cent of China’s rice and contains 400 million • Much of the land available for resettlement is over
people, while the river drains 1.8 million km2 and 800 m above sea level, and is cold, with thin, infertile
discharges 24,000 m3/sec of water annually. soils on relatively steep slopes.
• Dozens of towns were evacuated, for example Wanxian
Advantages of the Three Gorges Dam (population 140,000) and Fuling (80,000), and then were
drowned by the rising waters.
• It generates up to 22,500 megawatts, 50 per cent more
• Up to 530 million tonnes of silt are carried through
than the world’s previous largest HEP dam.
the gorge annually: the first dam on the river lost its
• It enables China to reduce its dependency on coal.
capacity within 7 years, and one on the Hwang He filled
• It supplies energy to Shanghai (population over 17 million)
with silt within 4 years.
and Chongqing (3 million), an area earmarked for
• To reduce the silt load, afforestation is needed, but
economic development.
resettlement of people will cause greater pressure on
• It protects 10 million people from flooding.
the slopes above the dam.
• It allows shipping above the Three Gorges: the dams
• The dam interferes with aquatic life — the Siberian crane
raised water levels by 90 m, and turned the rapids in
and the white flag dolphin are threatened with extinction.
the gorge into a lake.
• Archaeological treasures have been drowned, including
the Zhang Fei temple.
Disadvantages of the Three Gorges Dam
• Over 1.25 million people were removed to make way for
Case study analysis
the dam and the lake. 1 How many people live in the Yangtze basin?
• It cost $25 billion to build. 2 What is the energy potential of the Three Gorges Dam?
• Most floods in recent years have come from rivers that 3 How many people could it supply with energy?
join the Yangtze below the Three Gorges Dam. 4 How much did it cost?
• The region is seismically active and landslides are 5 How many people had to be resettled as a result of the
frequent. building of the Three Gorges Dam?
123

2.2 RiveRs
Case study: Soft engineering — the Kissimmee River Restoration Project

Between 1962 and 1971 the 165 km meandering and wildlife species, including the endangered bald
Kissimmee river (Florida, USA) and its adjoining floodplain eagle, wood stork and snail kite. It will create over
were channelised and thereby transformed into a 90 km, 11,000 hectares of wetlands.
10 m deep drainage canal (Figure 2.50). The river was Restoration of the river and its associated natural
channelised to provide an outlet canal for draining resources requires dechannelisation. This entails
floodwaters from the developing upper Kissimmee lakes backfilling approximately half of the flood control channel
basin, and to provide flood protection for land adjacent to and re-establishing the flow of water through the natural
the river. river channel. In residential areas the flood control
channel will remain in place.
Impacts of channelisation
The channelisation of the Kissimee river had several The costs of restoration
unintended impacts:
• It is estimated the project will cost $980 million
• the loss of 12,000–14,000 hectares of wetlands (initial channelisation cost $20 million), with the bill
• a reduction in wading bird and waterfowl usage being shared by the state of Florida and the federal
• a continuing long-term decline in game fish government.
populations. • Restoration, which began in 1999, will not be completed
until 2015.
Concerns about the sustainability of existing ecosystems
• Restoration of the river’s floodplain could result in
led to a restoration study, supported by the state and
higher losses of water due to evaporation during wet
national authorities. The result was a massive restoration
periods. Navigation may be impeded in some sections
project, on a scale unmatched elsewhere.
of the restored river in extremely dry spells. However,
The project navigable depths should be maintained for at least
90 per cent of the time.
The aim is to restore over 100 km2 of river and associated
floodplain wetlands. The project will benefit over 320 fish
Lakes in the upper Kissimmee

Lake Kissimmee
Basin controlled to reduce flow south. USA
N Florida
Pre-canal average Flat, low-lying drainage basin.

flow 0.42 m/sec; Before the canal the Kissimmee
spilled onto the floodplain. Gulf of
now 0.05 m/sec.
Mexico
Canal reduced length of river
During a flood the from 160 km to 90 km. Now a
water now stays in series of lakes controlled by
the drainage basin locks. The canal is designed to
for just one day hold all floodwater.
(previously for 11
days). Two-thirds of floodplain wetlands
Loss of wetland drained by building of the canal. Channelised river
habitats. Now Nutrients no longer absorbed by Water control lock
92% fewer the wetlands.
wading birds Drainage basin boundary
Loss of animal and fish species
and waterfowl as river became more stagnant. Other water bodies
in winter.
Less recharge of aquifers.

Groundwater becoming more saline.
Lake affected by changing
Istokpoga Florida Everglades
water inputs
0 10
km
eutrophication because of
Impacts downstream: Lake Okeechobee
extra nutrients in the river
▲ Figure 2.50 Kissimmee River Restoration Project — impacts of channelisation
124

Benefits of restoration Potential revenue associated with increased recreational

use (such as hunting and fishing) and ecotourism on
• Higher water levels should ultimately support a natural the restored river could significantly enhance local and
river ecosystem again. regional economies.
• Re-establishment of floodplain wetlands and the
associated nutrient filtration function is expected Case study analysis
to result in decreased nutrient loads to Lake 1 Where is the Kissimmee river?
Okeechobee. 2 Describe the changes to the Kissimmee river between
• It is possible that restoration of the floodplain could 1962 and 1971.
benefit populations of key avian species, such as 3 Outline the benefits of river restoration.
wading birds and waterfowl, by providing increased 4 How much did the Kissimmee river restoration cost?
feeding and breeding habitats. 5 When was it completed?
Event modification
1 Flood embankments with sluice gates. The 4 Intercepting channels. These are in use
main problem with this is that it may raise during times of flood, diverting part of the
flood levels up and down. flow away, allowing flow for town and
Event modification includes attempts to reduce floods Sluice or
agricultural use, e.g. the Great Ouse
Protection Scheme in the Fenlands
and to divert them away from settlements. Reducing pumping
station Intercepting Old river
floods involves decreasing the amount of runoff, channel channel
thereby reducing the flood peak in a drainage basin. Embankments
This can be achieved by weather modification and/ Embankments New enlarged river
or watershed treatment, for example to reduce flood 2 Channel enlargement to accommodate

larger discharges. One problem
5 Flood storage reservoirs. This solution is
peak over a drainage basin. There are a number of with such schemes is that as the enlarged
widely used, especially as many reservoirs
created for water-supply purposes may have
channel is only rarely used it becomes
strategies, including: clogged with weed.
a secondary flood control, e.g. the
intercepting channels along the
Enlarged channel Loughton Brook. Dam
» reforestation Dam
» reseeding of sparsely vegetated areas to reduce Enlarged
channel
evaporative losses Old channel
» mechanical land treatment of slopes, such as 3 Flood relief channels. This is appropriate 6 The removal of settlements. This is rarely
used because of cost, although many
where it is impossible to modify the
contour ploughing or terracing to reduce runoff original channel due to cost, e.g. the communities were forced to leave as a
result of the 1993 Mississippi floods.
» comprehensive protection of vegetation from
flood relief channels around Oxford.
Sluice Washlands
By-pass channel Old development
wildfires, overgrazing, clear-cutting of forests, free from flooding
restored
or any other practices likely to increase flood Sluice

Flood-relief channel Redeveloped
discharge and sediment load area
» clearance of sediment and other debris from Tributary
Floodplain
headwater streams
» construction of small water- and sediment-holding Main river
Urban area
areas
» preservation of natural water detention zones. ▲ Figure 2.51 Flood relief channels
Flood diversion measures, by contrast, include
the construction of levées, reservoirs, and the Loss sharing and insurance
modification of river channels (Figure 2.51). Levées
are the most common form of river engineering. Loss sharing adjustments include disaster aid and
They can also be used to divert and restrict water insurance. Disaster aid refers to any aid — such as
to low-value land on the floodplain. Over 4500 km money, equipment, staff and technical assistance —
of the Mississippi river has levées. Channel that is given to a community following a disaster.
improvements include enlargement, to increase the However, there are many taxpayers who argue that
carrying capacity of the river. Reservoirs store excess taxpayers cannot be expected to fund losses that
rainwater in the upper drainage basin. Large dams are should have been insured.
expensive and may well be causing earthquakes and In developed countries insurance is an important
siltation. It has been estimated that some 66 billion loss-sharing strategy. However, not all flood-prone
m3 of storage will be needed to make any significant households have insurance and many of those that
impact on major floods in Bangladesh. are insured may be under-insured. In the floods of
125

2.2 RiveRs
northern England in 2015 (following Storm Desmond),

many of the affected households had very limited
flood insurance, because the cost was so high.
Hazard-resistant design
Flood proofing includes any adjustments to buildings
and their contents that help reduce losses. Some
are temporary, such as blocking up of entrances,
use of shields to seal doors and windows, removal
of damageable goods to higher levels, and the use
of sandbags (Figure 2.52). By contrast, long-term
measures include moving the living spaces above the
likely level of the floodplain. This normally means
building above the flood level, but could also include
building homes on stilts (Figure 2.53). ▲ Figure 2.53 Hazard-resistant design
flood warnings and forecasts may reduce economic

losses by as much as 40 per cent. In most developing
countries there is much less effective flood forecasting.
An exception is Bangladesh. Most floods in Bangladesh
develop from events in the Himalayas, so authorities
can give people in Bangladesh about 72 hours’ warning.
Land use planning

Land use zoning involves allowing compatible land
uses on land that might flood. For example, land
that floods regularly (once a year) could be used
for pastoral agriculture, as animals can be moved
▲ Figure 2.52 Using sandbags as flood defence
to higher ground. Alternatively it could be used
for recreational purposes. It should not be used
Forecasting and warning for industrial, commercial or residential land use,
During the 1970s and 1980s, flood forecasting and as valuable equipment and possessions would be
warning became more accurate and these are now damaged or destroyed. However, as population
among the most widely used measures to reduce the growth continues, people and industry may be forced
problems caused by flooding. In developed countries to extend into floodplains.
Case study: Opportunities and constraints of living on the Nile delta

The Nile delta is one of the oldest intensively cultivated areas (Figure 2.54). More people on the delta cause more
in the world. It is heavily populated and has a population pollution (air, water and soil).
density of about 16,000 people per km2. Only 2.5 per cent of Excessive irrigation has led to waterlogging. Large
Egypt’s land area is suitable for intensive agriculture — up volumes of domestic and untreated industrial effluent
to 95 per cent of Egypt’s agricultural production comes from are discharged into the river and other water channels. In
the Nile valley and delta. The delta has long been a source addition, significant amounts of fertilisers and pesticides
of fresh water and fertile silt, and an excellent location for are leached into water courses along the delta. Seawater
the import and export of goods. The flat land makes building intrusion has led to the salinisation of groundwater.
easy. However, it is increasingly under stress. Salinity has traditionally been kept at bay by plentiful
The delta covers around 25,000 km2, is home to around supplies of water flushing salt out of the soil, but after the
66 per cent of the country’s rapidly growing population, construction of the High Aswan Dam, the seasonal floods
and provides over 60 per cent of the nation’s food supply. ended. Irrigation canals continue to bring water to some
Most of the delta is very low-lying and an increase in of the delta, ensuring that salinity levels remained low,
sea level of just 1 m would flood 20 per cent of the delta
126

2015 Sea level rise of 1 metre However, there is much annual variation in flow. In the
years of high discharge, floods have inflicted major
damage on agriculture, industry and housing, whereas
Alexandria Port Said Alexandria Port Said in the drier years, much farmland has subject to major
droughts. To manage and control the river a number
of hard engineering structures have been used. These
0 100 km
include:
Cairo Cairo
• the construction of levées along the banks of the river
▲ Figure 2.54 The effects of a 1 m rise in sea level on the Nile delta — there are some 900 km of levées between Aswan
but very little water now reaches the northern end of the and Cairo, and a further 200 km between Cairo and the
delta. The flood water once brought fertile silt, which was coast
spread over the land during the flood season. Now that • building of barrages across the river to raise water
the sediment is trapped behind the High Aswan Dam, levels, such as the Zifta and Delta Barrages
some farmers spend up to 80 per cent of their profits on • built storage projects, such as the High Aswan Dam.
fertilisers in order to grow their crops. The first major storage project was the old Aswan Dam,
Over the last 7000 years, deltas all over the world although this was too small to have much impact. The
have been increasing in size. However, over the last 150 High Aswan Dam was completed in 1968 and guaranteed
years, many deltas have been decreasing in size. In the the supply of 84 km3 of water needed for Egypt’s arable
case of the Nile (particularly since 1970) the building of agriculture. It has protected Egypt from river flooding
the High Aswan Dam has cut off the supply of sediment, since then, and provided a supply of water during the
while rising sea levels and increased coastal erosion are drought years of 1979–88. The capacity of the dam
reducing the size of the delta. Some parts of the delta are is 162 km3, with 90 km3 for live storage (HEP, flood
eroding at up to 100 m/year. protection, downstream release and navigation), 31 km3
Predictions suggest a 70 per cent drop in the amount of for sediment deposition and 41 km3 for flood protection.
Nile water reaching the delta in the next 50 years, due to a The New Valley Project or Toshka Project is a series of
combination of increased evaporation and heavier demand canals to take water from Lake Nasser and irrigate part of
upstream. Wheat and maize yields may fall by 40 per cent the western desert. It also increases the capacity for flood
and 50 per cent respectively over the next 30 years. Many storage.
experts believe that environmental problems in the delta The building of the High Aswan Dam has had many
will intensify, and that Egypt needs to develop parts of the impacts:
western desert with irrigation water. The more water that
is diverted to these areas, the less there is for the delta. • Flooding downstream has been controlled.
• Water is stored in Lake Nasser and can be made
Managing flooding in the Nile valley available during drought years.
Flooding of the Nile has been one of the defining • There has been a build-up of sediment behind the dam,
characteristics of Egypt. It has provided Egyptians with and less silt deposited in the valley downstream (see
water, fertile silt and nutrients, and created new land. Table 2.10).
However, it has brought death, destruction and erosion. • Discharges in the river downstream of the dam have
For many centuries, Egypt’s rulers have tried to manage been reduced.
the Nile — to maximise its benefits and reduce the • There are large evaporation losses from Lake Nasser.
devastation that it was capable of. Although flooding in the lower Nile has largely been
The Nile is fed by three main tributary rivers — the controlled, it remains a problem in some upper parts. For
White Nile, the Blue Nile and the Atbara. The White Nile example, in 2016 the worst floods in over a century killed
has its source in Lake Victoria and has a relatively even 98 people in Sudan, destroyed more than 13,000 homes
flow throughout the year. In contrast, the Blue Nile and and damaged a further 18,000. Over 100,000 people were
the Atbara have a marked seasonal flow, with a peak flow affected by the floods. Thirteen of Sudan’s 18 provinces
in summer and a very low flow in winter. were affected.
Table 2.10 Silt concentrations in the Nile before and after the construction of the High Aswan Dam
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Before 64 50 45 42 43 85 674 270 242 925 124 77

After 44 47 45 50 51 49 48 45 41 43 48 47
127

2.2 RiveRs
The frequent occurrence of catastrophic floods is a major Med. Sea IRAN

N IRAQ
challenge for Ethiopia and Sudan. In Sudan, major floods
occur along the Blue Nile and the Atbara rivers. The causes of Cairo
floods can be attributed to prolonged and/or torrential rainfall. Ni
le
Scientists suggest that the risk of flooding is increasing
LIBYA EGYPT
due to global climate change. There has been a link SAUDI
between La Niña events in the Pacific Ocean and higher Aswan Dam ARABIA
Re
than average rainfall in the Nile valley, and a link between
dS
El Niño events and drought in Ethiopia and Sudan. Some
ea
scientists have suggested that the average annual flow
At
of the Nile could increase by 10–15 per cent, while others SUDAN
ba
CHAD
rah
have suggested that flows will become more variable. Khartoum ERITREA YEMEN
B lu
The construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
eN
Sennar Dam
(GERD — Figure 2.55) on the Blue Nile, some 15 km from
il e
Rosieres Dam
the Sudan border, will have an impact on Sudan and Egypt.
Finished in 2017, the dam will take between 5 years and 15 Addis Ababa
Grand
White
years to fill. Ethiopia claims that it will increase flows to Egypt SOUTH Renaissance Dam
by reducing evaporation from Lake Nasser. However, the C.A.R.
SUDAN IA
ETHIOPIA AL
Nile
exact impacts of the dam on Egypt and Sudan are unknown. OM
There will be a temporary (up to fifteen years) reduction of S
UGANDA 0 500 km
water availability as the reservoir fills. The dam will retain silt, D.R. CONGO KENYA
and so the lifetime of the Sennar Dam and Rosieres Dam in
Sudan would be prolonged. It could reduce flooding in Sudan ▲ Figure 2.55 The location of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
by the increased storage of water behind the GERD.
Sudan and Ethiopia are poor countries (Sudan’s average
Some scientists are calling for an early warning system
GNI is $4500 and Ethiopia’s is $1900) and do not have all
to predict floods on the Nile. The Nile is over 6000 km in
the necessary resources to deal with increasing numbers
length and it can take weeks for flood peaks to pass down
of people at risk of becoming flood victims.
the full length of the river, thus allowing sufficient time, in
theory, to provide flood warnings. However, international Case study analysis
and national communications have not always been 1 Briefly explain how river floods in Egypt have been
as good as they could be. The 1998 and 2016 floods in prevented.
Sudan showed that it takes up to 1 month to evacuate 2 Explain why Sudan experiences frequent flooding. You
vulnerable communities. Khartoum, Sudan’s capital, with should include data from Table 2.11.
a population of over 5 million people, and located on the 3 Suggest why flooding and drought may become more
Blue Nile, needs a long warning time to evacuate. The frequent and/or intense in the future.
links with El Niño/La Niña cycles in the Pacific may help 4 Outline how developments on the River Nile upstream
to predict the likely occurrence of a flood or a famine, but have affected those living downstream on the Nile delta.
Table 2.11 Climate data for Khartoum and Addis Ababa
J F M A M J J A S O N D Year
Khartoum
Av. monthly temperature (°C) 24 25 28 32 34 34 32 30 32 32 28 25 30
Rainfall (mm) 0 0 0 1 7 5 56 80 28 2 0 0 179
Addis Ababa
Av. monthly temperature (°C) 14 15 17 17 17 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 15
Rainfall (mm) 13 35 67 91 81 117 247 255 167 29 8 5 1115
(See also the climate data for Cairo on page 157.)
Activities
1 Suggest how changes to: 3 Explain the meaning of the term ‘international river’,
a water quality and suggest why human activities on international
b the quantity of water rivers may lead to conflict between countries.
can have a negative impact on communities.
2 Using examples, outline the potential advantages and
disadvantages of living on a delta.
128

2.3 Coasts
Key questions
H How do the sea and wind erode, transport and deposit?
H What landforms do they create?
H Under what conditions do coral reefs and mangroves form?
H What are the opportunities and hazards that coasts present?
H What can be done to manage coastal erosion?
a wave has passed. Swash is the movement of water up

the beach. Backwash is the movement of water down the
beach. Waves are sometimes divided into constructive
and destructive waves (Table 2.12 and Figure 2.57).
Table 2.12 Destructive and constructive waves
Destructive waves (erosional Constructive waves

waves) (depositional waves)
Short wavelength (< 20 m) Long wavelength (up to 100 m)
High height (> 1 m) Low height (< 1 m)
High frequency (10–12/minute) Low frequency (6–8/minute)
Low period (one every 5–6 High period (one every 8–10
seconds) seconds)
▲ Figure 2.56 Jolly Harbour, Antigua
Backwash > swash Swash > backwash
Steep gradient Low gradient
Marine processes Caused by local winds and Caused by swell from
storms distant storms
The factors that affect coastal processes and coastal
landforms include: High-energy waves Low-energy waves
Constructive waves
» waves and currents, including longshore drift Long wavelength
Constructive waves
» local geology — that is, rock type, structure and Long wavelength
strength Elliptical Low height
» changes in sea level orbit
Elliptical Low height
» human activity and the increased use of coastal orbit
Shallow
gradient
engineering. Shallow
gradient
All of these factors interact and produce a unique set
of processes that occur at the coast. These processes Destructive waves
go on to produce different types of landform for every Short wavelength
Destructive waves
coastal area. Short wavelength
Types of wave High height

Wavelength is the distance between two successive crests Circular High height
or troughs. Wave height is the distance between the orbit
Circular
trough and the crest. Wave frequency is the number of orbit Steep
waves per minute. Velocity is the speed of a travelling gradient
Steep
wave, and is influenced by wind, fetch and depth of gradient
water. The fetch is the amount of open water over which ▲ Figure 2.57 Destructive and constructive waves
129

2.3 Coasts
Waves on the Palisadoes beach and carries it to the break point, where material
Beaches are transitory features — they change shape is deposited to form longshore bars offshore from
regularly. In Jamaica, one of the most important the Palisadoes.
factors for wave formation is the local sea–land With the return of the land breeze, these
breeze. The Palisadoes, on the south coast of destructive waves decay. The trade-wind-generated
Jamaica, has a tidal range of just 0.23 m. swell becomes the dominant wave, returning
Here, swell is generated by trade winds on a year- sediment lost from the beach during the day.
round basis, and occasionally by easterly waves and
tropical cyclones (hurricanes) that originate far from Activities
the island. The sea breeze is most persistent in the 1 What is the tidal range of the Palisadoes?
summer months from May to August and strongest in 2 In which direction does the sea breeze blow?
June, approaching most commonly from an east-south- 3 From which direction does the land breeze blow?
easterly direction (Figure 2.58). The breeze normally 4 What is the impact of the sea breeze on wave activity?
develops in the late morning, reaching velocities of 5 What is the impact of the land breeze on wave
activity?
12 m/s by the early afternoon. Once the sea breeze
declines, a land breeze develops from the northwest.
Greater Wave refraction and longshore drift
Antilles
Waves result from friction between wind and the
Le
sse
Jamaica sea surface. Waves in the open, deep sea are

rA
Jamaica
different from those breaking on shore. Sea waves
ntilles
are forward-moving surges of energy. Although

SOUTH AMERICA the shape of the surface wave appears to move,
Palisadoes surface N
the water particles follow a roughly circular path
winds 1959–70
within the wave. As waves approach the shore, their
0 10% = Calm 22.6%
speed is reduced as they touch the sea floor. Wave
0 10 km
Swell refraction
Reefs
refraction causes two main changes: the speed
of the wave is reduced and the shape of the wave
Palis o e s
front is altered. If refraction is completed, the wave
e
ad
fronts will break parallel to the shore.
ez
re
Trade wind
ab
generated Wave refraction also distributes wave energy along

Se
swell
a stretch of coast. On a coastline with alternating
▲ Figure 2.58 Constructive and destructive waves on the
headlands and bays, wave refraction will concentrate
Palisadoes, Jamaica destructive/erosive activity on the headlands,
while deposition will tend to occur in the bays.
The sea breeze is associated with an increase in Irregularities in the shape of the coastline mean
wave and breaker height. Wave heights regularly that refraction is not always totally achieved. This
exceed 1 m and may reach 5 m. The sea breezes causes longshore drift, which is a major force in the
provide a mechanism for shoreline erosion, caused transport of material along the coast (Figure 2.59).
by destructive waves during daylight hours. The It occurs when waves move up to the beach (swash)
change from constructive waves, where sediment is in one direction, but the waves draining back down
transported landwards, to destructive waves, where the beach (backwash) take a different route (under
sediment is dragged seawards, is related to wave the effect of gravity). The net movement is along
steepness. As steepness increases, erosion occurs. the shore, hence the term longshore drift. A wooden
When onshore winds occur, a return countercurrent or concrete wall (groyne) may be built to prevent
is formed, flowing seawards towards the break point. longshore drift from moving sand or shingle away
This current removes material from the front of the from the beach.
130

Landscapes of erosion
Dispersed Concentrated energy on Direction of

energy flanks of headland steepest slope
Land Land Land
A1 A1
Shoreline
B1
Wave movement is B1 Swash Backwash
slowed down in shallow Longshore
Depth water, and this causes drift
decreasing the wave front to break
onshore
Unimpeded fast
movement in deep Wave front
water causes waves
to break parallel to
Wind each other A A B B Prevailing
direction Sea Sea wind Sea
a b c Longshore drift
▲ Figure 2.59 Wave refraction and longshore drift
Human activity and longshore drift in

West Africa Activities
1 Define the following terms: swash, fetch, wave
The increase in coastal retreat has been blamed refraction, longshore drift, backwash.
on the construction of the Akosombo Dam on the 2 Describe the main differences between a destructive
Volta river in Ghana. It is just 110 km from the wave and a constructive wave.
coast and disrupts the flow of sediment from the 3 Describe and explain the process of longshore drift.
4 Briefly describe how human activity has affected the
Volta, stopping it from reaching the shore. There impact of longshore drift in West Africa.
is therefore less sand to replace that which has
already been washed away by longshore drift, so
the coastline retreats due to erosion by the Guinea Landscapes of erosion
current. Towns such as Keta, 30 km east of the Volta There are many types of erosion carried out by waves:
estuary, have been destroyed as their protective
beach has been removed (Figure 2.60). » Hydraulic action occurs as waves hit or break against
a cliff face. Any air trapped in cracks is put under
great pressure. As the wave retreats, this build-up
N of pressure is released with explosive force. This is
TOGO especially important in well-jointed rocks such as
BENIN
GHANA limestone, sandstone and granite, and in weak rocks
NIGERIA such as clays and glacial deposits. Hydraulic action
Akosombo Kpeme makes the most impact during storms.
Dam Lomé » Abrasion is the process of a breaking wave hurling
Tropicana
materials, such as pebbles or shingle, against a
Accra Keta
Bight of Benin cliff face. It is similar to abrasion in a river.
» Attrition is the process in which eroded material,
Guinea current (carries
1.5 million cubic metres
such as broken rock, is worn down to form smaller,
0 100
of sand each year) rounder beach material.
km
» Solution occurs on limestone and chalk. Calcium
▲ Figure 2.60 Human activity and longshore drift in carbonate, a salt found in these rocks, dissolves
West Africa slowly in acidic water.
131

2.3 Coasts
Features of erosion Wave action is concentrated between the high

water mark (HWM) and low water mark (LWM). HWM
On a headland, erosion will exploit any weakness, is the level reached by the sea at high tide, while
creating, at first, a cave. Once the cave reaches both LWM is the level reached by the sea at low tide.
sides of the headland, an arch is formed. A collapse of It may undercut a cliff face, creating a notch and
the top of the arch forms a stack, and when the stack is overhang (Figure 2.63). As erosion continues, the
eroded a stump is created (Figure 2.61). Where erosion notch becomes deeper and eventually the overhang
opens up a vertical crack, allowing seawater to spout collapses, causing the cliff line to retreat. The
up at the surface, a blowhole is formed. The sandstone base of the cliff is left behind as an increasingly
of the Cape Peninsula in South Africa has been attacked longer platform. This is sometimes called a wave-
by the sea, forming steep vertical cliffs and small-scale cut platform, because it has been cut or eroded by
features such as arches and stacks (Figure 2.62). wave action.
a
Headland
1 Erosion occurs between
Cliff HWM and LWM
2 The cliff is eroded backwards
to create an indent (notch)
Stack 3 As erosion continues the notch

retreats further into the cliff,
and the overhang becomes larger
3 HWM
High Overhang
tide
Sea
Stump Notch
Arch
Low 1
tide 2
LWM
▲ Figure 2.61 Features of coastal erosion
Cliff
1 2 3 4 5
Sea level
1 Current coastline
2 Third collapse
Wave-cut
3 Second collapse platform
4 First collapse
5 Original coastline
▲ Figure 2.63 Formation of a wave-cut platform
Cliff profiles vary greatly, depending on the:

» rate of coastal erosion (cliff retreat)
» strength of the rock
» presence of joints and bedding planes.
In addition, cliffs change over time, from ones
dominated by marine processes (like wave erosion) to
ones protected from marine processes but affected by
land-based processes.
▲ Figure 2.62 The Cape Peninsula, South Africa — the photo On a larger scale, bays may be eroded in beds of
shows Cape Maclear and the Cape of Good Hope in the weaker rock (Figure 2.64). The harder rocks form
background headlands that protrude, whereas the weaker rocks
132

Deposition
are eroded to form bays. Wave refraction in the bay

spreads wave energy around the bay, whereas it
focuses wave energy on the flanks of the headlands.
Bayhead beaches are formed when constructive waves
deposit sand between two headlands, such as at
Maracas Bay and Tyrico Bay in northern Trinidad.
▲ Figure 2.65 Volcanic beach, Tenerife
▲ Figure 2.64 Headlands and bays in Praia de Rocha, Portugal
Activities
1 What is the difference between attrition and
abrasion?
2 Why does hydraulic action occur in jointed rocks?
3 What types of rock are affected by solution?
4 What types of erosion are most likely to take place:
a during a storm ▲ Figure 2.66 An artificial beach with imported sand
b on beaches
c on the face of a cliff? The term beach refers to the accumulation of
5 In your own words, describe how a wave-cut platform material deposited between low spring tides and
may be formed.
6 Make a sketch of Figure 2.64 and label the following
the highest point reached by storm waves at high
features: headland, bay, stack and beach. spring tides. A typical beach will have three zones:
backshore, foreshore and offshore. The backshore is
marked by a line of dunes or a cliff. Above the high
Deposition water mark there may be a berm or shingle ridge.
This is coarse material pushed up the beach by spring
tides and aided by storm waves flinging material well
Beaches above the level of the waves themselves. These are
Excellent beach development occurs on a lowland often referred to as storm beaches. The seaward edge
coast (constructive waves) with a sheltered aspect/ of the berm is often scalloped and irregular due to
trend, composed of ‘soft’ rocks, which provide a good the creation of beach cusps.
supply of material, or where longshore drift supplies The foreshore is exposed at low tide. Offshore, the
abundant material. first material is deposited. In this zone, the waves
On Tenerife, the lack of beach material other than touch the sea bed and so the material is usually
volcanic material (Figure 2.65) has led to one beach, disturbed, sometimes being pushed up as offshore
Las Terristas, being formed of sand imported from bars, when the offshore gradient is very shallow.
the Sahara desert (Figure 2.66). An artificial barrier Offshore bars are usually composed of coarse sand or
prevents the sand from being eroded by wave action. shingle. Between the bar and shore, lagoons (often
133

2.3 Coasts
Lagoon
Bay
Barrier islands
Spit
Bay barrier
Mainland beach
Spit
Tombolo
Spit
Figure 2.67 Features of

coastal deposition
called sounds) develop (Figure 2.67). If the water 1 Successive positions of the growing spit. River
in the lagoon is calm and fed by rivers, marshes and 2 The recurved end develops as a result of estuary
mudflats can be found. Bars can be driven onshore wave refraction and the occurrence of
by storm winds and waves. A classic example of these 3 irregular winds from an alternative
direction
features is found off the coast of the Carolinas in
Original
southeast USA. coastline
Bars and spits Headland

Saltmarsh
Position
These more localised features will develop where: 3 of fastest
2
1 current
» abundant material is available, particularly shingle Longshore
and sand drift
» the coastline is irregular, for example where there
is a variable geology Short-term change
in wind and wave
» where there are estuaries and major rivers. Prevailing wind direction
A spit is a beach of sand or shingle linked at one
▲ Figure 2.68 Development of a spit
end to land. It is found where wave energy is
reduced, for example along a coast where headlands
and bays are common and near river mouths (in Interesting note
estuaries and rias).
The longest spit in the world is the 112 km Arabat
Spits often become curved as waves undergo
spit in the Sea of Azov, between Russia and
refraction (Figure 2.68). Cross-currents or occasional
Ukraine. There are 13 spits in the Sea of Azov.
storm waves may assist this hooked formation. A
good example is the sandspit in Walvis Bay, Namibia.
The main body of the spit is curved but it has On the seaward side, the slope to deeper water is
additional, smaller hooks, or recurves. Longshore very steep. Within the curve of the spit, the water
drift moves sediment northwards along the coast. is shallow and a considerable area of mudflat and
saltmarsh is exposed at low water. These saltmarshes
However, the coastline is very irregular here and there
continue to grow as mud is trapped by the marsh
is a sudden change in the trend of the coastline.
vegetation.
Consequently, refraction occurs, causing the waves to
bend around eastwards.
134

Deposition
▲ Figure 2.69b The beach at Achill was washed away by

storms has returned after 33 years
Related features include bars. These are ridges that

block off a bay or river mouth. There are many examples
on the west coast of Antigua (Figure 2.69a).
In 2017, a beach that disappeared (eroded) in
storms in 1984 reappeared. Hundreds of tonnes of
sand were deposited following freak tides, producing
a 330 m stretch of golden sand (Figure 2.69b).
Tombolos are ridges that link the mainland to an
island. Good examples include the Lumley area of
Sierra Leone, and the Cape Verde Peninsula, Senegal.
The Cape Peninsula in South Africa is a complex
tombolo that has developed on a very large scale.
Activities
1 a Explain how a spit develops.
b In what ways might vegetation help spits, bars and
tombolos to develop?
2 a Draw a labelled sketch of the top photograph in
Figure 2.69a.
b Describe the wave conditions in the photograph.
3 Study the map in Figure 4.11c, page 273. Name and
give examples of at least two types of coastal deposit.
For any one of these, describe its main characteristics
and explain how it has been formed.
4 Study both the map in Figure 4.11c, page 273 and
photographs in Figure 2.69a.
a What type of feature is found in Valley Church Bay
and at Reeds Point?
b What is the difference between a cove and a bay?
c How are land-based processes affecting this area
of coastline?
d In what ways has this area of coastline influenced
human activities?
▲ Figure 2.69a The west coast of Antigua. (Top) Mosquito Cove,
(centre) Jolly Harbour Marina, (bottom) Crab Hill Bay (see also
Figure 4.11c on page 273)
135

2.3 Coasts
The region experiences tropical storms and hurricanes.

These can seriously damage the coast. For example, in
2004 Hurricane Ivan eroded up to a metre off the 2 m
high sand dunes. Even under normal conditions, summer
sea breezes cause powerful destructive waves, which
are capable of eroding the seaward face of the beach,
causing it to become steeper.
Activities
1 How old is the Palisadoes?
▲ Figure 2.70 Aerial view of the Palisadoes tombolo 2 How long is the Palisadoes?
3 In which direction is longshore drift on the Palisadoes?
4 Where does the sediment that helps build up the
The Palisadoes, Jamaica: a spit or a tombolo? Palisadoes come from?
The Palisadoes is one of the largest deposited coastal 5 What is the impact of hurricanes on the Palisadoes?
features in the Caribbean (Figure 2.70).
Located just south of Kingston in Jamaica, this Sand dunes
13 km long feature has been formed and re-formed
many times during its history. Scientists believe that it Sand dunes are one of the most dynamic environments
may be 4000 years old. in physical geography. Important changes take place in
Longshore drift occurs from east to west on the south a very short space of time. Extensive sandy beaches are
coast of Jamaica. The sediment comes from rivers, almost always backed by sand dunes because strong
cliff erosion and offshore sediments. The Palisadoes is onshore winds can easily transport the sand that has
located at a sharp bend in the coastline. Longshore drift dried out and is exposed at low water. The sand grains
carries sediment westwards, and extends the length of are trapped and deposited against any obstacle on
the spit. As it grew longer, it linked up with a number of land, to form dunes (Figure 2.71). Dunes can be blown
cays (small islands), turning the spit into a tombolo. inland and can therefore threaten coastal farmland and
Semi-fixed
Embryo Yellow dune dune
Embryo dune Yellow dune
Strand line Embryo dune dune
Sea Sea a Sea c b a
a b
As the tide goes out, the sand Sea couch grass colonises and Once the yellow dune is over 10 m
dries out and is blown up helps bind the sand. Once high, less sand builds up behind it
the beach. A small embryo the dune grows to over and marram grass dies to form a
dune forms in the shelter 1 m high, marram grass thin humus layer. As the original
behind the strand line. replaces the sea couch. dune a has developed, new embryo
and yellow dunes have formed.
4 Fixed dune (or grey dune):

as the soil develops and becomes
damper and richer, lichens, mosses and
2 Yellow dune 3 Semi-fixed flowering plants can grow on the dune.
dune
1 Embryo dune 5
Strand line
Sand flat Wet Dune Dune

slack Slack
slack slack
Beach
Peat Peat
Youngest dunes Oldest dunes
As the dune system gets older and Climax trees succeed grasses
larger, water can collect towards the and flowering plants as
back of a dune. Marsh plants and small trees mature. Figure 2.71 Formation
small willow trees can grow here. of sand dunes
136

Deposition
even villages. The interaction of winds and vegetation

helps form sand dunes. Activities
On the beach, conditions are very windy, dry (much Study Figure 2.72, which shows the development of
water just soaks into the sand) and salty. Few plants vegetation on a sand dune.
can survive these extreme conditions but some can, 1 How do conditions differ between the shoreline and
including sea couch and marram grass. These are inland?
adapted to tolerate water with a high salt content, and 2 Explain why deposition occurs on the sand dunes.
high wind speeds, and they can survive burial by sand. 3 Suggest how human activities might affect the sand
dunes and/or the saltmarsh.
In fact, marram grass needs to be buried by fresh sand
in order to send out fresh shoots.
Once marram grass and sea couch are established on
the beach, they reduce the wind speed and this helps Coral reefs
trap fresh sand. As the sand builds up, these plants Coral reefs are calcium carbonate structures, made
send out new shoots, trapping more sand and building up of reef-building stony corals. Coral is limited
up a dune. Increasingly, the presence of plants in the to the depth that light can reach, so reefs develop
sand dune adds organic matter and moisture to the in shallow water, ranging to depths of 60 m. This
dune and allows other plants to grow, such as heather. dependence on light also means that reefs are only
The growth of new plants is called succession. Plants found where the surrounding waters contain relatively
such as heather cannot tolerate the dry, windy, salty small amounts of suspended material. Reef-building
conditions of the beach but can survive in the less corals live only in tropical seas, where temperature,
windy, moister, less salty dunes. They in turn alter salinity and clear water allow them to develop.
the environment so that other species can invade and There are many types of coral reef (Figure 2.73).
develop (Figure 2.72). On a sand dune over a distance » Fringing reefs are those that fringe the coast
of just a few hundred metres there may be as many as of a landmass (Figures 2.74 and 2.75). Many
four or five different types of ecosystem. fringing reefs grow along shores that are protected
by barrier reefs and are thus characterised by
organisms that are best adapted to low wave-
energy conditions.
» Barrier reefs occur at a greater distance from
the shore than fringing reefs and are commonly
separated from it by a wide, deep lagoon.
Barrier reefs tend to be broader, older and more
continuous than fringing reefs. For example, the
Beqa barrier reef off Fiji stretches unbroken for
more than 37 km, and that off Mayotte in the
Indian Ocean for around 18 km. The largest barrier
reef system in the world is the Great Barrier Reef,
which extends 1600 km along the east Australian
coast, usually tens of kilometres offshore. Another
long barrier reef is located in the Caribbean
off the coast of Belize between Mexico and
Guatemala.
» Atoll reefs rise from submerged volcanic
foundations. Atoll reefs are essentially
indistinguishable in form and species composition
from barrier reefs except that they are confined to
the flanks of submerged oceanic islands, whereas
barrier reefs may also flank continents. Over 300
atolls are present in the Indo-Pacific but only 10
▲ Figure 2.72 Sand dune vegetation
are found in the western Atlantic.
137

2.3 Coasts
Crater
Reef Sea level
1 2 3
Rocky volcanic islet encircled Reef enlarges as land sinks Circular coral reef or atoll
by fringing coral reef (or sea rises) (with further change in level)
▲ Figure 2.73 Formation of coral reefs
Coral reefs are often described as the ‘rainforests

of the sea’ on account of their rich biodiversity.
Some coral is believed to be 2 million years old,
although most is less than 10,000 years old. Coral
reefs contain nearly a million species of plants
and animals, and about 25 per cent of the world’s
sea fish breed, grow and evade predators in coral
reefs. Some of the world’s best coral reefs include
Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, many of the reefs
around the Philippines and Indonesia, Tanzania
and the Comoros, and the Lesser Antilles in the
Caribbean.
Coral reefs face many pressures. The fishing
industry now uses dynamite to flush out fish and
cyanide solution to catch live fish. Destruction
takes many forms — collection of specimens,
trampling, berthing of boats, oil spills, mining and
the cement industry. Indirect pressures include
sedimentation from rivers, and waste disposal
from urban areas. Coastal development, especially
for tourism, is taking its toll too. Dust storms
from the Sahara have introduced bacteria into
Caribbean coral, while global warming may cause
▲ Figure 2.74 A fringing reef on the south coast of Antigua coral bleaching. Bleaching occurs when high
temperatures kill the algae in coral, removing their
colour so the coral appears bleached. Many areas
of coral in the Indian Ocean were destroyed by the
2004 tsunami.
Coral reefs are of major biological and economic
importance. Countries such as Barbados, the
Seychelles and the Maldives rely on tourism based on
their reefs. Florida’s reefs attract tourism worth
$1.6 billion annually. The global value of coral reefs
in terms of fisheries, tourism and coastal protection
is estimated to be $375 billion.
▲ Figure 2.75 A fringing reef on the west coast of Antigua
138

Coastal hazards and opportunities
Mangroves also protect coastlines by absorbing the

Activities force of hurricanes and storms. They also act as
1 Under what conditions does coral grow? natural filters, absorbing nutrients from farming and
2 What is the difference between a fringing reef and a sewage disposal.
barrier reef?
3 How are atolls formed? Pressures on mangroves
4 Why are coral reefs so valuable?
5 What are the main threats to coral reefs?
Despite their value, many mangrove areas have been
lost to rice paddies and shrimp farms. As population
growth in coastal areas is set to increase, the fate
Mangroves of mangroves looks bleak. Already most Caribbean
Mangroves are salt-tolerant forests of trees and shrubs and South Pacific mangroves have disappeared, and
that grow in the tidal estuaries and coastal zones of India, West Africa and Southeast Asia have lost half
tropical areas (Figure 2.76). The muddy waters, rich of theirs (Table 2.13).
in nutrients from decaying leaves and wood, are home
Table 2.13 Mangrove losses
to a great variety of sponges, worms, crustaceans,
molluscs and algae. Mangroves cover about 25 per cent Thailand 185,000 ha (1960–91) to shrimp ponds
of the world’s tropical coastline, the largest being the Malaysia 235,000 ha (1980 and 1990) to shrimp ponds and
570,000 ha Sundarbans in Bangladesh. farming
Indonesia 269,000 ha (1960–90) to shrimp ponds
Vietnam 104,000 ha (1960–74) due to action by the US
army
Philippines 170,000 ha (1967–76) mostly to shrimp ponds
Bangladesh 74,000 ha (since 1975) largely to shrimp ponds
Guatemala 9500 ha (1965–84) to shrimp ponds and salt
farming
Mangroves and coral reefs

Mangroves and coral reefs are fundamentally
connected ecosystems. Mangroves protect coral reefs
from sedimentation from land-based sources, as
well as helping to keep the water clear of particles
and nutrients. Both of these functions are necessary
to maintain reef health. Mangroves also provide
spawning and nursery areas for many animal species
that spend their adult lives on the reefs. In return,
the coral reefs provide shelter for the mangroves
and their inhabitants, while the calcium carbonate
eroded from the reef provides sediment in which the
mangroves grow.
▲ Figure 2.76 Mangrove swamps

Coastal hazards and
The value of mangroves opportunities
Mangroves have many uses, such as providing large Coastal areas offer many opportunities to people.
quantities of food and fuel, building materials and However, actions in coastal areas may cause new
medicine. One hectare of mangrove in the Philippines problems. These are summarised in Table 2.14.
can yield 400 kg of fish and 75 kg of shrimp.
139

2.3 Coasts
Table 2.14 Relationships between human activities and coastal zone problems
Human activity Agents/consequences Coastal zone problems

Urbanisation and Land use changes, such as: ports and airports; Loss of habitats and species diversity; visual intrusion;
transport road, rail and air congestion; dredging and lowering of groundwater table; salt water intrusion;
disposal of harbour sediments; water abstraction; water pollution; human health risks; eutrophication;
waste water and waste disposal introduction of alien species
Agriculture Land reclamation; fertiliser and pesticide use; Loss of habitats and species diversity water pollution;
livestock densities; water abstraction eutrophication; river channelisation
Tourism, Development and land use changes, such as: Loss of habitats and species diversity; disturbance;
recreation and golf courses; road, rail and air congestion; ports visual intrusion; lowering of water table; salt water
hunting and marinas; water abstraction; waste water and intrusion in aquifers; water pollution; eutrophication;
waste disposal human health risks
Fisheries and Port construction; fish processing facilities; fishing Overfishing; impacts on non-target species; litter
aquaculture gear; fish farm effluents and oil on beaches; water pollution; eutrophication;
introduction of alien species; habitat damage and
change in marine communities
Industry Land use changes; power stations; extraction Loss of habitats and species diversity; water pollution;
(including energy of natural resources; process effluents; cooling eutrophication; thermal pollution; visual intrusion;
production) water; windmills; river impoundment; tidal decreased input of fresh water and sediment to coastal
barrages zones; coastal erosion
Case study: Erosion of the USA’s eastern seaboard

Many beaches along the east coast of America have • Erosion and tourism-related developments — erosion
disappeared since 1900, such as that at Marshfield, is evident at many places along the coasts of the
Massachusetts. As the sea level rises, the beaches and Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. Major resorts such as
barrier islands (barrier beaches) that line the coasts of Miami Beach and Atlantic City have pumped in dredged
the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, from New York sand to replenish eroded beaches. Erosion threatens
to the Mexican border, are in retreat. islands to the north and south of Cape Canaveral,
The problem is that much of the shore cannot retreat although the Cape itself appears safe. Resorts built on
naturally because industries and properties worth billions barrier beaches in Virginia, Maryland and New Jersey
of dollars have been built here. Many important cities and have also suffered major erosion.
tourist centres, such as Miami, Atlantic City and Galveston • Rates of erosion — overall losses are not well known.
(Texas), are sited on barrier islands. Consequently, many Massachusetts loses about 26 hectares a year to rising
shoreline communities have built sea walls and other seas. Nearly 10 per cent of that loss is from the island
protective structures to protect them from the power of of Nantucket, south of Cape Cod. However, these
destructive waves. losses are minimal compared with Louisiana, which is
losing 40 hectares of wetlands a day — about 15,000
• Relief — the flat topography of the coastal plains from
hectares a year.
New Jersey southward means that a small rise in sea
level can allow the ocean to advance a long way inland.
• Changing sea levels — much of the North American
Case study analysis
coast is sinking relative to the ocean, so local sea levels 1 Why are beaches on the eastern seaboard of the USA
are rising faster than global averages. The level of tides retreating?
along the coasts shows that subsidence varies between 2 What has been done to reduce erosion of barrier
0.5 mm and 19.5 mm a year. By contrast, the west coast, beaches?
in particular Alaska, is rising. 3 What proportion of Americans live within 100 km of the
• Coastal development — extensive coastal development coast?
has accelerated erosion. While sea level rises, 4 By how much is the east coast subsiding each year?
apartment blocks, resorts and second homes have 5 How much land is being lost to rising sea levels each
developed rapidly along the shoreline. By 1990, 75 year?
per cent of Americans lived within 100 km of a coast
(including the Great Lakes).
140

Tropical storms westward-flowing air just north of the equator

(known as an easterly wave). They begin life as
A hurricane is one of the most dangerous natural small-scale tropical depressions — localised areas
hazards to people and the environment. Damage is of low pressure that cause warm air to rise. These
caused by high winds, floods and storm surges. In trigger thunderstorms that persist for at least
Asia, hurricanes are also known as tropical cyclones. 24 hours and may develop into tropical storms,
Hurricanes are intense hazards that bring heavy which have greater wind speeds of up to 118 km/hr
rainfall, strong winds and high waves, and they (74 mph). However, only about 10 per cent of tropical
cause other hazards such as flooding and mudslides. disturbances ever become hurricanes — storms with
Hurricanes are also characterised by enormous wind speeds of over 118 km/hr.
quantities of water. This is due to their origin over For hurricanes to form, a number of conditions are
moist tropical seas. High-intensity rainfall with needed:
totals of up to 500 mm in 24 hours invariably causes,
flooding. The path of a hurricane is erratic, so it is not » Sea temperatures must be over 27°C to a depth of
always possible to give more than 12 hours’ notice. 60 m (warm water gives off large quantities of heat
This is insufficient for proper evacuation measures. when it is condensed; this is the heat that drives
Hurricanes develop as intense low-pressure systems the hurricane).
over tropical oceans (Figure 2.77). Winds spiral rapidly » The low-pressure area has to be far enough away
around a calm central area known as the eye. The from the equator so that the Coriolis force (the
diameter of the whole hurricane may be as much as force caused by the rotation of the Earth) creates
800 km, although the very strong winds that cause most rotation in the rising air mass. If it is too close
of the damage are found in a narrower belt up to 300 km to the equator there is insufficient rotation and a
wide. In a mature hurricane, pressure may fall to as low hurricane will not develop.
as 880 millibars. This very low pressure, and the strong » Conditions must be unstable: some tropical low-
contrast in pressure between the eye and outer part of pressure systems develop into hurricanes, but not
the hurricane, leads to strong, gale-force winds. all of them, and scientists are unsure why some do
Hurricanes move excess heat from low latitudes but others do not.
to higher latitudes. They normally develop in the
Average annual frequency

0.1–0.9
1.0–2.9
3.0 and more
Average tracks
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
▲ Figure 2.77 The distribution of hurricanes
141

2.3 Coasts
Impacts of hurricanes Hurricane Frances in 2004, but 2000 were taken

The Saffir-Simpson scale, developed by the National by Jeanne when it was still categorised as just
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, assigns a ‘tropical storm’ and had not yet reached full
hurricanes to one of five categories of potential hurricane strength.
disaster (Table 2.15). The categories are based on » The distribution of the population throughout the
wind intensity: in order to be classified as a hurricane Caribbean islands increases the risk associated with
a tropical cyclone must have maximum sustained hurricanes. Much of the population lives in coastal
winds of over 118 km/hr. The classification is used settlements and is exposed to higher sea levels
for hurricanes forming in the Atlantic and northern and the risk of flooding.
Pacific — other areas use different scales. » Hazard mitigation depends on the effectiveness
of the human response to natural events. This
» The unpredictability of hurricane paths makes the includes urban planning laws, emergency planning,
effective management of hurricanes difficult. It was evacuation measures and relief operations, such as
fortunate for Jamaica that Hurricane Ivan (2004) rehousing schemes and the distribution of food aid
suddenly changed course away from the most densely and clean water.
populated parts of the island, where it had been » Developing countries continue to lose more lives to
expected to hit. In contrast, it was unfortunate for natural hazards as a result of inadequate planning
Florida’s Punta Gorda when Hurricane Charley (2004) and preparation. By contrast, insurance costs
moved away from its predicted path. continue to be greatest in American states such
» The strongest storms do not always cause the as Florida, where multi-million-dollar waterfront
greatest damage. Only six lives were lost to homes proliferate.
Table 2.15 The Saffir-Simpson scale
Type Hurricane category Damage Pressure (mb) Wind speed Storm surge
(km/hr) (metres above
normal)
Depression – – – < 56 –
Tropical storm – – – 57–118 –
Hurricane 1 Minimal > 980 119–53 1.2–1.5
Hurricane 2 Moderate 965–79 154–77 1.6–2.5
Hurricane 3 Extensive 945–64 178–209 2.6–3.6
Hurricane 4 Extreme 920–44 210–49 3.7–5.5
Hurricane 5 Catastrophic < 920 > 250 > 5.5
a b c
▲ Figure 2.78 Hurricane management strategies: (a) hurricane shelter, Cuba; (b and c) steel shutters over windows
142

Case study: Typhoon Haiyan
Guangxi
Hanoi Nov 11
Nov 8–9
7 dead (Confirmed)
LAOS Hainan
1774 dead (Confirmed)
Danang
Nov 11 Over 10,000 dead (Confirmed)
14 dead (Confirmed)
THAILAND
Manila
PHILIPPINES
VIETNAM
CAMBODIA Path of
Typhoon Haiyan Tacloban
Palo
▲ Figure 2.79 The path of Typhoon Haiyan
The term ‘hurricane’ is used in the Atlantic and northeast Satellite images showed normally green patches of
Pacific, ‘typhoon’ in the northwest Pacific, and ‘cyclone’ in vegetation ripped up into brown squares of debris in
the South Pacific and Indian Ocean. Tacloban, where a local television station broadcast images
At least 6000 people were killed in the central of huge storm surges, flattened buildings and families
Philippine province of Leyte when Typhoon Haiyan, one wading through flooded streets with their possessions held
of the strongest storms ever to make landfall, struck the high above the water. Those living in the hardest-hit areas,
Philippines in November 2013 (Figure 2.79). The super- such as the eastern Visayas, are among the poorest in the
typhoon brought winds of up to 315 km/hr (195 mph), Philippines. Many have little or no savings, so the typhoon
tearing roofs off buildings, turning roads into rivers full of put an already vulnerable population at even greater risk
debris, and knocking out electricity pylons. of future food and job insecurity. On Bohol Island, where a
About 70–80 per cent of the buildings in the area in 7.3 magnitude earthquake had killed some 200 people in
the path of Haiyan in Leyte province were destroyed. October 2013, residents were successfully evacuated ahead
Tacloban, the provincial capital of Leyte, had a population of the storm. However, because the island’s main power
of over 200,000. The storm surge caused sea waters to supply comes from neighbouring Leyte, residents were left
rise by over 6 m when the typhoon hit. Power was knocked without electricity or water. In Tacloban, the sheer force of
out and there was no mobile phone signal, making the storm was just too much for some evacuation centres,
communication possible only by radio. which collapsed.
With many provinces left without power or The Philippines experiences about 20 typhoons every
telecommunications, and airports in the hardest-hit areas year. In 2012 Typhoon Bopha killed more than 1100 people
such as Tacloban closed, it was impossible to know the and caused over $1 billion in damage.
full extent of the storm’s damage — or to provide badly
needed aid. Government figures showed that more than
4 million people had been directly affected. The World
How does Typhoon Haiyan compare with
Food Programme mobilised some $2 million in aid and other tropical cyclones?
aimed to deliver 40 tonnes of fortified biscuits to victims Typhoon Haiyan, described as the strongest tropical
within days. Estimates of the economic cost are about cyclone to make landfall in recorded history, hit the
$15 billion. Many countries pledged aid to the Philippines, Philippines with winds of 314 km/hr and gusts of up to
including the UK (US$131m), Japan (US$52m), Canada 378 km/hr — the fourth strongest typhoon ever recorded
(US$40m) and the USA (US$37m). (Table 2.16), but the strongest to reach landfall.
143

2.3 Coasts
Table 2.16 The strongest tropical cyclones in world history

Super-typhoon Year Windspeed (km/hr) Pressure (mb) Landfall
Nancy 1961 346 882 Made landfall in Japan as a category 2 storm, killing 191 people
Violet 1961 330 886 Made landfall in Japan as a tropical storm, killing 2 people
Ida 1958 322 877 Made landfall in Japan as a category 1 storm, killing 1269 people
Haiyan 2013 314 895 Made landfall in the Philippines at peak strength
Kit 1966 314 880 Did not make landfall
Sally 1961 314 895 Made landfall in the Philippines as a category 4 storm
Note: Some of the data from the 1940s and the 1960s may have over-estimated wind speeds.
Case study analysis

1 State the main country affected by Typhoon Haiyan. 3 Describe the main impacts of Typhoon Haiyan.
2 State the maximum wind speeds experienced during 4 Compare the wind speed of Typhoon Haiyan with the
Typhoon Haiyan. other strongest tropical cyclones.
Activities Hard engineering structures

1 Describe the distribution of hurricanes shown in
The effectiveness of sea walls depends on their cost
Figure 2.77. and their performance. Their function is to prevent
2 Outline the main changes that occur as hurricane erosion and flooding, but much depends on:
intensity increases.
3 Suggest reasons why the impacts of hurricanes vary » whether they are sloping or vertical
from place to place. » whether they are permeable or impermeable
» whether they are rough or smooth
» what material they are made of (clay, steel or rock,
Coastal management for example).
Human pressures on coastal environments create the
In general, flatter, permeable, rougher walls perform
need for a variety of coastal management strategies
better than vertical, impermeable, smooth walls.
(Table 2.17 and Figure 2.80). Coastal defence protects
Cross-shore structures such as groynes,
against coastal erosion and flooding by the sea.
breakwaters, piers and strongpoints have been
Coastal management strategies may be long-term or
used for decades. Their main function is to stop
short-term, sustainable or non-sustainable. Successful
the drifting of material. Traditionally, groynes were
management strategies require a detailed knowledge
constructed from timber, brushwood and wattle.
of coastal processes. Rising sea levels, more frequent
However, modern cross-shore structures are often
storm activity, and continuing coastal development are
made from rock. They may be part of a more complex
likely to increase the need for coastal management.
form of management that includes beach nourishment
Defence options include:
and offshore structures.
» do nothing Managed retreat allows nature to take its course —
» maintain existing levels of coastal defence erosion in some areas, deposition in others. Benefits
» improve coastal defences include less money being spent, and the creation of
» allow retreat of the coast in selected areas. natural environments.
a b
▲ Figure 2.80 Coastal defence. (a) Gabions and cliff regrading, Brunei, (b) rock strong point (fortified groyne, Norfolk, UK)
144

Coastal management
Table 2.17 Different forms of coastal management
Type of management Aims/methods Strengths Weaknesses
Hard engineering To control natural processes
Cliff base To stop cliff or beach erosion

management
Sea walls Large-scale concrete curved walls Easily made; good in areas of Expensive; life span about
designed to reflect wave energy high density 30–40 years; foundations may be
undermined
Revetments Porous design to absorb wave Easily made; cheaper than sea Life span limited
energy walls
Gabions Rocks held in wire cages Cheaper than sea walls and Small scale
absorbs wave energy revetments
Groynes To prevent longshore drift Relatively low cost; easily Cause erosion on downdrift side;
repaired interrupt sediment flow
Rock armour Large rocks at base of cliff to Cheap Unattractive; small-scale; may be
absorb wave energy removed in heavy storms
Offshore breakwaters Reduce wave power offshore Cheap to build Disrupt local ecology
Rock strongpoints To reduce longshore drift Relatively low cost; easily Disrupt longshore drift; erosion
repaired downdrift
Cliff face strategies To reduce the impacts of sub-aerial

processes
Cliff drainage Removal of water from rocks in Cost-effective Drains may become new lines of
the cliff weakness; dry cliffs may produce
rockfalls
Vegetation To increase interception and reduce Relatively cheap May increase moisture content of
overland runoff soil and lead to landslides
Cliff regrading Lowering of slope angle to make Useful on clay (most other Uses large amounts of land —
cliff safer measures are not) impractical in heavily populated
areas
Soft engineering Working with nature
Offshore reefs Waste materials, e.g. old tyres Low technology and relatively Long-term impacts unknown
weighted down, to reduce speed of cost-effective
incoming wave
Beach nourishment Sand pumped from sea bed to Looks natural Expensive; short-term solution
replace eroded sand
Managed retreat Coastline allowed to retreat in Cost-effective; maintains a Unpopular; political implications
certain places natural coastline
‘Do nothing’ Accept that nature will win Cost-effective! Unpopular; political implications
Red-lining Planning permission withdrawn; Cost-effective Unpopular; political implications

new line of defences set back from
existing coastline
145

2.3 Coasts
Case study: Miami Beach

Miami Beach is a barrier island with a long history
0 5 km
of human intervention. Human interference in the
Miami area resulted in the almost complete removal Beach Bakers
of its beach. Channels through the beach, groynes, restoration Haulover
dredging and sea walls all affected the beach so scheme
that, by the 1950s, very little of the beach remained.
Miami is a very popular place with tourists and
the elderly. Given the importance of tourism to the
area, it was crucial that the beach was replenished
and protected. During the late 1970s and 1980 the
US Army Corps of Engineers built an 18 km long, Miami
200 m wide beach. Essentially it resembled a natural Beach
beach with a shallow, shelving seaward edge and
a rampart at the landward side (Figure 2.81). Over Port Government
18 million m3 of sand were needed to make the Cut
beach, and up to 750,000 m3 of sand have to be
ay
Atlantic Ocean
e B
replenished each year.
ayn
Biscayne Bay
Bisc
Rampart Berm Shallow shelving
terrace near shore zone Cape
HWM
LWM Florida
▲ Figure 2.81 Beach nourishment, Miami
Case study: The Palisadoes Peninsula Shoreline Development Plan

Over the years, consistent storm surges that occur as a result to withstand storm surges that are only anticipated to
of natural disasters such as flood rains, including those re-occur, on average, once in every 100 years.
accompanying tropical storms and hurricanes, have led to In October 2012, Kingston was affected by Hurricane
massive erosion of the Palisadoes peninsula’s natural dunes. Sandy. This caused massive storm surges. Following
The Jamaican government partnered with the China ‘Superstorm Sandy’, as it came to be known, experts
Harbour Engineering Company (CHEC) to repair and claimed that businesses along the Kingston Harbour could
protect the extensively degraded shoreline of the have suffered significant damage during the passage of
Palisadoes peninsula. At a cost of over $65 million, CHEC the hurricane, but that the protection scheme had proved
constructed rock revetment walls on the seaward side of very effective.
the peninsula, and at the harbour.
The road was raised from its previous levels of 0.6–
Case study analysis
1.0 m, to 2.4–3.2 m above sea level. Additional drainage 1 Which natural hazards does the Palisadoes experience?
facilities were placed along the roadway — this was 2 a Which country provided financial aid to Jamaica to
needed to remove excess water from rainfall and from build the defences?
over-topping by waves. A 10 m-wide boardwalk was b Describe the coastal protection measures that were
constructed on the harbour side of the peninsula. put in place.
These works along the peninsula have been designed for a 3 What level of protection is provided by the new
100-year return period — that is, the shoreline is expected defences?
Activities
1 Identify the coastal defence strategies illustrated in after the groynes’ construction. Suggest reasons to
Figure 2.80. support your answer.
2 Define the term ‘coastal management’. 5 a What are the benefits of sea walls?
3 Distinguish between hard engineering and soft b Outline some of the disadvantages of using sea
engineering. walls as a form of coastal management.
4 a What is a groyne? 6 For a coastal area you have studied, describe how
b Using a sketch diagram, suggest the likely the coastline is being protected, and comment on the
distribution of sediment around groynes 50 years effectiveness of the measures used.
146

Opportunities and impacts — tourism
Opportunities and impacts — tourism

Case study: St Lucia
Tourism is extremely important to the economic growth of
many countries. St Lucia and Antigua in the Caribbean are
two such countries. The tourist industry generates a large
number of jobs, for example in hotels and restaurants, as
tour guides, as well as in supporting services: farmers,
retailers, taxi operators and so on. It is therefore an
important money earner for national governments,
businesses and for individual workers and their dependants.
There are many conflicts between those who wish to
develop tourism and, for example, environmentalists,
fishermen and local people who risk losing their access
to water supplies. The construction of buildings has the
greatest impact on the environment (Figure 2.82). Most
of the hotels built in St Lucia are on the beach front, and
the clearing of land has led to slope instability, erosion ▲ Figure 2.83 The effects of tourism in St Lucia
and sedimentation of the shallow offshore environment.
These developments have had a negative impact on the Solid and liquid waste disposal are now among the
nesting grounds of endangered turtles, for example. Over- greatest environmental challenges facing St Lucia. This
exploitation of sand has led to significant increases in reduces the attractiveness of the tourist experience and
beach erosion and environmental degradation. Although raises issues about standards of health, the freshwater
many hotels are artificially replenishing the beaches, the and marine environment, and the aesthetics of the
introduced sand is rapidly eroded and causes problems island.
for offshore coral reefs, which require clear water. The discharge of poorly treated wastewater into coastal
The building of the Pointe Seraphine cruise facility waters poses environmental and health risks. Nutrient
altered wave and swell patterns significantly in the loading in the sea has led to the decline and loss of corals.
harbour. At Gros Inlet, wetlands were destroyed to make The discharge of sewage by yachts also contributes to
way for buildings and an artificial lagoon to expand inshore marine pollution.
the Rodney Bay resort (Figure 2.83). The results of the Scuba diving is increasing and efforts have been
reclamation were unforeseen: the ebb and flood tide made to minimise the impact of divers on coral reefs.
patterns were modified, creating stronger currents, which The development of marine leisure craft facilities has
increased erosion on nearby beaches. In addition, local led to the loss of mangrove swamps. Boating activities
fisheries declined as the offshore waters became murkier also damage the marine environment. The lack of
— and the problem of sand flies remained. holding tanks causes water pollution through sewage
disposal from craft. Dropping anchors on coral is also a
problem.
Case study analysis

1 Outline the advantages of tourism to St Lucia.
2 Explain why fisheries have declined as a result of
tourist developments.
3 Outline the impacts of tourist developments on natural
vegetation.
4 Explain briefly how tourist development can affect
offshore developments.
▲ Figure 2.82 Development for tourism in St Lucia
147

2.3 Coasts
Coastal development
Case study: Dubai
Coastal reclamation in the United Arab Emirates has been some countries in the region are now developed. The change
developing on a large scale since 2001. Two palm-shaped is happening more quickly, and with greater environmental
artificial islands, Palm Jumeirah (Figure 2.84) and Palm impact, than in any other coastal region.
Jebel Ali, were completed in 2007, and in 2003 plans were To create the islands for Palm Jumeirah, some
unveiled for a third palm-shaped island, Palm Deira, and 94 million m3 of sediment were dredged from the sea.
‘The World’, a collection of over 300 islands, each one in Such large-scale projects are changing the ecology in
the shape of a country. ways that will become clear in the coming decades.
Palm Jumeirah not only created a new shoreline, but One of the problems is water circulation. Water around
it also became the centre for world-class hotels, over some parts of the islands can remain almost stationary for
200 shopping outlets, and a range of luxury housing and several weeks. This increases the risk of algal blooms. In
leisure and entertainment developments. An Environmental addition, the fish that have colonised the new environment
Impact Assessment (EIA) was carried out to investigate are invasive species (species from outside the area).
likely environmental impacts. Water circulation and quality The Gulf region has already lost 70 per cent of its coral
studies were investigated, to ensure that the project did not reefs since 2001, and most of the remaining reefs are
lead to a deterioration in environmental quality. threatened or degraded. Construction of Dubai’s Palm
According to a report in the journal Nature, uncontrolled Jebel Ali, an even larger artificial archipelago, has already
development, weak regulatory oversight and a lack of destroyed 8 km2 of natural reef.
scientific monitoring are seriously threatening ecosystems
along this coast. Sea-front projects ranging from desalination
Case study analysis
plants to artificial islands in the gulf between the Arabian 1 When were Palm Jumeirah and Palm Jebel Ali completed?
Peninsula and Iran have transformed the entire coastline in 2 Describe the developments on Palm Jumeirah.
the past few decades. More than 40 per cent of the shores of 3 Outline the environmental impacts of Palm Jumeirah.
▲ Figure 2.84 Coastal development in Dubai
Activities
1 Outline the range of opportunities in a named coastal
area.
2 Describe how coastal activities can have unwanted
impacts on the coastal environment.
3 Using Table 2.17 on page 145, suggest ways in which
unwanted impacts can be managed.
148

2.4 Weather
Key questions
H How are weather data collected?
H How can the data be used to describe the weather?
H How do graphs and other diagrams show weather data?
kept in a Stevenson screen — see Figure 2.86), a

rain gauge, barometer, wind vane, anemometer and
sunshine recorder.
Whichever instruments are used, ideally they
should have good exposure (that is, they should
be sited away from buildings, fences, trees and
other obstacles). The flat top of a science block is a
favoured location in many schools.
» Thermometers should be placed in the shade.
Ideally, they should be in a Stevenson screen or
slatted box. If this is not available they could be
hung on a shaded wall or fence.
» Rain gauges should be away from walls, fences and
bushes as these affect the amount of rain caught
in the rain gauge.
» Wind instruments should be well clear of walls,
fences and houses as these cause eddies that spoil
the reading and make the direction difficult to
Figure 2.85 ▶ assess.
Clouds formed
by convectional It is important that readings are taken at the same
uplift time each day.
The Stevenson screen is a wooden box standing
on four legs at a height of about 120 cm. The
Measuring the weather screen is built so that the shade temperature of
the air can be measured. The sides of the box are
The weather station slatted to allow free entry of air, and the roof is
A weather station is a place where the elements of made of double boarding to prevent the Sun’s heat
weather, such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, from reaching the inside of the screen. Insulation
air pressure, wind direction and velocity, sunshine is further improved by painting the outside of the
and cloud cover are measured and recorded as screen white so as to reflect much of the Sun’s
accurately as possible. The weather station is energy. The screen is usually placed on a grass-
placed on an open piece of land and it contains covered surface, thereby reducing the radiation of
the following instruments: thermometers (ideally heat from the ground.
149

2.4 Weather
Meteorologists measure shade temperature.

This is less variable than air temperature, which
is affected by cloud cover and direct insolation.
Temperature is measured using a thermometer.
A continuous temperature reading is given by a
thermograph.
» Maximum thermometer — When the
temperature rises, the mercury in the
thermometer expands and pushes the index
along the tube. When the temperature falls, the
mercury contracts but the index stays where it
was pushed to by the mercury. The maximum
temperature is obtained by reading the scale
at the point where the index is. The index is
then drawn back to the mercury by a magnet for
Figure 2.86 ▶ measuring the next reading.
A Stevenson » Minimum thermometer — When the temperature
screen
falls, the alcohol contracts and its meniscus pulls
the index along the tube. When the temperature
Instruments kept inside the Stevenson screen include rises, the alcohol expands. It is read in the same
a maximum-minimum thermometer (or Six’s way as the maximum thermometer.
thermometer) and a wet- and dry-bulb thermometer
(also called a hygrometer) — see Figures 2.87 and 2.89. A Six’s thermometer (Figure 2.87d) can be used to
Instruments kept outside the Stevenson screen measure maximum and minimum temperatures at the
include a rain gauge, a wind vane to determine wind same time.
direction, and an anemometer to assess wind speed. The daily readings of the maximum and
minimum thermometers are used to work out the
Measuring temperature average or mean temperature for one day (this
Variations in temperature represent responses to is called the mean daily temperature) and the
differences in insolation, or the amount of energy temperature range for one day (the daily or diurnal
received from the Sun at different times. temperature range).
Airspace between roof layers Rain gauge

forms a poor conductor of heat mm
Minimum Maximum
Louvres – air 100
12.8 cm Funnel
enters and 90
leaves via 80
the louvres Container °C °C
Maximum 70 30 cm
–25 Alcohol 40
60
Minimum Can –20 35
50
Dry bulb –15 Metal 30
Air 40 –10 index 25
Wet bulb 30 –5 20
Jar 0 15
20
5 10
10 10 5
a Stevenson screen Metal
0 15 0
Ground index
20 –5
freely rotating Measuring cylinder 25 –10
Position of rain gauge in 30 –15
the ground. Only the 35 Mercury –20
bottom of the cylinder is 40 –25
W N
shown. A typical cylinder is
S E graduated up to 100 mm.
b Wind vane c Rain gauge d Six’s thermometer

▲ Figure 2.87 Equipment in a weather station
150

Measuring the weather
To find the mean daily temperature, the maximum

and minimum temperatures for one day are added
together and then halved. For example: (maximum
temperature, 35°C + minimum temperature, 25°C)/2
= mean daily temperature, 30°C. The sum of the
daily mean temperatures for one month divided by
the number of days for that month gives the mean
monthly temperature. The sum of the mean monthly
temperatures divided by 12 gives the mean annual
temperature.
The daily or diurnal temperature range is found
by subtracting the minimum temperature from
the maximum temperature for any one day. For
example: maximum temperature, 35°C − minimum
temperature 25°C = daily or diurnal temperature
range, 10°C.
The highest mean monthly temperature minus
the lowest mean monthly temperature gives the
mean annual temperature range. For example,
Lagos has a mean maximum temperature of 27.5°C
(March), and a mean minimum temperature of
24.5°C (August). Its mean annual temperature
▲ Figure 2.88 Rain gauge
range is therefore 3°C.
Rain falling over the funnel collects in the jar. This is
Interesting note emptied, usually every 24 hours, and measured in a
tapered glass measure, graduated in millimetres. The
The highest temperature recorded was at Furnace tapered end of the jar enables very small amounts of
Creek, California, USA in 1913 when it reached rain to be measured accurately.
56.7°C. In contrast, the lowest temperature The rainfall recorded for a place, either for a day,
recorded was −89.2°C in Antarctica in 1983. week, month or year, can be shown on a map. This is
done using lines called isohyets. An isohyet is a line
on a map that joins places of equal rainfall.
Measuring rainfall It is important to check the rain gauge every day,
A rain gauge is used to measure rainfall. It consists preferably at the same time, even if there has not
of a cylinder in which there is a collecting can been any rainfall. This is because small amounts of
containing a glass or plastic jar, and a funnel that fits dew may accumulate in the gauge, leading to false
in the top of the container. The gauge is placed in an readings when it does rain.
open space so that only raindrops enter the funnel
of the gauge, and no runoff from trees, buildings or
other objects can get into the funnel. The gauge is Interesting note
sunk into the ground so that the top of the funnel The highest rainfall over a 24-hour period was in
is about 30 cm above ground level (Figures 2.87c Foc-Foc, Réunion, when 1.825 m of rain fell. The
and 2.88). This is to prevent the Sun’s heat from largest 1-minute burst of rainfall was 31.2 mm in
evaporating any water collected and to ensure no rain
Unionville, Maryland, USA in 1956.
splashes up from the ground into the funnel.
151

2.4 Weather
Measuring relative humidity The spring contracts and expands with changes in
atmospheric pressure. These changes are magnified by
Wet- and dry-bulb thermometers are used to
a series of levers and the movements are conveyed to
measure relative humidity. The dry-bulb is a glass
a pointer, which moves across a calibrated scale.
thermometer that records the actual air temperature.
A barograph is a tracing from an aneroid barometer,
The wet-bulb is a similar thermometer, but with the
bulb enclosed in a muslin bag which is dipped into
a bottle of water (Figure 2.89). This thermometer
measures the wet-bulb temperature, which, unless
the relative humidity is close to 100 per cent, is
generally lower than the dry-bulb temperature.
Wet Dry
°C °C
43 43
38 38
32 32
27 27
21 21
16 16
10 10
4 4
–1 –1
–7 –7
–12 –12
–18 –18
Muslin
Figure 2.89 Wet- ▲ Figure 2.90 A simple barometer
Container
and dry-bulb
Water which records continuously for one week. Changes in
thermometer
pressure are recorded by a flexible arm, which traces
an ink line on a rotating paper-covered drum. The
Measuring air pressure, wind paper is divided by vertical lines at 2-hour intervals.
speed and direction The atmospheric pressure is recorded at numerous
Because air has weight it exerts a pressure on the weather stations for a region and these are plotted
Earth’s surface. At sea level the pressure is about on a map of the region. First, though, the pressures
1.03 kg/cm2. Pressure varies with temperature are ‘reduced’ to sea level — that is, they are adjusted
and altitude, and is usually measured in millibars. to what they would be if the stations were at sea
The instrument that measures pressure is called a level. The pressures are plotted on a map. Lines are
barometer (Figure 2.90) then drawn through points where pressure is the
A mercury barometer is a hollow tube from which same. These lines are called isobars.
the air is extracted before the open end is placed in The wind vane is used to indicate wind direction.
a bath of mercury. Mercury is forced up the tube by It consists of a horizontal rotating arm pivoted on
the pressure of the atmosphere on the mercury in a vertical shaft. The rotating arm has a tail at one
the bath. When the pressure of the mercury in the end and a pointer at the other. When the wind blows,
tube balances the pressure of the air on the exposed the arm swings until the pointer faces the wind. The
mercury, the mercury in the tube stops rising. The directions north, east, south and west are marked on
height of the column of mercury changes as air the arms, which are rigidly fixed to the shaft.
pressure changes: it rises when air pressure increases The speed of the wind is measured by an
and falls when air pressure decreases. anemometer (Figure 2.91), which consists of three or
An aneroid barometer is a vacuum chamber in four metal cups fixed to metal arms that rotate freely
the form of a small metal cylinder. Inside, a strong on a vertical shaft. When there is a wind, the cups
metal spring prevents the chamber from collapsing. rotate. The stronger the wind, the faster the rotation.
152

Measuring the weather
The number of rotations is recorded on a meter to N

NNW NNE
give the speed of the wind in km/hr.
The wind vane and anemometer are placed well NW NE
away from any buildings or trees that may interfere
with the free movement of air. Buildings may channel
air through narrow passages between two buildings, WNW ENE
or decrease the flow of air by blocking its path. Trees

have a similar effect.
W E
WSW ESE
Wind speed SW SE
(m/s)
0.1–9 SSW SSE
S
10–19
20–29
30+
Calm conditions shown in

centre of wind rose
▲ Figure 2.92 A wind rose
Measuring sunshine hours

The number of hours and minutes of sunshine received
at a place can be measured and recorded by a sunshine
recorder. This is a glass sphere partly surrounded by a
metal frame (Figure 2.93). A strip of special card, divided
up into hours and minutes, is placed below the sphere.
When the sun shines, the sphere focuses the Sun’s rays
on the card. As the Sun moves, the rays burn a trace on
the card. At the end of the day, the card is removed and
replaced. The length of the trace represents the amount
▲ Figure 2.91 An anemometer of sunshine that the location received.
Winds are shown by arrows on a weather map.

The shaft of the arrow shows wind direction and
the feathers on the shaft indicate wind velocity.
The tip of the arrow, at the opposite end from the
feathers, points to the direction in which the wind
is blowing.
Wind direction for a specific place can be
shown on a wind rose (Figure 2.92). It is made
up of a circle from which rectangles radiate. The
directions of the rectangles represent the points
of the compass. The lengths of the rectangles are
determined by the number of days/times the wind
blows from that direction. The number of days/times
(hours) when there is no wind is recorded in the
centre of the rose. ▲ Figure 2.93 Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder
153

2.4 Weather
crystals, and have a base between 2000 m and

Activities 7000 m. These are decribed as:
1 Describe and explain the main characteristics of a
Stevenson screen.
» altocumulus — layered, rippled elements, generally
2 What information does a Six’s thermometer show? white with some shading
3 Why are weather readings taken at the same time » altostratus — a thin, grey layer that allows
each day? sunshine to appear as if through ground glass.
4 Where is the best place to locate a rain gauge? Briefly
explain why. Low clouds are usually composed of water
5 How are wind speed and wind direction measured? droplets, although cumulonimbus clouds include
ice crystals, and have a base below 2000 m. These
are decribed as:
Recording the weather » stratocumulus — layered in a series of rounded
rolls; generally white with some shading
Clouds » stratus — layered, uniform base, grey
The ten main types of cloud can be separated into » nimbostratus — a thick, dark layer with a low
three broad categories according to the height of base; rain or snow may fall from it
their base above the ground: high clouds, medium » cumulus — individual cells; vertical rolls or towers
clouds and low clouds (Figure 2.94). with a flat base
High clouds are usually composed solely of ice » cumulonimbus — large, cauliflower-shaped
crystals and have a base between 5500 and 14,000 m. towers, often with ‘anvil tops’; sometimes giving
These are described as: thunderstorms or showers of rain or snow.
» cirrus — white filaments Cloud cover is measured in oktas (eighths). This is
» cirrocumulus — small, rippled elements made by a visual assessment of how much of the
» cirrostratus — a transparent sheet, often with a halo. sky is covered by cloud. For example, in Figure 2.85
on page 149 the sky has approximately 4/8 cloud
Medium clouds are usually composed of water cover.
droplets or a mixture of water droplets and ice
High clouds
Cirrus
12000
Halo
Cirrocumulus
Veil Cirrostratus
Anvil head
6000
Medium clouds
Height in metres
Altostratus Altocumulus
3000
Clouds with vertical development Low clouds
Cumulonimbus Cumulus
Cumulus of
1500
fair weather
Stratus
Nimbostratus
Ground Stratocumulus
0
▲ Figure 2.94 Cloud types
154

Recording the weather
Activities
Table 2.18 Daily weather observations at Frankston, Victoria (Australia), 1–7 August 2007
Date Day Temperature Rainfall Wind Wind speed Air pressure
Max. (°C) Min. (°C) (mm) direction (km/hr) (mb)
1 August W 14.2 9.7 4.0 N 22 1006
2 Th 13.4 11.5 0 N 37 1004
3 F 9.9 8.1 0 WNW 33 1011
4 S 11.5 7.2 0 WNW 31 1016
5 S 11.6 8.2 0 W 28 1019
6 M 12.7 9.5 20.2 W 20 1023
7 T 14.5 9.2 0 N 30 1019
Table 2.19 Daily weather observations at Frankston, Victoria (Australia), 1–7 February 2008
Date Day Temperature Rainfall Wind Wind speed Air pressure
Max. (°C) Min. (°C) (mm) direction (km/hr) (mb)
1 February F 25.6 11.7 6.8 SSE 15 1020
2 S 25.7 16.9 0 NNW 9 1016
3 S 27.6 17.9 0 SE 9 1016
4 M 29.1 19.9 0 ENE 11 1013
5 T 23.2 19.7 0 SW 13 1012
6 W 23.1 19.2 0 SW 19 1004
7 Th 17.9 15.7 8.4 SW 19 1005
Daily weather Wind direction and frequency

30 N
28 Key NNW NNE
26 Max temp
NW NE
24 Min temp
22 Rainfall
20 WNW ENE
Rainfall (mm)
18
16
°C
14 W 1 2 3 4E
12
10
8 20
WSW ESE
6 15
4 10
2 5 SW SE
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 SSW SSE
N
Figure 2.95 Daily weather, wind direction and frequency at Frankston, August 2007
The results recorded by a school in Victoria are shown in 2 State the maximum and minimum temperatures of
Tables 2.18 and 2.19. The data for the first week (August) the 7-day period in February.
are plotted in Figure 2.95. 3 Work out the mean minimum temperature and the
mean maximum temperature for the 7 days.
1 Plot the data for February using the same methods as
4 How much rain fell during the 7 days?
in Figure 2.95.
5 Compare the weather in February with that in August.
155

Key questions
H What are the main characteristics of equatorial and hot desert climates?
H What are the factors that influence equatorial and desert climates?
H What are the characteristics of tropical rainforest and hot desert ecosystems?
H What are the causes and impacts of the deforestation of tropical rainforest?
that is higher than the seasonal differences in

temperature
» mainly convectional rainfall, which may fall on as
many as 250 days each year
» variable cloud cover — in the morning it may
be limited but, by the afternoon, towering
cumulonimbus clouds mark the start of the
convectional rains
» reduced heat loss at night due to the presence of
clouds — hence the diurnal range is less than in
hot desert areas
» high humidity (moisture in the atmosphere) —
relative humidities of 100 per cent are often
▲ Figure 2.96 Tropical rainforest, Sarawak reached in the late afternoon
» reduced wind speeds within the rainforest due to
Equatorial and hot desert the large numbers of trees present.
climates The data for Manaus in Brazil (Table 2.20) show that
the warmest months are September and October, with
The main characteristics of an equatorial climate include: a mean monthly temperature of 34°C. In contrast, all
» hot conditions — generally above 26°C — of the months from December to September share the
throughout the year mean minimum monthly temperature of 24°C. Thus
» high levels of rainfall, often over 2000 mm the mean annual temperature range is 10°C.
» a lack of seasons — the temperatures are high Rainfall in Manaus is high — nearly 2100 mm.
throughout the year There is a definite wet season between November
» a difference between daytime and night-time and May, whereas the months of June to October are
temperatures (known as the diurnal range) relatively dry.
Table 2.20 Climate data for Manaus
J F M A M J J A S O N D Mean/total
Temperature
Daily max (°C) 31 31 31 31 31 31 32 33 34 34 33 32 32
Daily min (°C) 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 25 25 24 24
Average monthly (°C) 28 28 28 27 28 28 28 29 29 29 29 28 28
Rainfall
Monthly total (mm) 278 278 300 287 193 99 61 41 62 112 165 220 2096
Sunshine
Sunshine (hours) 3.9 4.0 3.6 3.9 5.4 6.9 7.9 8.2 7.5 6.6 5.9 4.9 5.7
156

Factors affecting climate
Table 2.21 Climate data for Cairo
J F M A M J J A S O N D Mean/total
Temperature
Daily max (°C) 19 21 24 28 32 35 35 35 33 30 26 21 28
Daily min (°C) 9 9 12 14 18 20 22 22 20 18 14 10 16
Average monthly (°C) 14 15 18 21 25 28 29 28 26 24 20 16 22
Rainfall
Monthly total (mm) 4 4 3 1 2 1 0 0 1 1 3 7 27
Sunshine
Sunshine (hours) 6.9 8.4 8.7 9.7 10.5 11.9 11.7 11.3 10.4 9.4 8.3 6.4 9.5
In contrast, the main characteristics of hot desert

climates include: Factors affecting climate
Many factors affect the temperature of a place. These
» very hot days and cold nights, caused by the lack include latitude, distance from the sea, the nature
of cloud cover of nearby ocean currents, altitude, dominant winds,
» low and irregular amounts of rainfall, which lack cloud cover and aspect. Differences in pressure
any seasonal pattern systems also affect whether it rains or whether it
» low levels of humidity for much of the year is dry.
» warm, dry winds, sometimes causing sandstorms.
The data for Cairo (Table 2.21) show that the highest Latitude
mean monthly temperatures are between June and On a global scale latitude is the most important
August, when the temperature reaches 35°C. In factor determining temperature (Figure 2.97). Two
contrast, the lowest mean monthly temperature is factors affect the temperature: the angle of the
in January, reaching just 9°C. Thus the temperature overhead Sun and the thickness of the atmosphere.
range is 26°C. There is a seasonal pattern to Firstly, at the equator the overhead Sun is high
temperature, with the highest values in the summer in the sky, hence high-intensity insolation is
and lowest readings in the winter. Rainfall figures received. By contrast, at the poles the overhead
are very low — just 27 mm. Sunshine levels are lower Sun is low in the sky, hence the quantity of energy
during the months when there is more rain (winter received is low. Secondly, the thickness of the
months between November and March). In general, atmosphere affects temperature. Radiation has
sunshine levels are much higher in Cairo — 9.5 hours more atmosphere to pass through near the poles,
per day compared with 5.7 hours per day in Manaus. due to its low angle of approach. Hence more
energy is lost, scattered or reflected here than over
Activities
Activities equatorial areas, making temperatures lower over
the poles.
1 In which months is the average temperature in Cairo
Equatorial climates have high temperatures
higher than in Manaus?
2 How much rain falls in Manaus in April? throughout the year on account of their location.
3 In which months is the minimum temperature in They also receive high levels of rainfall due to the
Cairo higher than that in Manaus? How do you explain daily convection. Hot deserts are hot due to their
this? tropical location, but receive low rainfall for a variety
4 Describe the variations in monthly sunshine levels in of reasons, including the presence of the subtropical
Manaus.
5 Suggest why there is a link between sunshine levels
high-pressure belt.
and rainfall.
6 What is the mean monthly temperature range in
Manaus and Cairo in:
a July
b December?
157

Latitude Distance from the sea

Near the poles insolation has Summer
more atmosphere to pass through Incoming heat
from the Sun
15°C (warm)
Coastal region
10 °C (cool) cooled by sea air
Land absorbs
Solar radiation Sea absorbs heat slowly heat quickly
(insolation)
Winter
Outgoing heat
from the Earth
0°C (cold)
Atmosphere Coastal region
5 °C (cool) warmed by sea air
Land loses
At the equator insolation is concentrated, but near the poles it is Sea loses heat slowly heat rapidly
dispersed over a wide area
▲ Figure 2.97 Factors that affect climate
Proximity to the sea winter. Areas that lie close to cold, upwelling ocean
currents, such as Namibia in Africa, may contain hot
The specific heat capacity is the amount of heat
deserts, such as the Namib desert. This is because
needed to raise the temperature of a body by 1°C.
the cold current cools the air above it, reducing the
Land heats and cools more quickly than water. It takes
amount of evaporation from the ocean, and producing
five times as much heat to raise the temperature of
dry conditions.
water by 1°C as it does to raise land temperatures.
Water also heats more slowly because: Altitude
» it is clear, so the Sun’s rays penetrate to great In general, air temperature decreases with increasing
depth, distributing energy over a wider area altitude. This is because air under the greater
» tides and currents cause the heat to be distributed pressure of lower altitudes is denser and therefore
further. warmer. As altitude increases, so the pressure on the
air is reduced and the air becomes cooler. The normal
Therefore, a greater volume of water is heated for
decrease of temperature with height is, on average,
every unit of energy than land, so water takes longer
10°C/km.
to heat up.
Distance from the sea therefore has an important Winds
influence on temperature. Water takes up heat and
The effects of wind on temperature depend on the
emits it much more slowly than the land. In mid
initial characteristics of the wind. In temperate
latitudes in winter air over sea is much warmer than
latitudes prevailing (dominant) winds from the land
over land, so onshore winds bring heat to the coastal
lower the winter temperatures, but raise them in
lands. By contrast, during the summer coastal areas
summer. This is because continental areas are very
remain much cooler than inland sites. Areas with a
hot in summer but very cold in winter. Prevailing
coastal influence are termed maritime or oceanic,
winds from the sea do the opposite — they lower the
whereas inland areas are called continental. Areas
summer temperatures and raise them in winter.
that are very far from the sea may be extremely arid,
such as parts of central North Africa. Cloud cover
Cloud cover decreases the amount of insolation
Ocean currents reaching the surface by reflecting some of it. Clouds
The effect of ocean currents on temperatures depends also reduce the amount of insolation leaving the
on whether the current is cold or warm. Warm surface by absorbing the radiation. If there is
currents from equatorial regions raise the temperature limited cloud then incoming shortwave radiation and
of polar areas (with the aid of prevailing westerly outgoing longwave radiation are at a maximum. This
winds). However, the effect is only noticeable in is the norm in many hot deserts.
158

Tropical rainforests
Pressure as farming and logging. The result is that rainforests

are disappearing and those that remain are not only
In low-pressure systems air is rising. Low pressure
smaller, but broken up into fragments.
produces rain as the air may rise high enough, cool,
condense and form clouds and rain. This can happen
in very warm areas, such as in equatorial areas, at Interesting note
mountain barriers and at weather fronts, when warm
Tropical rainforests cover 6 per cent of the world’s
air is forced over cold air. In contrast, where there
is high pressure air is sinking, and rain formation is land surface but hold 50 per cent of the world’s
prevented. The world’s great hot deserts are located species. The Amazon rainforest alone is home to
where there is high pressure caused by sinking air. 10 per cent of the world’s known species.
Activities
Activities Vegetation
1 How does latitude affect the amount of heat a place The vegetation is evergreen, enabling photosynthesis
receives? to take place all year round. This is possibly due to
2 Why are equatorial areas not getting any hotter, or the high temperatures all year, and the presence
polar areas any colder? of water throughout the year. The vegetation is
3 What is meant by the term ‘specific heat capacity’? layered, and the shape of the crowns varies at
4 Explain why temperature decreases with height.
5 Why is there a large temperature difference between
each layer (Figure 2.99). Species at the top of the
day and night in hot deserts, but not in equatorial canopy receive most of the sunlight, whereas species
areas? that are located near the forest floor are adapted
to darker conditions, and generally have a darker
pigment so as to photosynthesise at low light levels.
Tropical rainforests There is a great variety in the number of species
Evergreen tropical rainforests are located in in a rainforest — this is known as biodiversity.
equatorial areas, largely between 10°N and 10°S A rainforest may contain as many as 300 different
(Figure 2.98). There are, nevertheless, some areas species in a single hectare. Typical rainforest species
of rainforest that are found outside these areas, but include figs, teak, mahogany and yellow woods.
these tend to be more seasonal in nature. The main Tropical vegetation has many adaptations. Some
areas of rainforest include the Amazon rainforest in trees have leaves with drip-tips (Figure 2.100a),
Brazil, the Congo rainforest in central Africa, and which are designed to get rid of excess moisture. In
the Indonesian-Malaysian rainforests of Southeast contrast, other plants have saucer-shaped leaves in
Asia. There are many small fragments of rainforest, order to collect water. Pitcher plants have developed
such as those on the island of Madagascar and in an unusual means of getting their nutrients. Rather
the Caribbean. Tropical rainforests everywhere are than taking nutrients from the soil, they have
under increasing threat from human activities, such become carnivorous and get their nutrients from
insects and small frogs that are trapped inside the
pitcher (Figure 2.100b). This is one way of coping
Tropical rainforest with the very infertile soils of the rainforest. Other
plants are very tall. To prevent being blown over by
the wind, very large trees have developed buttress
roots that project out from the main trunk above
Tropic of Cancer the ground, which gives the plant extra leverage in
the wind.
Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
Rainforest animals
Although rainforests cover less than 6 per cent of
the Earth’s surface, they account for over 50 per
cent of all animal species on Earth. It is more than
▲ Figure 2.98 World distribution of tropical rainforests
159

A
Wide-spaced
umbrella-shaped 45
crowns, straight
trunks and high 40 A Emergent (top)
branches tree canopy
Height above ground (m)

35
B 30
Medium-spaced
mop-shaped 25
crowns B Large trees of
middle layer
20
C
Densely packed
15
conical-shaped
C Lower tree
crowns
10 layer
D
Sparse 5 D Shrub/small tree
vegetation of layer
shrubs and E Ground vegetation
saplings
F Root layers F Root zone
▲ Figure 2.99 Vegetation structure of the tropical rainforest
a b which camouflages their fur in their arboreal

environment. Some animals have evolved to look
larger or scarier than they really are: the larvae
of the lobster moth look like scorpions, but are
defenceless. Many butterflies have designs that
look like large eyes on their wings, in order to
confuse potential predators. Some species, such as
the monarch butterfly, are poisonous, which helps
deter predators.
Soils
Rainforests are the most productive land-based
ecosystems. Rainforest soils are typically deep
due to the large amount of weathering that has
▲ Figure 2.100 Adaptations of rainforest plants: (a) drip-tip; taken place, and they are often red in colour, due
(b) pitcher plant to the large amounts of iron present in the soil.
Ironically, the soils of tropical rainforests are quite
likely that many rainforest species have not yet been infertile. This is because most of the nutrients
discovered — between 2010 and 2013 over 440 new in the rainforest are contained in the biomass
species of plant and animal were discovered in the (living matter). Nevertheless, there are some areas
Amazon alone. in which tropical soils may be more fertile: in
Many species, such as orang-utans, are arboreal floodplains and in volcanic areas the soils may be
(live entirely in the trees) and rarely come to the enriched by flooding or the weathering of fertile
ground where they would be easy prey for large lava flows.
carnivores. Top carnivores, such as jaguars, tigers The nutrient cycle is easily disrupted (Figure 2.101).
and leopards, are highly camouflaged. Many species Tropical rainforests have been described as ‘deserts
are highly camouflaged to avoid becoming prey, covered by trees’. Once the vegetation is removed,
such as stick insects and the Indian leaf butterfly. nutrients are quickly removed from the system,
Sloths are covered with a layer of green algae, creating infertile conditions and even deserts.
160

Impacts of deforestation of the tropical rainforest
Rainforests are found only in areas with over 1700 mm of rain and temperatures The links between climate, soils
of over 25 °C and vegetation are very strong
30 Tropical rainforest
Hot desert
temperature (°C)
25
Mean annual
Climate
20 Deciduous forest
15
10
5 Coniferous forest
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 Soil Vegetation
Mean annual rainfall (mm)
▲ Figure 2.101 Conditions required for the growth of rainforest, deciduous forest, coniferous forest and hot desert
industry. High rainfall totals, especially in hilly areas,

Activities
Activities favour the development of HEP, such as at Batang Ai
Study Figure 2.101. in Sarawak, Malaysia. Areas of rainforest have a long
1 What is the minimum temperature required for the history of commercial farming. Tropical hardwoods,
growth of tropical rainforests? such as teak and mahogony, are prized by furniture
2 What is the minimum amount of rainfall needed for a manufacturers. Mineral mining developments, such
tropical rainforest? as iron ore at Carajas in Brazil and ilminite on the
3 Suggest how a rainforest with a mean annual southeast coast of Madagascar, are also developed in
temperature of 30°C and an annual rainfall of
3500 mm might differ from one with a mean annual
some rainforest areas.
rainfall of 1700 mm and a mean annual temperature
of 25°C.
4 Suggest how the vegetation in Figure 2.100 is adapted
to conditions in the rainforest.
5 What is biodiversity? Suggest reasons why it may be
important to protect biodiversity.
6 Why are rainforests described as ‘deserts covered
with trees’?
Impacts of deforestation of
the tropical rainforest
About 200 million people live in areas that are or were
covered by tropical rainforests. These areas offer many ▲ Figure 2.102 Tropical rainforest along with shifting
cultivation — rice growing in Sarawak
advantages for human activities, such as farming,
hydroelectric power, tourism, fishing and food supply,
mineral development and forestry (Figure 2.102).
Rainforests also play a vital role in regulating the
world’s climate, and they account for 50 per cent of
the world’s plants and animals. They are vital, too, for
the protection of soil and water resources (Table 2.22).
The year-round growing season is very attractive
for farmers, although the poor quality of the soil
results in the land being farmed for only a few
years before the land is abandoned (Figure 2.103).
Nevertheless, large-scale plantations occur in areas
of tropical rainforest, producing crops such as palm ▲ Figure 2.103 Rainforest at Batang Ai affected by flooding,
oil, which is increasingly being used for the biofuels shifting cultivation and soil erosion
161

Table 2.22 The value of tropical rainforests Other changes relate to climate. As deforestation
Industrial uses Ecological uses Subsistence uses progresses, there is a reduction in water that is re-
Charcoal Watershed Fuelwood and evaporated from the vegetation, hence the recycling
protection charcoal of water must diminish. Evaporation rates from
Saw logs
Flood and landslide Fodder for
savanna grasslands are estimated to be only about
Gums, resins and one-third of those of the tropical rainforest. Thus,
protection agriculture
oils
mean annual rainfall is reduced, and the seasonality
Soil erosion control Building poles
Pulpwood of rainfall increases.
Climate regulation, Pit sawing and saw
Plywood and
veneer
e.g. balancing
levels of carbon
milling Causes of deforestation in Brazil
Weaving materials There are five main causes of deforestation in Brazil:
Industrial dioxide and oxygen
and dyes
chemicals
Special woods and
Rearing silkworms » agricultural colonisation by landless migrants
Medicines ashes and speculative developers along highways and
and beekeeping
Genes for crops Fruit and nuts agricultural growth areas
Tourism » conversion of the forest to cattle pastures,
especially in eastern and southeastern Para and
northern Mato Grosso
There are a large number of effects of deforestation, » mining, for example the Greater Carajas Project in
including: southeastern Amazonia, which includes a 900 km
» disruption to the circulation and storage of railway and extensive deforestation to provide
nutrients charcoal to smelt the iron ore. Other threats from
» surface erosion and compaction of soils mining include the small-scale informal gold
» sandification mines, garimpeiros, causing localised deforestation
» increased flood levels and sediment content of rivers and contaminated water supplies
» climatic change » large-scale hydroelectric power schemes, such as
» loss of biodiversity. the Tucurui Dam on the Tocantins River
» forestry taking place in Para, Amazonas and
Deforestation disrupts the closed system of nutrient northern Mato Grosso.
cycling within tropical rainforests. Inorganic elements
are released through burning and are quickly flushed Deforestation in Brazil shows five main trends:
out of the system by the high-intensity rains. » It is a recent phenomenon.
Soil erosion is also associated with deforestation. » It has partly been promoted by government policies.
As a result of soil compaction, there is a decrease in » It has a wide range of causes.
infiltration, and an increase in overland runoff and » It includes new areas of deforestation, as well as
surface erosion. the extension of previously deforested areas.
Sandification is a process of selective erosion. » Land speculation and the granting of land titles
Raindrop impact washes away the finer particles to those who ‘occupy’ parts of the rainforest is a
of clay and humus, leaving behind the coarser and major cause of deforestation.
heavier sand. Evidence of sandification dates back to
the 1890s in Santarem, Rondonia.
As a result of the intense surface runoff and soil Activities
erosion, rivers have a higher flood peak and a shorter 1 Comment on the value of tropical rainforests to the
time lag. However, in the dry season river levels are human population.
2 Outline the main impacts of deforestation on the
lower, the rivers have greater turbidity (murkiness natural environment.
due to more sediment), an increased bed load, and 3 Explain the main causes of deforestation in Brazil.
carry more silt and clay in suspension. 4 Comment on the trends of deforestation in Brazil.
162

Impacts of deforestation of the tropical rainforest
Case study: Danum Valley Conservation Area, Malaysian Borneo
▲ Figure 2.104 Danum Valley Conservation Area
The Danum Valley Conservation Area (DVCA) contains commercial sectors are all represented. To the east of the
more than 120 mammal species, including 10 species of DVCA is the 30,000 hectare Innoprise-FACE Foundation
primate. The DVCA and surrounding forest is an important Rainforest Rehabilitation Project (INFAPRO), one of the
reservation for orang-utans. These forests are particularly largest forest rehabilitation projects in southeast Asia,
rich in other large mammals including the Asian elephant, which is replanting areas of heavily disturbed logged forest.
Malayan sun bear, clouded leopard, bearded pig and Because all areas of conservation and replanting are
several species of deer. The area also provides one of embedded within the larger commercial forest, the value of
the last refuges in Sabah for the critically endangered the whole area is greatly enhanced. Movement of animals
Sumatran rhino. Over 340 species of bird have been between forest areas is enabled and allows the continued
recorded at Danum, including the argus pheasant, Bulwer’s survival of some important and endangered Borneo
pheasant and seven species of pitta bird. animals such as the Sumatran rhino, the orang-utan
The DVCA covers 43,800 hectares, comprising almost and the Borneo elephant. In the late 1990s, a hotel was
entirely lowland dipterocarp forest (dipterocarps are established on the northeastern edge of the DVCA. It has
valuable hardwood trees). It is the largest expanse of established flourishing ecotourism in the area and exposed
pristine forest of this type remaining in Sabah, northeast this unique forest to a wider range of visitors than was
Borneo (Figure 2.104). previously possible. As well as raising revenue for the local
Until the late 1980s, the area was under threat from area, it has raised the international profile of the area as an
commercial logging. The establishment of a long-term important centre for conservation and research.
research programme between Yayasan Sabah and the
Royal Society in the UK created local awareness of the
Case study analysis
conservation value of the area and provided important 1 What was the main threat to the Danum Valley before
scientific information about the forest and what happens the late 1980s?
to it when it is disturbed through logging. Danum Valley 2 Why is the DVCA important for the conservation of
is controlled by a management committee containing species?
all the relevant local institutions — wildlife, forestry and 3 What are the main interest groups in the forest?
163

Hot deserts woody. Annuals or ephemerals are plants that live for
a short time but these may form a dense covering of
The world’s hot deserts are largely found in
vegetation immediately after rain.
subtropical areas between 20° and 30° north and
Ephemerals evade drought. During the infrequent
south of the equator (Figure 2.105). The largest
wet periods they develop rapidly, producing a large
area of hot desert is the Sahara but there are other
number of flowers and fruits. These help produce
important deserts such as the Great Victoria Desert
seeds, which remain dormant in the ground until the
and Great Sandy Desert in Australia, the Kalahari and
next rains.
Namib deserts in southern Africa, the Atacama desert
Many plants are adapted to drought (Figure 2.106)
in South America, and the Arabian desert. The Gobi
— these are called xerophytes. Water loss is
desert in Mongolia and China lies outside the tropics
minimised in a number of ways:
and therefore is not a hot desert.
The main factors influencing the vegetation are » Leaf hairs reduce windspeed and therefore reduce
that it is hot throughout the year and there is low transpiration.
and unreliable rainfall (≤250 mm per year). » Thick waxy cuticles and the rolling-up or shedding
of leaves at the start of the dry season reduce
Vegetation water loss.
The vegetation responds to hot desert conditions » Some plants have the bulk of their biomass (living
in a number of ways. There are two main types of material) below the ground surface.
desert plant. Perennials (plants that grow over a » Others have very deep roots to reach the water
number of years) may be succulent (they store lots table.
of water), they are often small (to reduce water loss » In woody species the wood prevents the collapse
by evaporation and transpiration) and they may be of the plant even when the plant is wilting.
Sonoran
Desert
Sahara
Mohave
Desert
Atacama
Desert
Namib Great Sandy
Kalahari
Desert and Great Victoria
Desert
Deserts
▲ Figure 2.105 World distribution of hot deserts
164

Hot deserts
acacia thickets), spinifax in Australia (‘porcupine

grass’) and chanaral in Chile (spiny shrubs).
Soils in desert areas are very infertile. As a result
of the low rainfall there is little organic or moisture
content in the soil. The lack of chemical weathering
(largely due to the lack of moisture) means that
soils contain few nutrients.
Interesting note
Although it is a hot desert, the Sahara contains
some 300 plant species and around 70 animal
species.
Animals
Animals are adapted to living in the desert in a
number of ways (Figure 2.107). Different animals may:
» be nocturnal (active only at night) in order to
avoid the heat of the day
» use panting and/or have large ears help to reduce
body heat
» remain in underground burrows during the day
▲ Figure 2.106 Plant adaptations to hot desert environments » secrete highly concentrated uric acid in order to
reduce water loss
Vegetation from desert margins is often referred to » migrate during the hottest season to escape the heat
as scrub. Tropical scrub on the margins of hot deserts » adopt a strategy of long-term aestivation
includes acacias, cacti, succulents, tuberous-rooted (dormancy, or sleep), which ends only when
plants and herbaceous plants that only grow with moisture and temperature conditions become more
rain. Special types are mulga in Australia (dense favourable.
Kangaroo rat Fennec fox

Lives in southwest USA and Mexico; Lives in Sahara desert: weighs 1.5 kg
weighs 35–180 g and measures 100–200 mm and is 200 mm tall
Light-coloured coat reflects heat

Highly efficient kidneys which Reduces water lost by
Large ears with
concentrate urine and produce respiration by cooling
blood vessels
dry droppings exhaled air in nasal passage
close to the
surface to lose
body heat
Gets most of its

moisture from
its prey
Excretes
highly
concentrated
urine
Lives in burrows Does not Licks fur to Does not need to

during the day perspire keep cool drink – gets water
Lives in burrows during Soles of feet protected by
to avoid heat from its food
the day to avoid heat thick fur to run across hot sand
▲ Figure 2.107 Animal adaptations to hot desert environments
165

Activities
1 Why is it difficult to live in a hot desert? 250 mm might differ from one in which the mean
2 Study Figure 2.101 on page 161, which shows the annual rainfall is 250 mm and the mean annual
conditions required for the growth of hot deserts. temperature is 20°C.
a What is the maximum rainfall in a hot desert, as 4 How have plants adapted to survive in the desert?
suggested by Figure 2.101? 5 How do animals survive in the desert?
b What is the range of mean annual temperatures in 6 Visit www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Camel to find out how
hot deserts? camels are adapted to living in hot deserts.
3 Suggest how a hot desert with a mean annual
temperature of 30°C and a mean annual rainfall of
Case study: The Sonoran desert

The Sonoran Desert is located in southern USA (southern There has been considerable human impact in
California and southern Arizona) and northern Mexico. the area. Some cities, notably Phoenix in Arizona,
Its vegetation includes the saguaro cactus, which can have expanded rapidly at the expense of the desert.
grow to a height of 15 m and live for up to 175 years. Its The increased demand for, and abstraction of,
ribbed stem expands as it fills with water during the water has lowered water tables. Mesquite bushes
winter wet season. Its stem also reduces wind speed and and cottonwood trees that were growing along
water loss from the plant, while sunken stomata reduce watercourses have died back. Road construction and
water loss. It has shallow roots to catch water from pipelines have affected the movement of mammals,
storms before it evaporates. Other species with similar and fenced highways have prevented pronghorn
adaptations include the prickly pear and barrel and antelopes, for example, from reaching water supplies.
hedgehog cacti. Off-road vehicles have compacted soils and made
The Palo Verde is a small, drought-tolerant tree. It loses them less able to hold water. Overgrazing by cattle
its leaves in the dry season, but its green bark allows it has removed more palatable species. Domesticated
to photosynthesise without leaves. Creosote bushes have animals have escaped into the wild, and reduced
small, dark leaves to reduce transpiration. Plant density grazing availability for wild mammals. The introduction
depends upon water availability. of exotic plant species, such as tamarisk, has
Soils in the Sonoran desert are typically thin, relatively displaced native species such as cottonwoods and
infertile and alkaline. Seasonal rains carry soluble desert willows. Removal of native species has speeded
salts down through the soil. However, during the dry up the spread of exotic species.
season they are drawn up to the surface by evaporation.
Concentrations may be toxic for some plants. In addition,
Case study analysis
flash flooding can compact the soil, leaving the surface 1 Where is the Sonoran desert?
impermeable. 2 How is the saguaro cactus adapted to life in the desert?
Vegetation distribution in Death Valley containing chemicals in solution is drawn up by

evaporation and capillary action. As the water
The distribution of vegetation in Death Valley (average
evaporates, salts are deposited on the surface,
rainfall less than 50 mm per year), depends very much
forming thick crusts. These crusts are high in salt,
on ground and soil conditions. These determine the
and so no flowering plants can grow here.
quantity and quality of water supply. Three main zones
Around the edge of the salt pans, however,
can be recognised: the central salt pan, the lower
the ground is not so salty. The groundwater is
sandy slopes and the upper gravel slopes.
still quite high and the ground sandy. In this
The central salt pans occupy depressions, into
zone, phreatophytes (plants with very deep tap
which rainfall runs off from the upper slopes and
roots) grow. Their roots penetrate as far down as
collects. This rain contains dissolved chemicals. As
the water table. The various plants in this zone
it seeps into the ground it raises the water table,
are found in a regular order depending on their
in some places quite close to the surface. Due to
tolerance of salinity. The most salt-tolerant is
the high temperatures of the valley, groundwater
166

Hot deserts
pickleweed, which can tolerate levels as high as occasional overland flow. Once again, a sequence
6 per cent salt (twice as salty as sea water). This can be observed. On the slightly wetter, upper
plant is found closest to the salt pan. Next is slopes, burrow-weed is found. With increasing
arrow weed, which can tolerate 3 per cent salt, and water shortage, creosote bushes are found and,
finally honey mesquite, which can only tolerate a finally, in the lowest, driest gravel, the desert holly
maximum of 0.5 per cent salt content. bush is found.
Between the sandy zone and the valley sides are
the gravel deposits. This is where the xerophytes
(species of plant that have adapted to survive Activities
in an environment with little water) are located. 1 Suggest reasons why hot deserts offer limited
They are too far above the water table to reach opportunities for human activities.
it and survive through being drought-resistant. 2 Explain how plants are adapted to desert environments.
Xerophytes, such as the creosote bush, may receive 3 Explain how human activities have impacted upon
some water from dew, infrequent rainfall and some desert ecosystems.
167

THEME 2
Topic 2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes
▲ Figure 2.108 Global distribution of earthquakes
Study Figure 2.108, which shows the global distribution c Define the terms ‘focus’ and ‘epicentre’.
of earthquakes. d Using examples, explain the main factors that
a Describe the global distribution of earthquakes. increase the impacts of earthquakes.
b Suggest reasons for the distribution of earthquakes.
Topic 2.2 Rivers

Study Figure 2.109. d Describe the changes in the river valley between point
a Approximately how high is the source of the Jordan A and point B.
stream? e Describe the valley of the Jordan stream and its valley
b How much does it fall in order to reach the at point C.
Waimakariri river? f Outline the likely human activities that might occur in
c How far is the Waimakariri river from the source of this area. Give reasons for your choices.
the Jordan stream?
168

▲ Figure 2.109 Extract from a 1:50,000 map of Arthur’s Pass, New Zealand
Topic 2.3 Coasts

Study Figure 2.110.
a Identify the features A, B, C and D.
b Explain how landform C may be formed.
E c What feature is located at E?
40 d Explain the meaning of the term ‘prevailing wind’.
50
30 e Suggest how landform E may be formed.
40
20
30 10
20
10 D
Solid land
20
B 10 Height in metres
40
C 2m Prevailing wind
from SW
▲ Figure 2.110 Sketch map of coastal features
169

THEME 2
Topic 2.4 Weather Topic 2.5 Climate and natural vegetation

1 Using the data in Table 2.23, plot the data for 16–22 1 Study Figure 2.105 on page 164.
September 2013. Use the same methods as you did for a Comment on the distribution of the world’s hot
Figure 2.95 (for August 2007, see page 155). deserts.
2 State the maximum and minimum temperature of the b Why is it difficult to live in a desert?
7-day period. c How have plants in the desert adapted in order to
3 Work out the mean minimum temperature and the survive?
mean maximum temperature for the 7 days. d How do animals survive in the desert?
4 How much rain fell during the 7 days?
5 Compare the weather of August 2007 and September
2013.
Table 2.23 Daily weather observations for Frankston, Victoria

(Australia), 16–22 September 2013
Date Day Maximum Minimum Rainfall Wind Wind speed Air pressure
Temperature Temperature (mm) direction (km/hour) (mb)
(°C) (°C)
16 September Monday 16.5 12.7 0.4 E 24 1008
17 September Tuesday 16.7 12.4 26.0 ESE 28 1003
18 September Wednesday 16.4 12.7 14.6 WNW 57 999
19 September Thursday 14.4 9.9 19.8 WNW 61 1005
20 September Friday 14.6 10.7 1.0 SW 48 1007
21 September Saturday 17.2 8.1 0.0 NNE 24 1016
22 September Sunday 18.1 9.9 0.0 N 30 1012
170

THEME 3
Economic
development
Topics
3.1 Development
3.2 Food production
3.3 Industry
3.4 Tourism
3.5 Energy
3.6 Water
3.7 Environmental risks of economic development
This theme investigates how it is possible to define

and measure ‘development’. It looks at variations
in development between and within countries. Food
production (agriculture) is considered in terms of
factors, processes and products. The factors that
influence the location of industry are discussed.
Tourism is one of the world’s fastest growing service
industries, and the factors affecting its growth, impacts
and management are discussed. Energy resources
and water resources in countries at different levels of
development are considered, and the environmental
risks of economic development are discussed.

3.1 Development
-
Key questions
H How can the level of economic development of a country be measured?
H What are the reasons for inequalities between and within countries?
H How can economic production be classified into different sectors?
H How do the proportions employed in each sector of an economy vary
according to the level of development?
H What is globalisation?
H How important are technology, transnational corporations and other
economic factors in the process of globalisation?
H What are the impacts of globalisation at local, national and global scales?
Economic Physical
Income Diet/nutrition
Job security Water supply
Standard of living Climate
(housing, personal Environmental
mobility etc.) quality/hazards
QUALITY OF LIFE
▲ Figure 3.1 An open-pit toilet in the Gobi desert: this is as far Social Psychological
Family/friends Happiness
as sanitation goes in many parts of the developing world Education Security
Health Freedom
Indicators of development ▲ Figure 3.2 Factors comprising the quality of life
Development, or improvement in the quality of

life, is a wide-ranging concept. It includes wealth, Measures of national income
but it also includes other important aspects of One of the traditional indicators of a country’s wealth
our lives (Figure 3.2). For example, many people is the gross national product (GNP). You will also
would consider good health to be more important be able to find data for gross domestic product (GDP)
than wealth. Development occurs when there are and gross national income (GNI). It is reasonable at
improvements to individual factors making up the this level of study to regard these as broadly similar
quality of life. For example, development occurs in a measures. The gross national product is:
low-income country when:
» the total value of goods and services produced by a
» local food supply improves due to investment in country in a year
farm machinery and fertilisers » plus income earned by the country’s residents from
» the electricity grid extends outwards from the main foreign investments
urban areas to rural areas » minus income earned within the domestic economy
» levels of literacy improve throughout the country. by overseas residents.
172

Indicators of development
GNP per capita 2013 ($)

43 800–102 800
32 200–43 800
21 200–32 200
13 300–21 200
6200–13 300
400–6200
▲ Figure 3.3 World map showing GNP per capita in 2013
To take account of the different populations of Development not only varies between countries — it
countries the gross national product per capita can also vary significantly within countries. Most of
is often used. Here, the total GNP of a country is the measures that can be used to study the contrasts
divided by the total population. Per capita figures between countries can also be used to look at regional
allow for better comparisons between countries variations within countries.
when their total populations are very different. For
example, the total GNP of China is greater than Table 3.1 Top 12 and bottom 12 countries in GDP per capita
that of the UK, but GNP per capita is much higher ($PPP) 2016
in the UK. Top $(PPP) Bottom $(PPP)
However, such data do not take into account the Qatar 127,660 Togo 1,550
way in which the cost of living can vary between Luxembourg 104,003 Comoros 1,529
countries. For example, a dollar buys much more in Singapore 87,855 Madagascar 1,505
Bangladesh than it does in the USA. To account for Brunei 76,884 Eritrea 1,410
this the GNP per capita at purchasing power parity Kuwait 71,887 Guinea 1,265
(PPP) can be calculated. Figure 3.3 shows GNP per Norway 69,249 Mozambique 1,215
capita for 2013. It is clear to see where regions of Ireland 69,231 Malawi 1,134
high and low GNP per capita are located. UAE 67,871 Niger 1,107
Table 3.1 shows the top and bottom 12 countries in Switzerland 59,561 Liberia 855
GDP per capita (PPP) for 2016. The development gap San Marino 59,058 Burundi 814
between the world’s wealthiest and poorest countries USA 57,436 Congo Dem. Rep. 773
is huge. However, a major limitation of GNP and other Saudi Arabia 55,158 Central African 652
national data is that these are ‘average’ figures for a Rep.
country, which tell us nothing about:
» the way in which wealth is distributed within a Literacy
country — in some countries the gap between rich Education is undoubtedly the key to socio-economic
and poor is much greater than in others development. It can be defined as the process of
» how government invests the money at its disposal; acquiring knowledge, understanding and skills.
for example, Cuba has a low GNP per capita but high Education has always been regarded as a very
standards of health and education because these important individual indicator of development and it
have been government priorities for a long time. has figured prominently in aggregate measures. Adult
173

.
3.1 DEvEloPMEnT
literacy is one of the main ways in which differences countries over the last 30 years. However, there
in educational standards between countries can be is still a considerable gap between the richer and
shown. In 2015, the global adult literacy rate was poorer world regions. The infant mortality rate in
85 per cent, but in over a dozen African countries, Africa is more than eleven times that of Europe.
such as Ethiopia, Chad and Niger, adult literacy rates Infant mortality generally compares well with other
were below 50 per cent. About 780 million adults indicators of development, which is a good indication
worldwide are illiterate. A low adult literacy rate is a of its value as a measure of development.
great obstacle to development.
The World Bank has concluded that improving Table 3.2 Infant mortality rate by world region, 2016
female literacy is one of the most fundamental Region Infant mortality rate, 2016
achievements for a developing nation to attain, World 36
because so many aspects of development depend on More developed world 5
it. For example, there is a very strong relationship Less developed world 39
between the extent of female literacy and infant and Africa 57
child mortality rates. People who are literate are able Asia 31
to access medical and other information that will Latin America/Caribbean 17
help them to a higher quality of life compared with North America 6
those who are illiterate.
Oceania 20
Life expectancy Europe 5
Life expectancy is viewed as a very important

measure of development as it is to a large extent
the end result of all the factors contributing to Other individual indicators of
the quality of life in a country. It is important for development
international and national government agencies to Other measures of development include:
know about variations in life expectancy, as this is
a key measure of inequality. It helps development » school enrolment
programmes to target those in most need. The main » doctors per 100,000 people
influences on life expectancy are: » food intake (calories per capita per day)
» energy consumption per capita
» the incidence of disease (for example, malaria) » percentage of the population with access to an
» physical environmental conditions (for example, improved water supply
very low rainfall) » percentage of the population living in urban areas
» human environmental conditions (for example, » number of motor vehicles per 1000 population
pollution) » internet penetration rate.
» personal lifestyle (for example, smoking).
Rates of life expectancy have converged significantly Interesting note
between rich and poor countries during the last
50 years, in spite of a widening wealth gap. Figures for In 2016, seven countries had infant mortality rates
life expectancy by world region are given in Table 1.5 above 80/1000. All were in Africa. The highest
on page 8. rates were in Congo Dem. Rep. (97/1000) and
Angola (93/1000).
Infant mortality
The infant mortality rate is regarded as one of the
most sensitive indicators of socio-economic progress
(Table 3.2). It is an important measure of health The human development index: a
inequality both between and within countries. broader measure of development
There are huge differences in the infant mortality In 1990 the human development index (HDI) was
rate around the world, despite the wide availability of devised by the United Nations as a measure of the
public health knowledge. Fortunately infant mortality disparities between countries. The HDI is a composite
rates have fallen sharply in many developing index, which has changed slightly in composition
174

Indicators of development
in recent years. The current index contains four » medium human development
indicators of development (Figure 3.4): » low human development.
» life expectancy at birth Figure 3.5 shows the global distribution of these four
» mean years of schooling for adults aged 25 years groups in 2011, while Table 3.3 lists the ‘Very high
» expected years of schooling for children of school human development’ countries in rank order for 2015.
entering age All the low human development countries in 2015
» GNI per capita (PPP$). were in Africa apart from Syria, Papua New Guinea,
The actual figures for each of these measures are the Soloman Islands, Haiti, Yemen and Afghanistan.
converted into an index, which has a maximum Every measure of development has merits and
value of 1.0 in each case. The index values are then limitations. No single measure can provide a complete
combined and averaged to give an overall HDI value. picture of the differences in development between
This also has a maximum value of 1.0. Every year the countries. This is why the United Nations combines
United Nations publishes the Human Development four measures of different aspects of the quality of
Report, which uses the HDI to rank all the countries life to arrive at a figure of human development for
of the world in their level of development. The each country. Although the development gap can be
countries of the world are divided into four groups: measured in a variety of ways it is generally taken to
be increasing. Many people are concerned about this
» very high human development situation, either because they see it as very unfair, or
» high human development because it can create political instability.
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
INDEX
s
n
ng d
io
vi ar
th
at
Li nd Three dimensions
al
uc
He
a
st
Ed
ed
r
▶ Figure 3.4 The components

ho rs
g
ta pe
bi cy
ca om nal
ct of
in
sc yea
in ati ss
at ctan
pe rs ling
pe e
ol
pi e
ex Lif
of the human development

n ro
c o
rt
x
E ea o Four indicators
of an
y ho
e
index sc
M
Very high
High
Medium
Low
No data
▲ Figure 3.5 Map of the human development index, 2011
175

3.1 DEvEloPMEnT
Table 3.3 The 51 ‘Very high human development’ countries,

2015 rankings Activities
1 Norway 18 South Korea 33 Cyprus 1 What is development?
2 Give two examples of development in a low-income
2 Australia 19 Israel 36 Poland country.
3 Define GNP.
2 Switzerland 20 Luxembourg 37 Lithuania 4 Why are GNP data and other measures of national
4 Germany 21 France 38 Chile income now frequently published at purchasing
power parity (PPP)?
5 Denmark 22 Belgium 38 Saudi Arabia 5 Briefly discuss the merits of one individual indicator
of development.
5 Singapore 23 Finland 40 Slovakia
6 Which indicators of development are combined to
7 Netherlands 24 Austria 41 Portugal form the human development index?
7 Look at Figure 3.5 and briefly describe the
8 Ireland 25 Italy 42 United Arab distribution of countries according to the human
Emirates development index.
9 Iceland 25 Slovenia 43 Hungary
10 Canada
10 USA
27
28
Spain
Czech
44 Latvia
45 Argentina
Explaining inequalities
Republic between countries
12 Hong Kong, 29 Greece 45 Croatia
China
Stages of development
Over the years there have been a number of
13 New Zealand 30 Brunei 47 Bahrain
Darussalam
descriptions and explanations of levels of
development between countries and how countries
14 Sweden 31 Estonia 48 Montenegro have moved from one level of development to
15 Liechtenstein 32 Andorra 49 Russian another. A reasonable division of the world in terms
Federation of stages of economic development is shown in
16 UK 33 Malta 50 Romania
Figure 3.7. You will be familiar with the concept of
developed and developing countries, but you may not
17 Japan 33 Qatar 51 Kuwait be so sure about least developed countries and newly
industrialised countries (NICs).
Since 1971 the United Nations has recognised least
developed countries (LDCs). These are the poorest of
the developing countries. They have major economic,
institutional and human resource problems. These are
often made worse by geographical handicaps such as
very low rainfall and natural and man-made disasters.
Developed
countries
Level of economic development
Newly
industrialised
countries
Developing
countries
Least
developed
countries
▲ Figure 3.6 The Waterfront, Vancouver. Canada has a very Time
high level of human development ▲ Figure 3.7 Stages of development
176

Explaining inequalities between countries
At present 48 countries are identified as LDCs. Of Explaining the development gap

these, 34 are in Africa, 13 in Asia and the Pacific,
and one in Latin America (Haiti). You can find case There has been much debate about the causes of
studies of LDCs relating to population (The Gambia, development. Detailed studies have shown that
Bangladesh) in Theme 1 of this book. With 12 per variations between countries are due to a variety of
cent of the world’s population, these countries factors.
generate less than 2 per cent of world GDP and only Physical geography
1 per cent of world trade. This comparison clearly
indicates how impoverished these countries are. The » Landlocked countries have generally developed
list of LDCs is reviewed every 3 years by the UN. more slowly than coastal ones.
When countries develop beyond a certain point they » Small island countries face considerable
are no longer considered to be LDCs. Four countries disadvantages in development.
have so far developed beyond LDC status. These are » Tropical countries have grown more slowly than those
Botswana (1994), Cape Verde (2007), the Maldives in temperate latitudes, reflecting the cost of poor
(2011) and Samoa (2014). There is a high, but not health and unproductive farming. However, richer,
perfect, correlation between LDCs and the low human non-agricultural tropical countries such as Singapore
development nations. do not suffer a geographical deficit of this kind.
Newly industrialised countries (NICs) are » A generous allocation of natural resources has
nations that have undergone rapid and successful spurred economic growth in a number of countries.
industrialisation since the 1960s. They have moved
up the development ladder, having previously been Economic policies
considered developing countries. The first countries to
become newly industrialised countries (in the 1960s) » Open economies that welcomed and encouraged
were South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong. foreign investment have developed faster than
The media referred to them as the ‘four Asian tigers’. closed economies.
A ‘tiger economy’ is one that grows very rapidly. The » Fast-growing countries tend to have high rates of
reasons for the success of these countries were: saving and low spending relative to GDP.
» Institutional quality in terms of good government,
» a good initial level of infrastructure law and order and lack of corruption generally
» a skilled but relatively low-cost workforce result in a high rate of growth.
» cultural traditions that revere education and
achievement Demography
» governments that welcomed foreign direct
investment (FDI) from transnational corporations » Progress through demographic transition is a
» distinct advantages in terms of geographical significant factor, with the highest rates of growth
location experienced by those nations where the birth rate
» the ready availability of bank loans, often has fallen the most.
extended at government behest and at attractive
interest rates. Figure 3.8 combines a range of factors to explain
differences in development. For example, in Figure 3.8a
The success of these four countries provided a model Brazil would satisfy all three criteria. It is by far the
for others to follow, such as Malaysia, Brazil, China largest country in South America. It has abundant
and India. In the last 20 years, the growth of China natural resources and it is clearly a newly industrialised
has been particularly impressive. South Korea and country. In contrast, countries such as Haiti and Niger
Singapore have developed so much that many people would be affected by all three of the negative factors
now consider them to be developed countries. in Figure 3.8b.
177

3.1 DEvEloPMEnT
Development may not bring improvements in all

(a) More advanced developing countries
four areas at first, but over time all four categories
should witness advances.
A Largest countries in region
A B B Countries with abundant
natural resources Table 3.4 The consequences of poverty
C Newly industrialised countries Economic Global integration is spatially selective:
C some countries benefit while others, it
Highest level of development seems, do not. In 2015, about 10 per cent
of the world’s population lived on less than
$2 a day. Poor countries frequently lack the
(b) Least advanced developing countries ability to pay for (1) food, (2) agricultural
innovation and (3) investment in rural
D Landlocked or island
development.
developing countries
D E
E Countries with few natural Social About 780 million people in poor countries
resources cannot read or write. Over 660 million
F Countries seriously affected people do not have access to clean, safe
F by natural hazards
water and 2.4 billion to basic sanitation.
Lowest level of development Almost 3 million children under the age of
5 die each year from conditions that could
▲ Figure 3.8 Fast and slow development in developing countries be prevented/treated with access to simple,
affordable interventions. The impact of HIV/
AIDS in poor countries can be devastating.
Environmental Poor countries have increased vulnerability
to natural disasters. They lack the capacity
to adapt to droughts induced by climate
change. Poor farming practices lead to
environmental degradation. Often, raw
materials are exploited with very limited
economic benefit to poor countries
and little concern for the environment.
Landscapes can be devastated by mining,
vast areas of rainforest destroyed by
▲ Figure 3.9 Low-income housing on the banks of the logging and clearance for agriculture, and
River Nile, Egypt rivers and land polluted by oil exploitation.
Political Poor countries that are low on the
Consequences of the development scale often have non-
democratic governments or they are
development gap democracies that function poorly. There is
usually a reasonably strong link between
The development gap has significant consequences development and improvement in the
for people in the most disadvantaged countries. quality of government. In general, the
The consequences of poverty can be economic, poorer the country the worse the plight of
social, environmental and political (Table 3.4). minority groups.
Activities
1 Look at Figure 3.5 and name two countries at each of 3 a Define a ‘newly industrialised country’.
the four levels of human development. b Briefly discuss the factors responsible for the
2 a Define a ‘least developed country’. development of the first NICs.
b What are the general problems facing least 4 Consider the physical, economic and demographic factors
developed countries? that help explain the inequalities between countries.
5 Explain the two scenarios shown in Figure 3.8.
178

Explaining inequalities within countries
Explaining inequalities 0.6

Key
within countries Trends in China

Trends in the USA
0.5
The scale of disparities within countries is often as
much an issue as the considerable variations between
Gini coefficient
countries. The Gini coefficient is a technique frequently
0.4
used to show the extent of income inequality. It allows:
» analysis of changes in income inequality over time
in individual countries 0.3
» comparison between countries.
Figure 3.10 shows global variations in the Gini coefficient
for 2009. It is defined as a ratio, with values between 0.2
0 and 1.0. A low value indicates a more equal income
65
75
85
95
05
15
19
19
19
19
20
20
distribution, while a high value shows more unequal Year
income distribution. A Gini coefficient of zero would mean
that everyone in a country had exactly the same income ▲ Figure 3.11 Regional inequality in China and the USA
(perfect equality). At the other extreme, a Gini coefficient disparities in China have become greater than in the
of 1 would mean that one person had all the income in USA and the gap has been getting wider.
a country (perfect inequality). In general, more affluent
countries have a lower income gap than lower income A theory of regional disparities
countries. Southern Africa and South America show up
The model of cumulative causation helps to explain
clearly as regions of very high income inequality. Europe is
regional disparities. Figure 3.12 is a simplified
the world region with the lowest income inequality.
version of the model. The overall scenario is that
In China, the income gap between urban residents
there are three stages of regional disparity:
and the huge farm population reached its widest
level ever in recent years as rural unemployment in » the pre-industrial stage, when regional differences
particular rose steeply. This substantial income gap are minimal
is a very sensitive issue in China as more and more » a period of rapid economic growth characterised by
rural people feel they have been left behind in China’s increasing regional economic divergence
economic boom. Figure 3.11 shows how regional » a stage of regional economic convergence when the
income inequality has changed in China and the USA significant wealth generated in the most affluent
since the mid-1960s. Since the early 2000s regional region(s) spreads to other parts of the country.
<0.25 0.45–0.49
0.25–0.29 0.50–0.54
0.30–0.34 0.55–0.59
0.35–0.39 >0.60
0.40–0.44 No data
▲ Figure 3.10 World map showing variations in the Gini coefficient, 2009
179

3.1 DEvEloPMEnT
Establishment skilled labour and locally generated capital is

of large attracted away. Manufactured goods and services
manufacturing
plant
produced and operating under the economies of scale
of the core region flood the market of the relatively
Expansion of Improvement
underdeveloped periphery, undercutting smaller-scale
local job of physical enterprises in such areas. In Figure 3.13, the wealth
opportunities and cultural gap between the core and the periphery widens and
and population infrastructure
regional inequality increases (regional economic
divergence).
However, increasing demand for raw materials
Inflow of business Higher tax base from resource-rich parts of the periphery may
and capital to increases local
satisfy increased government stimulate growth in other sectors of the economies
local demand – spending power of such regions. If the impact is strong enough
secondary
and tertiary to overcome local negative effects, a process of
development cumulative causation may begin. This may lead to
the development of new centres of self-sustained
Substantial economic growth (spread effects). If the process
rise in
per capita is strong enough and significant economic growth
incomes occurs in the periphery, the inequality between
▲ Figure 3.12 Simplified model of cumulative causation core and periphery may begin to narrow. This is the
second stage in Figure 3.13 — regional economic
Figure 3.13 shows how the regional economic convergence.
divergence of the earlier stages of economic Many developing countries are in the first stage of
development can eventually change to regional Figure 3.13, where the wealth gap between core and
economic convergence as regional differences narrow. periphery is still widening. Thus, they have a high
Gini coefficient. Movement from stage 1 to stage 2 is
usually attained by a combination of:
core
Economic
» market forces — the cost of doing business in the
Per capita income
ery
core region of a country may become so high that
iph investment in the periphery becomes increasingly
Per
popular
» government regional development policies —
government investment to improve conditions
in peripheral regions, such as improvements in
infrastructure, can help attract business investment.
Regional economic Regional economic
divergence convergence
Time
▲ Figure 3.13 Regional economic divergence and convergence
In the model (Figure 3.12) economic growth begins

with the location of new manufacturing industry in
a region with a combination of advantages greater
than elsewhere in the country. Once growth has
been initiated in this ‘core’ region, flows of labour,
capital and raw materials develop to support it and
the growth region undergoes further expansion by
the cumulative causation process. A detrimental ▲ Figure 3.14 A village in eastern Siberia — the standard of
negative effect (the backwash effect) is transmitted living in most parts of Asiatic Russia (the periphery) is lower
to the less developed regions (the periphery) as than in European Russia
180

Explaining inequalities within countries
The UN has recognised that the focus of global

Activities poverty is moving from rural to urban areas, a process
1 a What is the Gini coefficient? known as the urbanisation of poverty.
b Briefly describe the global differences shown in
Figure 3.10. Ethnicity and employment
2 Define the terms: The development gap often has an ethnic and/or
a economic core region
b periphery.
religious dimension whereby some ethnic groups in
3 Explain the process shown in Figure 3.12 in your own a population have income levels significantly below
words. the dominant group(s) in the same population. This
4 Describe and explain the trends shown in Figure 3.13. is often the result of discrimination, which limits
5 What is the evidence in Figure 3.14 that this region is the economic, social and political opportunities
part of the economic periphery of Russia?
available to the disadvantaged groups. Examples
include South Africa, Indonesia and Bolivia. Ethnic
or religious minorities may be heavily concentrated
Factors affecting inequalities in a particular region or regions of a country.
within countries Jobs in the formal sector of the economy will be
Residence known to the government department responsible for
taxation and to other government offices. Such jobs
Where people are born and where they live can have generally provide better pay and much greater security
a very significant impact on their quality of life. This than jobs in the informal sector. Fringe benefits such
includes: as holiday and sick pay may also be available. Formal
» regional differences within countries — the sector employment includes health and education service
wealth gap between core and periphery, which is workers, government workers, and people working in
explained above established manufacturing and retail companies.
» urban/rural disparities, with urban areas generally In contrast, the informal sector is that part of
attracting much greater investment; this results in the economy operating outside official recognition.
higher per capita incomes in urban areas Employment is generally low-paid and often
» intra-urban contrasts — low, middle and high-income temporary and/or part-time in nature (Figure 3.16).
areas often exist close together in the same city. While such employment is outside the tax system,
job security will be poor, with an absence of fringe
Large numbers of people live in slum conditions in benefits. About three-quarters of those working in
cities in developing countries (Figure 3.15) and find the informal sector are employed in services. Typical
it extremely difficult to break out of this situation. jobs are shoe-shiners, street food stalls, messengers,
repair shops and market traders. Informal
manufacturing tends to include both the workshop
sector, making, for example, cheap furniture, and
the traditional craft sector. Many of these goods are
sold in bazaars and street markets.
▲ Figure 3.15 Manholes in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia — people

in poverty sometimes live down these manholes because of
access to the underground hot water pipes that can provide
warmth in the harsh winters ▲ Figure 3.16 The informal sector — shoe-shiners in Cairo, Egypt
181

3.1 DEvEloPMEnT
Education This process not only resulted in significant economic

Education is a key factor in explaining disparities growth in the core, but also had a considerable negative
within countries. Those with higher levels of education impact on the periphery. The overall result was widening
invariably gain better-paid employment. In developing regional disparity. However, more recently, some parts of
countries there is a clear link between education levels the periphery, with a combination of advantages above
and family size, with those with the least education the level of the periphery as a whole, have benefited
having the largest families. Maintaining a large family from spread effects from the core (Figure 3.18b). The
usually means that saving is impossible and varying south has been the most important recipient of spread
levels of debt likely. In contrast, people with better effects from the southeast, but the other regions have
educational opportunities have smaller families and also benefited to an extent. This process has caused the
are thus able to save and invest more for the future. regional gap to narrow at times, but often not for very
Such differences serve to widen rather than narrow long. In Brazil income inequality still remains very wide.
disparities. Standards of education can vary significantly
by region and as a result of other factors in a country.
BRAZIL
Land ownership N
The distribution of land ownership (tenure) has had Brasilia

a major impact on disparities in many countries. The
greatest disparities tend to occur alongside the largest
inequities in land ownership. The ownership of even a
very small plot of land provides a certain level of security
that those in the countryside without land cannot Belo
possibly aspire to. Households headed by women are Horizonte Vitoria
often the most disadvantaged in terms of land tenure.
Regional contrasts in Brazil São Paulo Rio de Janeiro

Southeast Brazil (Figure 3.17) is the economic core
region of Brazil. Over time the southeast has benefited Santos
from flows of raw materials, capital and labour 0 200
(Figure 3.18a). The last two inputs have come from km
abroad as well as from internal sources. The region grew
rapidly through the process of cumulative causation. ▲ Figure 3.17 Southeast Brazil
(a) The polarisation of economic growth in (b) The developing impact of spread effects
the economic core region
Backwash
effe
cts
periphery str
The Northeast o
North
ng
er
Lab
Ra
tha
w 4 3
ou
m
n sp
at
r
er
ia
read effects
ls Centre-west
2
S pre ad
Capital Southeast Capital 1

Southeast
eff
The economic core

ec
South
ts
ov
rc
e
Lab om
ou in g
r b ac
k w ash
Width of arrow indicates strength of spread effects
▲ Figure 3.18 Core/periphery diagrams for Brazil

182

Classifying production into different economic sectors
The southeast has benefited from a number of » The secondary sector manufactures primary
advantages: materials into finished products (Figure 3.20).
Activities in this sector include the production
» The natural environment of the southeast has of processed food, furniture and motor vehicles.
provided the region with several advantages for the Secondary products are classed either as
development of its economy. consumer goods (produced for sale to the public)
» The southeast is the centre of both foreign and or capital goods (produced for sale to other
domestic investment. industries).
» The region is the focus of the country’s road and rail » The tertiary sector (Figure 3.21) provides services
networks. It contains the main airports and seaports. to businesses and to people. Retail employees,
» More transnational companies are located in the drivers, architects, teachers and nurses are
southeast than in the rest of Brazil. With the examples of occupations in this sector.
highest population density in Brazil, the labour » The quaternary sector (Figure 3.22) uses high
supply here is plentiful. technology to provide information and expertise.
» The region also has the highest educational and Research and development is an important part of
skill levels in the country. this sector. Jobs in this sector include aerospace
The success of the first large wave of investment by engineers, research scientists, computer scientists
foreign companies in the southeast encouraged others and biotechnology workers.
to follow. For the last 60 years the area has experienced
an upward cycle of growth (cumulative causation).
Activities
1 Briefly explain two factors that can affect income
inequality in a country.
2 a Where is the economic core region of Brazil?
b Why is this region the most highly developed in the
country?
3 a What do the two diagrams in Figure 3.18 show?
b How do these diagrams relate to Figure 3.13?
▲ Figure 3.19 The primary sector: an oil well in Dorset, UK
Classifying production into

different economic sectors
In all modern economies of a significant size, people
do hundreds — and in some cases thousands — of
different jobs, all of which can be placed into four
broad economic sectors:
» The primary sector exploits raw materials from
land, water and air (Figure 3.19). Farming, fishing,
forestry, mining and quarrying make up most of the
jobs in this sector. Some primary products are sold
directly to the consumer but most go to secondary ▲ Figure 3.20 The secondary sector: grain processing factory,
industries for processing. Chicago, USA
183

3.1 DEvEloPMEnT
Quaternary
Research and
development
Primary Secondary Tertiary

Transport Transport
Supermarkets and
Farms Food processing other food sales
(tertiary) factories (tertiary)
Restaurants
▲ Figure 3.23 The food industry’s product chain
Activities
1 Define the terms:
a primary sector
b secondary sector
c tertiary sector
d quaternary sector.
2 Give three examples of jobs in each of the four
sectors of an economy.
3 Describe the food industry product chain shown in
Figure 3.23.
4 What job do you want to do when you complete your
education? In which sector of employment is this job?
How employment structure

▲ Figure 3.21 The tertiary sector: a street market in Nabul, Tunisia
varies
As an economy develops, the proportion of people
employed in each sector changes (Figure 3.24). Countries
such as the USA, Japan, Germany and the UK are ‘post-
industrial societies’ where the majority of people are
employed in the tertiary sector. Yet in 1900, 40 per cent
of employment in the USA was in the primary sector.
However, the mechanisation of farming, mining, forestry
and fishing drastically reduced the demand for labour in
these industries. As these jobs disappeared, people moved
to urban areas where secondary and tertiary employment
was expanding. Only about 2 per cent of employment in
the USA is now in the primary sector.
70
Sector % of employment
60 Tertiary
▲ Figure 3.22 The quaternary sector: a research scientist
50
40
The product chain can be used to illustrate the
30
four sectors of employment. The product chain is Secondary
the full sequence of activities needed to turn raw 20
materials into a finished product. The food industry 10 Primary
provides a good example (Figure 3.23). Some
0
companies are involved in all four stages of the Pre-industrial Industrial Post-industrial
food product chain. Time
▲ Figure 3.24 The sector model
184

How employment structure varies
Human labour has been steadily replaced in shows development indicators for the same three
manufacturing too. In more and more factories, countries. Such a comparison could be conducted
robots and other advanced machinery handle with a much larger number of countries and
assembly-line jobs, which once employed large the results of the comparison would be very
numbers of people. The most advanced forms of similar.
manufacturing are in the developed world. In 1950,
the same number of Americans were employed in Table 3.6 Development indicators for Australia, Malaysia and
manufacturing as in services. By 1980, two-thirds Bangladesh
were working in services. Today, four-fifths of Country GnI per % of population Infant mortality
Americans work in the tertiary sector. capita, 2016 urban, 2016 rate, 2016
The tertiary sector is also changing. In Australia 44,570 89 3.4
banking, insurance and many other types of Malaysia 26,140 75 6
business, computer networks have reduced the
Bangladesh 3,550 34 38
number of people required. But elsewhere service
employment is often rising, such as in health,
education and tourism. In developed countries A graphical method often used to compare the
employment in the quaternary sector has become employment structure of a large number of
more and more important. Employment in the countries is the triangular graph (Figure 3.25).
quaternary sector is a significant measure of how One side (axis) of the triangle is used to show the
advanced an economy is. data for each of the primary, secondary and tertiary
People in the poorest countries of the world sectors. Each axis is scaled from 0 to 100 per cent.
are heavily dependent on the primary sector for The indicators on the graph show how the data for
employment. Such countries are often primary the UK can be read. Figure 3.25 shows data for two
product dependent because they rely on one developing countries, two NICs and two developed
or a small number of primary products for all countries.
their export earnings. In newly industrialised
countries employment in manufacturing has
increased rapidly in recent decades. Table 3.5
compares the employment structure of a developed 100 0
country, a newly industrialised country (NIC)
and a developing country. The contrasts are very
considerable indeed and a good fit with the sector 80 20
Afghanistan
model presented above. Nigeria
Se
60 40
Table 3.5 Employment structure of a developed country, an NIC
ry
India
co
ma
and a developing country

da
Pri
ry
Country % primary % secondary % tertiary 40 60

Australia (developed) 4 21 75
Malaysia (NIC) 11 36 53 Brazil
20 80
Bangladesh 45 30 25
(developing) Secondary
Primary 18.2%
1.4% UK Japan
0 100
There is a clear link between employment structure 100 Tertiary 80 60
Tertiary
40 20 0
80.4%
and indicators of development. Compare the
▲ Figure 3.25 Triangular graph
data in Table 3.5 with those in Table 3.6, which
185

3.1 DEvEloPMEnT
value of what they sell). The 2016 list shows that

Activities the ten largest TNCs all had revenues of over
1 Look at Figure 3.24. Describe and explain how the $225 billion. The 100 largest TNCs represent a
employment structure of developed countries has significant proportion of total global production.
changed over time.
2 Describe and explain the different employment Table 3.7 The world’s 10 largest TNCs, 2016
structures of the three countries in Table 3.5.
3 Comment on the relationship between the data Rank Company Revenue Profits
presented in Tables 3.5 and 3.6. ($ billion) ($ billion) HQ country
4 a How would you classify each of the six countries 1 Wal-Mart 482 14.7 USA
shown in Figure 3.25? Stores
b On a copy of Figure 3.25, insert the employment
2 State Grid 350 10.2 China
structure positions of Australia, Malaysia and
Bangladesh (Table 3.5). 3 China National 299 7.1 China
Petroleum
4 Sinopec Group 294 3.6 China
The process of globalisation 5 Royal Dutch 272 1.9 Netherlands
Shell
6 Exxon Mobil 246 16.2 USA
7 Volkswagen 237 −1.5 Germany
8 Toyota Motor 237 19.3 Japan
9 Apple 234 53.4 USA
10 BP 226 −6.5 UK
TNCs and nation states (countries) are the two main

elements of the global economy. The governments of
countries individually and collectively set the rules
for the global economy, but the bulk of investment is
through TNCs, which are the main drivers of ‘global
shift’. Under this process manufacturing industry
at first, and more recently services, have relocated
▲ Figure 3.26 City of London emblem marking the boundary in significant numbers from developed countries
of the City of London, one of the world’s great financial centres to selected developing countries as TNCs have
taken advantage of lower labour costs and other
Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness ways to reduce costs. It is this process that has
and interdependence of the world, economically, resulted in the emergence of an increasing number
culturally and politically. Most political borders are of newly industrialised countries since the 1960s.
not the obstacles they once were and as a result The development of successive generations of newly
goods, capital, labour and ideas flow more freely industrialised countries is the major success story of
across them than ever before. globalisation.
Twenty years ago the vast majority of the world’s
Transnational corporations TNCs had their headquarters in North America,
A transnational corporation (TNC) is a firm that Western Europe and Japan. However, over the last
owns or controls productive operations in more than two decades the emerging economies of the newly
one country through foreign direct investment (FDI). industrialised countries such as South Korea, China
TNCs can exploit raw materials, produce goods such and India have been accounting for an increasing
as cars and oil, and provide services such as banking. slice of the global economy. Much of this economic
Table 3.7 shows the 10 largest TNCs in the world growth has been achieved through the expansion
according to the business journal Fortune. Every of their own most important companies, first
year Fortune publishes a list of the ‘Global 500’ — domestically (as national corporations) and more
the 500 largest TNCs in the world by revenue (the recently on an international basis (as TNCs).
186

The process of globalisation
Table 3.8 The potential advantages and disadvantages of TNCs — Nike to the USA and Vietnam
Country Possible advantages Possible disadvantages

USA: headquarters Positive employment impact and stimulus to Another US firm that does not manufacture in
the development of high-level skills in design, its own country — indirect loss of jobs and the
marketing and development in Beaverton, negative impact on balance of payments as
Oregon; direct and indirect contribution to local footwear is imported; trade unions complain of an
and national tax base uneven playing field because of the big contrast
in working conditions between developing and
developed countries
Vietnam: outsourcing Creates substantial employment in Vietnam; pays Concerns over the exploitation of cheap labour
higher wages than local companies; improves the and poor working conditions; allegations of
skills base of the local population; the success the use of child labour; company image and
of a global brand may attract other TNCs to advertising may help to undermine national
Vietnam, setting off the process of cumulative culture; concerns about the political influence
causation; exports are a positive contribution to of large TNCs; the knowledge that investment
the balance of payments; sets new standards could be transferred quickly to lower-cost
for indigenous companies; contribution to locations
local tax base helps pay for improvements to
infrastructure
TNCs have a huge impact on the global economy in the form of ideas, instructions and images. As time
general and in the countries in which they choose to has progressed, the diffusion of new ideas has
locate in particular. They play a major role in world speeded up so that a technical breakthrough in one
trade in terms of what and where they buy and sell. part of the world has had an impact on other parts
A considerable proportion of world trade is intra-firm, of the world much more quickly than ever before.
taking place within TNCs. Table 3.8 considers the The internet has been essential to the
possible advantages and disadvantages of Nike to development and speed of globalisation. It is the
the USA (its headquarters country) and Vietnam (an fastest-growing mode of communication ever. It
outsourcing country). took 38 years for radio to reach 50 million users,
The spread of a global consumer culture has been 13 years for television to reach this mark, but just
important to the success of many TNCs. The mass 4 years for the internet. It has been estimated
media have been used very effectively to encourage that the number of internet users around the world
consumers to ‘want’ more than they ‘need’. The power increased from 361 million in 2000 to 3.4 billion in
of brands and their global marketing strategies 2016. This gives a global internet penetration rate
cannot be underestimated. This is particularly so in (percentage of the population) of 47 per cent. By
food, beverages and fashion. world region this varied from 88 per cent in North
America to 27.7 per cent in Africa.
The role of technology The internet has allowed TNCs to manage complex
Advances in technology have affected all aspects operations all over the world and to talk to its
of global economic activity. Major advances in customers in large numbers directly. TNCs can react
transportation and telecommunications systems more quickly than ever before to changing consumer
have significantly reduced the geographical barriers demand.
separating countries and peoples. Transport The emergence of robotics technology is still at
systems are the means by which materials, products a relatively early stage. Examples of this technology
and people are transferred from place to place. include driverless cars and drones. The impact
Communications systems are the ways in which on business organisation and many sectors of
information is transmitted from place to place in employment will be considerable.
187

3.1 DEvEloPMEnT
Other factors responsible for

economic globalisation
Increasing economic Greatest ever global

Decreasing barriers to Increasing influence
power of major connectivity in transport
world trade of large TNCs
trade blocs and communications
Rising levels of
international migration
Capitalism now virtually
unchallenged as the global INFLUENCES ON THE
model for economic GLOBALISATION OF ECONOMIC
development ACTIVITY
Increasing levels of
outsourcing to lower-
wage economies
Increasing cultural Emergence of an

Highest ever levels of Growing influence of increasing number
diversity in a growing
international tourism global brands of NICs
number of countries
▲ Figure 3.27 Influences on the globalisation of economic activity
Figure 3.27 shows the main influences on the » The opening up of other economies, particularly
globalisation of economic activity. Until the post- those of China and India, as these countries wanted
1950 period, industrial production was mainly to benefit from the process of globalisation.
organised within individual countries. This has » The deregulation of world financial markets,
changed rapidly in the last 60 years or so with the allowing a much greater level of international
emergence of a new international division of labour competition in financial services.
(NIDL). The NIDL divides production into different
skills and tasks that are often spread across a number
of countries. The following are some other factors
responsible for economic globalisation:
» The increasing complexity of international trade
flows as the NIDL has developed.
» Major advances in trade liberalisation under the
World Trade Organization. The barriers to world
trade (tariffs, quotas and regulations) are much
lower today than in the past. This means that
there is more incentive to trade.
» The emergence of fundamentalist free-market
governments in the USA and the UK around 1980.
The economic policies, such as privatisation,
developed by these governments influenced policy-
making in many other countries.
» The emergence of an increasing number of newly
industrialised countries.
» The integration of the former Soviet Union and
its Eastern European satellites into the capitalist
system after the fall of communism in the late 1980s ▲ Figure 3.28 The fall of the Berlin Wall — the beginning of
(Figure 3.28). Now, no significant group of countries the integration of Eastern Europe into the free market system.
stands outside the free market global system. Top, a remaining part of the wall; bottom, a plaque to mark the
position where the wall once was
188

The impacts of globalisation: the global scale
39 per cent of global GDP. However, as Figure 3.30

Activities shows, there have been massive changes in the global
1 Define: economic order in recent decades. China and about 15
a globalisation other fast-growing non-Western economies, including
b transnational corporation. India, Indonesia and Thailand, are rapidly changing
2 Why have TNCs been so important in the process of
globalisation?
the composition of the global economy. This amounts
3 a How important are brands to TNCs? to one of the most rapid economic changes in history.
b Which brands impress you the most and why? Some countries have benefited much more than others
4 What has been the role of technology in in the changing world economic order.
globalisation?
5 Explain the new international division of labour.
6 State three factors responsible for economic 50
globalisation. Key
1990
40
Per cent of global GDP

2014
The impacts of globalisation: 30

2025 est.
the global scale 20
The changing world economic order 10

The rapid growth of newly industrialised countries
has brought about major changes in the economic 0
USA Africa Asia European Latin Middle
strength of countries. Figure 3.29 shows the Union America East
composition by country of the current global ▲ Figure 3.30 The increase in Asia’s share of global GDP
economy. The USA and China account for more than
Key
Africa
Asia
Australia
USA Europe
China 24.33% North America
14.84%
South America
Rest of the world
Japan
Germany
5.91%
4.54% Canada
2.09% South Africa 0.42%
Russia India Mexico
1.80% 2.83% 1.54%
South France Egypt 0.45%
Korea 3.26%
Saudi
1.86% Arabia
Turkey 0.87% 3% UK Italy
Nigeria 0.65%
a 0.5iland 3.85%
Netherland
s 2.46%
nesi 0.97%
Indo 6% Tha 7% 1.01%
Israel 0.4%
1.1 0.5 Sweden
UAE Iran Switzerland 0.9%
0.5% 0.67%
Spain Norway Australia 1.81%
Hong Kong 0.42%
1.62% 0.52% Denmark 0.4%
Malaysia 0.4% Poland
0.64% Austria 0.51%
Philippines 0.39% Rest of the world Argentina 0.79%
9.41%
Singapore 0.39% Brazil Colombia 0.39%
2.39%
Belgium 0.61% Ireland 0.38%
Venezuela 0.5%
▲ Figure 3.29 The global economy by GDP

189

3.1 DEvEloPMEnT
The development of a hierarchy of

global cities New inner city
residential areas,
CBD
The emergence of a network of global cities has been e.g. waterfront Concept of
developments 24-hour city
an important part of the process of globalisation. A
global city is one that is judged to be a significant
nodal point in the global economic system. These
are major financial and decision-making centres. New
York, London and Tokyo are the world’s major global New ASPECTS OF
Industrial
cities. The number of global cities has increased as suburban GLOBAL URBAN
estates
development UNIFORMITY
the process of globalisation has advanced, and so
has the level of competition between major cities.
Attracting more business creates jobs and wealth.
The international movement of Business Transport and

workers parks other urban
structure
In recent decades the international movement of Decentralised
retailing
workers has spanned a much wider range of countries
than ever before. This refers to both countries of
origin and destination. There are now over 100 ▲ Figure 3.31 Aspects of global urban uniformity
million migrant workers around the world. Migration
of labour is a key feature of globalisation, but in
some countries it can be a very controversial issue. Environmental degradation
In many parts of the world industrialisation,
The global movement of commodities urbanisation, capital-intensive farming and other
People around the world have a greater choice of major processes are having a devastating impact on
international commodities than ever before, although the environment causing:
in many developing countries the prices of such » air pollution
commodities are out of the reach of many people. » deforestation
However, even though people may not have the money to » land degradation and desertification
purchase a commodity, they become aware of the lifestyle » salinisation and contamination of water supplies
it attempts to portray because of advertising. Relatively » landscape change
cheap products from China and other NICs have helped » declines in biodiversity.
to keep inflation low in many developed countries and
allowed far more people to buy consumer goods. Much more decisive international action will be
required to limit the environmental impact of
The increasing uniformity of economic activity.
landscapes Cultural diffusion
Globalisation has undoubtedly had a significant
Cultural diffusion is the process of the spreading of
impact on the increasing uniformity of landscapes.
cultural traits from one place to another. The mixing
For example, Figure 3.31 illustrates the main ways in
of cultures is a major dimension of globalisation. This
which common urban characteristics have diffused
has occurred through:
around the world. Many developments will of course
encompass local traits as well, but the strong global » migration, which circulates ideas, values and
elements will be clear to see. Industrial, agricultural, beliefs around the world
touristic and transport landscapes have also become » the rapid spread of news, ideas and fashions
more uniform as similar processes worldwide have through the mass media, trade and travel
influenced their development. Some people find this » the growth of global brands such as Coca-Cola
disappointing as more and more places lose their and McDonald’s, which serve as common reference
‘uniqueness’. points
190

The impact of globalisation: the national scale
Table 3.9 Examples of the impacts of globalisation at global, national and local scales
Global national local

The growing power of TNCs and global Concerns about loss of sovereignty to Small local businesses often find it
brands regional and international organisations difficult to compete with major global
The emergence of an increasing number Increased cultural diversity from companies
of NICs international migration Closure of a TNC branch plant can cause
Development of a hierarchy of global Higher levels of incoming and outgoing high local unemployment
cities international tourism The populations of many local
The increasing complexity of the world TNCs employing an increasing share of communities have become more
economy the workforce multicultural
The emergence of English as the Increasing incidences of trans-boundary Greater variety of international cuisine
working language of the ‘global village’ pollution Families are now more likely to be
The emergence of powerful trade blocs The growth of anti-globalisation spread over different countries due to
movements as people worry about how increased international migration
Environmental degradation caused by
increasing economic activity important decisions are made Lower cost of international travel in real
TNCs avoiding paying tax in some terms
countries through ‘creative accounting’ The development of ‘ethnic villages’ in
— a very controversial issue large urban areas
» the internet, which has allowed individual and mass spreading their criticisms rapidly to all those who
communication on a scale never available before want to take an interest. Political protests now occur
» the transport revolution, which has facilitated the almost simultaneously in countries far apart because
mass movement of people and products around of the power and effectiveness of instant global
the world. communication.
The development of mass tourism The impact of globalisation:

Recent decades have witnessed the globalisation of
international tourism. International tourist arrivals the national scale
reached almost 1.2 billion in 2015, 76 per cent People in many countries are concerned about the
higher than in 2000, marking it out as a high-growth apparent loss of sovereignty of nation states. The
industry. An ever-increasing number of destinations loss of sovereignty results from the ceding of national
have become part of the global tourism network. autonomy to other organisations. The American
sociologist Benjamin Barber views the changes
Global civil society taking place as anti-democratic and threatening the
The development of a global civil society very foundations upon which the United States were
(environmental groups, protest movements, charities, built. Within the EU, many people are concerned that
trade unions etc.) has been an important aspect individual countries have given away too many powers
of the diffusion of ideas around the world. It has to the European Parliament and other EU organisations.
spawned new networks of communication that are However, in many countries the power of national
not government and company based. These networks governments has also been lost to TNCs and global civil
monitor the actions of governments and companies, society (Figure 3.32).
Nation states
Shift of power
NGOs Global and regional

Global civil society TNCs organisations
▲ Figure 3.32 The shift of power from nation states

191

3.1 DEvEloPMEnT
Table 3.10 The costs and benefits of globalisation to the UK

Perspective Benefits Costs
Economic As one of the world’s most ‘open’ economies, the UK High job losses in traditional industries due to global
attracts a very high level of foreign direct investment, shift and deindustrialisation
creating significant employment and contributing
TNCs can move investment away from the country as
to GDP; a high level of investment abroad by UK
quickly as they can bring it in, causing loss of jobs and
companies also increases national income
corporation tax
Financial deregulation has enhanced the position of the
Speculative investment, causing economic
City as one of the world’s top three financial centres
uncertainty, has increased with financial deregulation
Low-cost manufactured goods from China and
There is a widening gap between the highest- and
elsewhere have helped keep inflation low
lowest-paid workers
Social Economic growth has facilitated high levels of A strong economy has attracted a very high level of
spending on education and health in particular immigration in recent years, with increasing concerns
that this is unsustainable
Globalisation is a large factor in the increasingly
cosmopolitan nature of UK society
The transport and communications revolution has
transformed lifestyles
Political Strong trading relationships with a large number of Voter apathy, as many people see loss of political
other countries brings political influence. power to the EU and major TNCs
As a member of the EU, a member state can extend International terrorism is a growing threat with
its influence to areas where is was not previously well increasing ethnic diversity, rapid transportation and
represented more open borders
Environmental Deindustrialisation has improved environmental Population growth has an impact on the environment,
conditions in many areas with increasing demand for land, water and other
resources
Increasing international cooperation to solve cross-
border environmental issues gives a better chance of Rapid industrial growth in China and elsewhere has an
such problems being addressed impact on the global environment, including the UK
TNCs have increased their influence in many countries income countries. As the scale of global economic
and become major employers. However, TNCs can close activity has increased, concerns about trans-boundary
operations in one country and open up in another pollution have grown. A major pollution incident in
very quickly. This is a worry for governments as many one country may have significant consequences in a
jobs can be lost in major business closures. Some neighbouring country. Anti-globalisation movements
governments have found it difficult to collect what have developed in many countries to voice concerns
they think is a fair amount of tax from TNCs. This has over a range of issues associated with globalisation.
become an increasingly controversial issue. Table 3.10 summarises some of the costs and benefits
High levels of international migration have increased of globalisation to the UK.
cultural diversity in many countries. This can bring
advantages and disadvantages to host countries.
Tensions can arise when economic conditions are The impact of globalisation:
difficult and there are not enough jobs to go round. For
many countries the growth in international tourism has
the local scale
made it an important source of foreign currency and Think of the area or region in which you live.
a more important source of employment. However, an What is the evidence that it has been affected by
increase in tourism can have costs as well as benefits. globalisation? It may be, for example:
As the scale of economic activity expands, » Small local businesses have found it hard to
increasing consumption of resources, particularly compete with major global companies. Many
water, can cause tensions between neighbouring local areas have mounted ‘support local shops’
countries. Competition for energy and other resources campaigns. The unique character of shopping areas
drives prices upwards, making life particularly difficult can be damaged if too many local shops close and
for low-income countries and the poor in higher- valuable jobs can be lost.
192

The impact of globalisation: the local scale
» The populations of many local communities have » Increased international migration might mean
become more multicultural and in the process more that families in a region are now more likely to be
culturally diverse. One example might be a greater spread over different countries. For younger people
variety of foreign restaurants and ethnic shops the motive is often to enhance career prospects
today compared with 20 years ago. and improve their quality of life, but retirement
» In urban areas of a significant size, a number of migration is also an important trend. People are
ethnic ‘villages’ may be recognised. more mobile than ever before.
Activities
1 Use Figure 3.29 to make a list of the world’s ten largest 3 What do you understand by the term ‘global urban
economies by GDP. uniformity’?
2 Describe the changes shown in Figure 3.30. 4 Explain the process of cultural diffusion.
5 What does Figure 3.32 show?
Case study: Tata Group and its global links

Indian companies — both private and government-owned • Jaguar and Land Rover by Tata Motors for $2.5 billion
organisations — are becoming increasingly transnational in 2008 (Figure 3.33).
in their operations. India really emerged as a newly
The objective has often been to buy world-renowned
industrialised country in the 1990s when important
brands that are synonymous with high quality. If a brand
economic reforms began to open up the country to foreign
name is well known it becomes much easier to increase
investment and made it easier for Indian companies to
sales in foreign markets if the company is being well
forge international links and to operate abroad. Other
managed. Other Tata companies active in the UK are Tata
significant policy changes since 2000 have contributed to
Consultancy Services and Tata Global Beverages.
the recent rapid growth of Indian outward FDI.
However, with the onset of the global economic
Tata is perceived to be India’s best-known global
downturn in 2008, some Tata companies in the UK
brand. It was founded in 1868 by Jamsetji Tata as a
encountered problems with regard to profitability. The
trading company. Tata Group is an Indian transnational
major concern was the large losses made by Tata Steel.
conglomerate company, which remains family-owned.
Tata Group has set great store by its reputation for
With its headquarters in Mumbai, it encompasses seven
social responsibility, which began in India, but which has
business sectors:
also spread abroad in more recent years. It was awarded
• Communications and information technology the Carnegie Medal for Philanthropy in 2007.
• Engineering
• Materials
• Services
• Energy
• Consumer products
• Chemicals.
Tata Group has over 100 companies with each of them
operating independently. Some of the largest of these
companies are Tata Steel, Tata Motors, Tata Consultancy
Services, Tata Power, Tata Chemicals and Tata Global
Beverages. In recent decades Tata has expanded rapidly
around the world. Tata Group now has operations in more
than 100 countries and receives more than 60 per cent of
its revenue from outside India. In 2016, the total number of
employees worldwide was 660,000. Tata Group has steadily ▲ Figure 3.33 Jaguar/Land Rover — a long-standing UK
moved up the ‘value chain’ by producing more sophisticated brand acquired by Tata in 2008
and higher-value products. In 2015–16, the revenue of Tata
Case study analysis
companies, taken together, was $104 billion.
Tata has a considerable presence in the UK. Key 1 Why do you think Tata Group has expanded abroad so
acquisitions there have included: rapidly in recent decades?
2 Describe Tata Group’s presence in the UK.
• Tetley Group by Tata Tea for $430 million in 2000 3 Look at the website for the Tata Group (www.tata.com)
• Corus Group by Tata Steel for $13 billion in 2007 to see the latest developments in this large group of
companies. Produce a brief fact file of your findings.
193

3.2 Food production
Key questions
H What are the main features of an agricultural system?
H What are the causes and effects of food shortages and the possible
solutions to this problem?
Agricultural systems
Individual farms and general types of farming can
be seen to operate as a system. A farm requires a
range of inputs, such as labour and energy, so that
the processes that take place on the farm, such as
ploughing and harvesting, can be carried out. The
aim is to produce the best possible outputs, such as
milk, eggs, meat and crops. A profit will only be made
if the income from selling the outputs is greater than
expenditure on the inputs and processes. Figure 3.35
is an input-process-output diagram for a wheat farm.
Different types of agricultural system can be found
within individual countries and around the world. The
most basic distinctions are between:
▲ Figure 3.34 Sheep farming in New Zealand — New Zealand
is a major exporter of food
» arable, pastoral and mixed farming
» subsistence and commercial farming
Inputs Processes Outputs
Land
• Preparing land
Energy • Ploughing
Main product
• Harrowing
Labour • Manuring (wheat grain for sale for
further processing)
• Sowing
Machinery
• Fertilising
By-product
• Weeding
Administrative and organisational costs
• Pest control (straw bales for animal feed)
• Harvesting
Fertilisers
(modern
machinery can Waste product
Pesticides
combine some of
(stubble, burned or ploughed
these processes)
in to enrich soil for next year)
Seeds
Recycled product
(seed grain for next year)

▲ Figure 3.35 Systems diagram for a wheat farm
194

Agricultural systems
» extensive and intensive farming Subsistence and commercial

» organic and non-organic farming.
farming
Arable, pastoral and mixed farming Subsistence farming is the most basic form of
agriculture, in which the produce is consumed
Arable farms (Figure 3.36) cultivate crops and are
entirely or mainly by the family who work the land
not involved with livestock. An arable farm may
or tend the livestock. If a small surplus is produced
concentrate on one crop (monoculture) such as
it may be sold or traded. Examples of subsistence
wheat, or may grow a range of different crops. The
farming are shifting cultivation and nomadic
crops grown on an arable farm may change over
pastoralism (Figure 3.37). Subsistence farming is
time. For example, if the market price of potatoes
generally small scale and labour intensive with little
increases, more farmers will be attracted to grow this
or no technological input.
crop. Pastoral farming involves keeping livestock
In contrast, the objective of commercial farming
such as dairy cattle, beef cattle, sheep and pigs.
is to sell everything that the farm produces. The aim
Mixed farming involves cultivating crops and keeping
is to maximise yields in order to achieve the highest
livestock together on a farm. Usually on a mixed farm
profits possible. Commercial farming can vary from
at least part of the crop production will be used to
small scale (Figure 3.38) to very large scale. The very
feed the livestock.
largest farms are often owned by TNCs.
▲ Figure 3.36 Arable farming in the Nile valley, with the ▲ Figure 3.38 The output of local poultry production in a
pyramids in the background Moroccan market
Commercial agriculture
Subsistence agriculture
commercial
collectives grain
communes (extensive)
plantations
(intensive)
(extensive) irrigation
shifting intensive (intensive) Arable
Mediterranean
cultivation subsistence
(intensive) market
(extensive) (rice)
gardening
hunters and (intensive)
collectors
(extensive)
nomadic Pastoral
pastoral ranching
herding
(extensive)
(extensive) dairying
(intensive)
Shifting cultivation Sedentary cultivation

▲ Figure 3.37 Farming types and levels of development
195

3.2 Food production
Extensive and intensive farming The influence of natural

Extensive farming is where a relatively small
amount of agricultural produce is obtained per and human inputs on
hectare of land, so such farms tend to cover large
areas of land. Inputs per unit of land are low.
agricultural land use
Extensive farming can be both arable and pastoral A wide range of factors combine to influence
in nature. Examples of extensive farming are agricultural land use and practices on farms. These
sheep farming in Australia and wheat cultivation can be placed under the general headings of physical,
on the Canadian Prairies. In contrast, intensive economic, social/cultural and political factors.
farming is characterised by high inputs per unit of
land to achieve high yields per hectare. Examples
Physical factors
of intensive farming include market gardening, Figure 3.39 shows the type of landscape that farmers
viticulture, dairy farming and horticulture. Intensive have to adapt to in the mountainous country of
farms tend to be relatively small in terms of land Nepal. Historically, terracing has been the answer, a
area. technique that remains important today.
Organic farming
Organic farming does not use manufactured
chemicals, so production is without the use of
chemical fertilisers, pesticides, insecticides and
herbicides. Instead, animal and green manures
are used along with mineral fertilisers such as
fish and bone meal. Organic farming therefore
requires a higher input of labour than mainstream
farming. Weeding is a major task in this type
of farming. Organic farming is less likely to
result in soil erosion and is less harmful to the
environment in general. For example, there will be
no nitrate runoff into streams and much less harm
to wildlife.
Organic farming tends not to produce the ‘perfect’ ▲ Figure 3.39 Terracing in Nepal
potato, tomato or carrot. However, because of the
increasing popularity of organic produce it commands North America, for example, has many different physical
a substantially higher price than mainstream farm environments. This allows a wide variety of crops to
produce. be grown and livestock kept. New technology and high
levels of investment have steadily extended farming
Activities into more difficult environments. Irrigation has enabled
1 Describe the inputs, processes and outputs for the farming to flourish in the dry southwest, while new
wheat farm shown in Figure 3.35. varieties of wheat have pushed production northwards
2 a Explain the difference between arable and pastoral in Canada. However, the physical environment remains
farming. a big influence on farming. There are certain things
b What is mixed farming?
3 Discuss the differences between:
that technology and investment can do little to alter.
a commercial and subsistence farming So relief, climate and soils set broad limits as to what
b intensive and extensive farming. can be produced. This leaves the farmer with some
4 Describe the characteristics of organic farming. choices, even in difficult environments. The farmer’s
decisions are then influenced by economic, social/
cultural and political factors.
196

The influence of natural and human inputs on agricultural land use
traditional method and subsurface (drip) irrigation

the most advanced technique.
Figure 3.41 shows an irrigation canal in northern
Spain. Irrigation canals of this size can transport
large volumes of water, which can then be filtered
down to smaller volumes so that a large area of land
can be irrigated.
▲ Figure 3.40 Goats feeding from a bowl (because the ground

is frozen) in cold central Asia
Temperature is a critical factor in crop growth
as each type of crop requires a minimum growing
temperature and a minimum growing season.
Latitude, altitude and distance from the sea are the
major influences on temperature. Precipitation is
equally important. This is not just the annual total,
but the way it is distributed throughout the year.
Long, steady periods of rainwater to infiltrate into ▲ Figure 3.41 Irrigation canal in northern Spain
the soil are best, making water available for crop table 3.11 Types of irrigation
growth. In contrast, short heavy downpours can
result in surface runoff, leaving less water available type of irrigation Efficiency (%)
for crop growth and soil erosion. Surface — used in over 80% of irrigated
fields worldwide:
Soil type and fertility have a huge impact on
(a) Furrow: traditional method; cheap to 20–60
agricultural productivity. Often, areas that have never
install; labour-intensive; high water
been cleared for farming were ignored because soil losses; susceptible to erosion and
fertility was poor or perceived to be poor. In some salinisation
regions wind can have a serious impact on farming, (b) Basin: cheap to install and run; needs a 50–75
for example causing bush fires in some US states such lot of water; susceptible to salinisation
as California. Locally, aspect and the angle of slope and waterlogging
may also be important factors in deciding how to use Aerial (using sprinklers) — used in 10–15% 60–80
the land. of irrigation worldwide; costly to install and
run; low-pressure sprinklers preferable
In Canada, farming is severely restricted by
Sub-surface (‘drip’) — used in 1% of 75–95
climate. Less than 8 per cent of the total area of the
irrigation worldwide; high capital costs;
country is farmed. Seventy per cent of Canada lies sophisticated monitoring; very efficient
north of the thermal limit for crop growth.
Water is vital for agriculture. Irrigation is an
important factor in farming not just in North Economic factors
America, but in many other parts of the world as well. Economic factors include transport, markets, capital
Table 3.11 compares the main types of irrigation. and technology. The cost of growing different crops
This is an example of the ‘ladder’ of agricultural or keeping different livestock varies. The market
technology, with surface irrigation being the most prices for agricultural products will vary also and can
197

3.2 Food production
change from year to year. The necessary investment of farms by these processes often reduces them to
in buildings and machinery can mean that some operating at only a subsistence level.
changes in farming activities are very expensive. In most societies women have very unequal access
These would be more difficult to achieve than other, to, and control over, rural land and associated
cheaper changes. Thus it is not always easy for resources. It is now generally accepted that societies
farmers to react quickly to changes in consumer with well-recognised property rights are also the ones
demand. that thrive best economically and socially.
In most countries there has been a trend towards
fewer but larger farms. Large farms allow economies Political factors
of scale to operate, which reduce the unit costs of The influence of government on farming has steadily
production. As more large farms are created, small increased in many countries. For example, in the USA
farms find it increasingly difficult to compete and the main parts of government farm policy over the
make a profit. Selling to a larger neighbouring farm past half-century have been:
may be the only economic solution. The EU is an
» price support loans: loans that tide farmers over
example of a region where average farm size varies
until they sell their produce
significantly. Those countries with a large average
» production controls: these limit how much a farmer
farm size generally have more efficient agricultural
can produce of surplus crops
sectors than countries with a small average
» income supplements: these are cash payments to
farm size.
farmers for major crops in years when market prices
Agricultural technology is the application of
fail to reach certain levels.
techniques to control the growth and harvesting of
animal and vegetable products. The development Thus the decisions made by individual farmers are
and application of agricultural technology requires heavily influenced by government policies such as
investment and thus it is an economic factor. The those listed above. An agricultural policy can cover
status of a country’s agricultural technology is vital more than one country, as evidenced by the EU’s
for its food security and other aspects of its quality Common Agricultural Policy.
of life. An important form of aid is the transfer of
agricultural technology from more advanced to less
advanced countries. Activities
1 List the main physical factors that can influence
Social/cultural factors farming.
What a particular farm and neighbouring farms have 2 Summarise the information presented in Table 3.11.
3 Why has the size of farms steadily increased in many
produced in the past can be a significant influence agricultural regions?
on current farming practices. There is a tendency for 4 Briefly state the importance of advances in
farmers to stay with what they know best and often a agricultural technology.
sense of transgenerational responsibility to maintain 5 Give an example of how a social/cultural factor can
a family farming tradition. Tradition matters more in have an impact on farming.
6 How can political factors influence farming?
some farming regions than others.
Land tenure means the ways in which land is or
can be owned. In the past inheritance laws have
had a huge impact on the average size of farms. Interesting note
In some countries it has been the custom on the In terms of the export of food and agricultural
death of a farmer to divide the land equally between products, the major countries by value of exports
all his sons, but rarely between daughters. Also,
in 2015 were the USA, the Netherlands, Germany,
dowry customs may include the giving of land with
China, Brazil and France.
a daughter on marriage. The reduction in the size
198

The influence of natural and human inputs on agricultural land use
case study: An agricultural system — intensive rice production in the lower

Ganges valley
Location are extremely water intensive. Ninety per cent of
agricultural water in Asia is used for rice production.
An important area of intensive subsistence rice cultivation
The International Rice Research Institute estimates
is the lower Ganges valley (Figure 3.42) in India and
that it takes 5000 litres of water to produce 1 kilogram
Bangladesh. The Ganges basin is India’s most extensive
of rice. Much of Asia’s rice production can be classed
and productive agricultural area and its most densely
as intensive subsistence cultivation, in which the crop
populated. The delta region of the Ganges occupies
is grown on very small plots of land using a very high
a large part of Bangladesh, one of the most densely
input of labour. Rice cultivation by small farmers
populated countries in the world. Rice contributes over
is sometimes referred to as ‘pre-modern intensive
75 per cent of the diet in many parts of the region. The
farming’ because of the traditional techniques used,
physical conditions in the lower Ganges valley and delta
in contrast to intensive farming systems in developed
are very suitable for rice cultivation:
countries such as market gardening, which are very
• temperatures of 21°C and over throughout the year capital intensive.
(Figure 3.43), allowing two crops to be grown annually ‘Wet rice’ is grown in the fertile silt and flooded
(rice needs a growing season of only 100 days) areas of the lowlands, while ‘dry rice’ is cultivated on
• monsoon rainfall over 2000 mm, providing sufficient terraces on the hillsides. A terrace is a levelled section
water for the fields to flood, which is necessary for ‘wet of a hilly cultivated area. Terracing is a method of
rice’ cultivation soil conservation. It also prevents the rapid runoff of
• rich alluvial soils built up through regular flooding over irrigated water. Dry rice is easier to grow but provides
a long time period during the monsoon season lower yields than wet rice.
• an important dry period for harvesting the rice.
the farming system
padi-fields (flooded parcels of land) characterise lowland
New Delhi
rice production (Figure 3.44). Water for irrigation is
NEPAL utra
N Ga map provided either when the Ganges floods or by means of
Ya
m ng Brah
un es Patna gravity canals. At first, rice is grown in nurseries. It is then
a transplanted when the monsoon rains flood the padi-
BANGLADESH
fields. The flooded fields may be stocked with fish for an
INDIA Dhaka
0 200 km additional source of food. The main rice crop is harvested
Kolkata when the drier season begins in late October. The rice crop
ng
es
gives high yields per hectare. A second rice crop can then
Major rice growing areas f th e
Ga
Mouths o be planted in November, although water supply can be a
Highland Bay of Bengal problem in some areas for the second crop.
▲ Figure 3.42 The lower Ganges valley
30
Monsoon rains begin. Rice 400
25 planted in padi-fields
350
Temperature (°C)
20 300
Rainfall (mm)
Rice
Second crop harvested 250
15 harvested in drier
weather
200
Still warm
10 Second
150
enough for
crops to crop
100
5 grow planted
50
0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D ▲ Figure 3.44 Rice padi-field scene in lower Ganges valley
▲ Figure 3.43 Climate graph for Kolkata Water buffalo are used for work. This is the only draught
animal adapted for life in wetlands. The water buffalo
A water intensive staple crop provide an important source of manure in the fields.
Rice is the staple or main food crop in many parts However, the manure is also used as domestic fuel. The
of Asia. This is not surprising considering its high labour-intensive nature of rice cultivation provides work
nutritional value. Current rice production systems
199

3.2 Food production
for large numbers of people. This is important in areas of Rice seeds are stored from one year to provide the next
very dense population where there are limited alternative year’s crop. During the dry season, when there may be
employment opportunities. The low incomes and lack of insufficient water for rice cultivation, other crops such as
capital of these subsistence farmers means that hand cereals and vegetables are grown. Farms are generally
labour still dominates in the region. It takes an average of small, often no more than 1 hectare in size. Many farmers
2000 hours a year to farm 1 hectare of land. A high labour are tenants and pay for use of the land by giving a share of
input is needed to: their crop to the landlord.
• build the embankments (bunds) that surround the case study analysis
fields — these are stabilised by tree crops such as 1 Describe the location of the lower Ganges valley.
coconut and banana 2 Why is rice cultivation in the area considered to be an
• construct irrigation canals where they are required for intensive form of agriculture?
adequate water supply to the fields 3 Explain why the physical environment provides good
• plant nursery rice, plough the padi-field, transplant conditions for rice cultivation.
the rice from the nursery to the padi-field, weed and 4 Describe the inputs, processes and outputs of this type
harvest the mature rice crop of agriculture.
• cultivate other crops in the dry season and possibly
tend a few chickens or other livestock.
Causes and effects of food 870 million people were malnourished, with the
food crisis growing in Africa and the Middle East.
shortages The impact of such problems has been felt most
intensely in developing countries, where adequate
Causes food stocks to cover emergencies affecting food
Food shortages can occur because of both natural and supply usually do not exist. However, developed
human problems. The natural problems that can lead countries have not been without their problems.
to food shortages include: For example, in recent years both the USA and
Australia have suffered severe drought conditions.
» soil exhaustion So developed countries are not immune from the
» drought physical problems that can cause food shortages.
» floods However, they invariably have the human resources to
» tropical cyclones cope with such problems, so actual food shortages do
» pests not generally occur.
» disease.
However, economic and political factors can also
Short-term and long-term effects
contribute to food shortages. Such factors include: The effects of food shortages are both short-term and
longer-term. Malnutrition can affect a considerable
» low capital investment number of people, particularly children, within
» rapidly rising population a relatively short period when food supplies are
» poor distribution/transport difficulties significantly reduced. With malnutrition people are less
» conflict situations. resistant to disease and more likely to fall ill. Such
In late 2012, the UN warned of an imminent diseases include beri-beri (vitamin B1 deficiency),
worldwide food crisis, highlighting three major rickets (vitamin D deficiency) and kwashiorkor (protein
problems: deficiency). People who are continually starved of
nutrients never fulfil their physical or intellectual
» global grain reserves at critically low levels potential. Malnutrition reduces people’s capacity to
» rising food prices creating unrest in many countries work so that land may not be properly tended and
» extreme weather resulting in the climate being ‘no other forms of income successfully pursued. This is
longer reliable’. threatening to lock parts of the developing world into
In the same year the Food and Agriculture an endless cycle of ill-health, low productivity and
Organization estimated that around the world underdevelopment.
200

Causes and effects of food shortages
case study: A region suffering from food shortages — Sudan and South Sudan
The countries of Sudan and South Sudan (Figures 3.45 and
3.46), which were the single country of Sudan until 2011, have
suffered food shortages for decades. The long civil war and
drought have been the main reasons for famine in Sudan, but
there are many associated factors as well (Figure 3.47).
The civil war, which lasted for over 20 years, was
between the government in Khartoum and rebel forces in
the western region of Darfur and in the south (now South
Sudan). A Christian Aid document in 2004 described Sudan
as ‘A country still gripped by a civil war that has been
fuelled, prolonged and part-financed by oil’. One of the
big issues between the two sides in the civil war was the
sharing of oil wealth between the government-controlled
north and the south of the country where much of the oil is ▲ Figure 3.46 The fertile banks of the River Nile in Sudan,
found. The United Nations has estimated that up to 2 million with desert beyond
people were displaced by the civil war and more than 70,000
people died from hunger and associated diseases. At times, The separation of Sudan into two countries has not occurred
the UN World Food Programme stopped deliveries of vital easily. There has been intermittent fighting in border regions.
food supplies because the situation was considered too This, along with economic instability, has undermined
dangerous for the drivers and aid workers. agricultural production.
EGYPT Red SAUDI • In March 2013, the World Food Programme warned that
LIBYA Sea ARABIA more than 4.1 million people were likely to be short of
Sahara Desert
Wadi Haifa food in South Sudan in that year. This is approximately
Nubian Desert 40 per cent of the new country’s population.
• In July 2014, the UN described South Sudan’s food
Libyan Desert crisis as ‘the worst in the world’. The UN said there
CHAD Atbara
SUDAN ERITREA was ‘catastrophic food insecurity’ in the country. It
Omdurman urged donor nations who had pledged $618 million in
Khartoum Kassala aid to fulfil their promises.
DARFUR
Al Fashir
e
• In May 2016, the UN warned that more than 5 million

Nil
people in South Sudan would face severe food shortage

ite
El Obeid
in the coming months.
Wh
Nyala Blue Nile

case study analysis
SOUTH SUDAN Malakal
1 Describe the location of Sudan and South Sudan.
Wau ETHIOPIA
N
2 a With the help of Figure 3.47, explain the causes of
Bor food shortages in recent decades.
Juba b Suggest what needs to happen for the situation to
0 400 km improve.
DEM. REP. CONGO UGANDA KENYA 3 How bad has the food shortage situation in South
Sudan been in recent years?
▲ Figure 3.45 Sudan and South Sudan 4 Use the internet to find out about the current situation
in Sudan and South Sudan.
201

3.2 Food production
Physical factors Social factors Agricultural factors Economic/political factors

• Long-term decline of • High population • Highly variable per capita • High dependency on farming (70%
rainfall in southern growth (3%) linked to food production; long- of labour force; 37% of GDP)
Sudan use of marginal land term the trend is static • Dependency on food imports (13%
• Increased rainfall (overgrazing, erosion) • Static (cereals and pulses) of consumption 1998–2000) whilst
variability • High female illiteracy or falling (roots and exporting non-food goods,
• Increased use of rates (65%) tubers) crop yields e.g. cotton
marginal land leading • Poor infant health • Low and falling fertiliser • Limited access to markets to buy
to degradation • Increased threat of use (compounded by food or infrastructure to
• Flooding AIDS falling export receipts) distribute it
• Lack of a food surplus • Debt and debt repayments limit
for use in crisis social and economic spending
• High military spending
Drought in
southern Sudan
Shorter-term factors leading to increased Sudanese Conflict in Darfur
compounds low
food insecurity and famine reduces food
food intake; any
production and
remaining
distribution
surpluses Both reduce food availability in Sudan and inflate food prices
quickly used
Situation compounded by:

• Lack of government political will
• Slow donor response
• Limited access to famine areas
• Regional food shortages
▲ Figure 3.47 Summary of causes of famine in Sudan
Possible solutions to food

shortages
Food aid
In the short term, and in some instances the medium
term, food aid is absolutely vital to cope with food
shortages (Figure 3.48). When disaster strikes there
is no alternative to this strategy. According to the
charity ActionAid there are three types of food aid:
» relief food aid, which is delivered directly to
people in times of crisis
▲ Figure 3.48 Food aid being delivered in Haiti
» programme food aid, which is provided directly
to the government of a country for sale in local
markets (this usually comes with conditions from Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Food Aid
the donor country) Convention.
» project food aid, which is targeted at specific groups
Food aid is vital to communities in many
of people as part of longer-term development work. countries, particularly in Africa but also in parts of
Asia and Latin America. However, it is not without
The USA and the EU together provide about controversy:
two-thirds of global food aid deliveries. At the » The charity CARE has criticised the method of US
international level the main organisations are the food aid to Africa. CARE sees the selling of heavily
UN World Food Programme (WFP), the UN Food and subsidised US produced food in African countries
202

Possible solutions to food shortages
as undermining the ability of African farmers to and had a shorter growing season than the traditional
produce for local markets, making countries even varieties they replaced (Figure 3.49). Although the
more dependent on aid to avoid famine. CARE wants benefits of the Green Revolution are clear, serious
the USA to send money to buy food locally instead. criticisms have also been made. The two sides of the
» Friends of the Earth say that a genetically modified story can be summarised as follows:
rice, not allowed for human consumption and
originating in the USA, has been found in food aid Advantages
in West Africa. » Yields are twice to four times greater than for
» Food aid is very expensive, not least because of traditional varieties.
the high transport costs involved. » The shorter growing season has allowed the
There have been recent concerns that food aid may introduction of an extra crop in some areas.
be required for even more people in the future. In » Farming incomes have increased, allowing the
recent years, the term ‘global food crisis’ has been purchase of machinery, better seeds, fertilisers and
used more and more by the media. Steep increases pesticides.
in the price of food have caused big problems in a » The diet of rural communities is now more varied.
number of countries. Major protests about the price » Local infrastructure has been upgraded to
of food have taken place in countries including Haiti, accommodate a stronger market approach.
Indonesia, the Philippines and Egypt. The World Bank » Employment has been created in industries
has warned that progress on development could be supplying farms with inputs.
destroyed by rapidly rising food costs. » Higher returns have justified a significant increase
in irrigation.
The Green Revolution
Disadvantages
» High inputs of fertiliser and pesticide are required
to optimise production. This is costly in both
economic and environmental terms. In some areas
rural indebtedness has risen sharply.
» HYVs require more weed control and are often more
susceptible to pests and diseases.
» Middle and higher-income farmers have often
benefited much more than the majority on low
incomes, thus widening the income gap in rural
communities. Increased rural-to-urban migration
has often been the result.
» Mechanisation has increased rural unemployment.
▲ Figure 3.49 Green Revolution crops being harvested in Brazil
» Some HYVs have an inferior taste.
» The problem of salinisation has increased along
The package of agricultural improvements generally with the expansion of irrigated areas.
known as the Green Revolution was seen as the answer
to the food problem in many parts of the developing In recent years a much greater concern has arisen
world in the post-1960 period. India was one of about Green Revolution agriculture. The problem is
the first countries to benefit when a high-yielding that the high-yielding varieties introduced during
variety (HYV) seed programme started in 1966–67. In the Green Revolution are usually low in minerals and
terms of production it was a turning point for Indian vitamins. Because the new crops have displaced the
agriculture, which had virtually reached stagnation. local fruits, vegetables and legumes that traditionally
The programme introduced new hybrid varieties of supplied important vitamins and minerals, the diet
five cereals: wheat, rice, maize, sorghum and millet. of many people in the developing world is now
All were drought-resistant with the exception of rice, extremely low in zinc, iron, vitamin A and other
were very responsive to the application of fertilisers, micronutrients.
203

3.2 Food production
The Green Revolution has been a major factor in regulation) as well as adequate food to meet local
enabling global food supply to keep pace with and consumer needs; and (c) increased trade and
population growth, but with growing concerns about a improved market access by improving infrastructure
new food crisis, new technological advances may well be and reducing trade barriers.
required to improve the global food security situation. » Options with long-term effects are: (a) limit
global warming, including the promotion of
UNEP’s options for improving food climate-friendly agricultural production systems
security and land use policies at a scale to help mitigate
The United Nations Environment Programme has climate change; and (b) raise awareness of the
argued that increasing food energy efficiency pressures of increasing population growth and
provides a critical path for significant growth in consumption patterns on sustainable ecosystem
food supply without compromising environmental functioning.
sustainability.
» Options with short-term effects are: (a) price Activities
regulation on commodities and larger cereal stocks 1 List three physical and three human causes of food
to decrease the risk of highly volatile prices; and shortages.
(b) reduce/remove subsidies on biofuels to cut the 2 What is malnutrition and how can it impact on people
capture of cropland by biofuels. and countries?
3 Describe the different types of food aid.
» Options with mid-term effects are: (a) reduce
4 Why is food aid sometimes controversial?
the use of cereals and food fish in animal feed; 5 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Green
(b) support farmers in developing diversified Revolution farming.
eco-agricultural systems that provide critical 6 Comment briefly on UNEP’s options for improving
ecosystem services (for example water supply and food security.
204

3.3 Industry
Key questions
H What are the stages of an industrial system?
H What are the factors influencing the distribution and location of factories
and industrial zones?
» Inputs are the elements that are required for

the processes to take place. Inputs include raw
materials, labour, energy and capital.
» Processes are the industrial activities that take
place in the factory to make the finished product.
For example, in the car industry, processes include
moulding sheet steel into the shaped panels that
make up the car, welding and painting.
» Outputs comprise the finished product or products
that are sold to customers. Sometimes by-products
may be produced. A by-product is something that
is left over from the main production process that
has some value and therefore can be sold. All
manufacturing industries produce waste products,
which have no value and must be disposed of.
▲ Figure 3.50 Pulp and paper mill, British Columbia, Canada Costs will be incurred in the disposal of waste
products.
Industrial systems and types To ‘manufacture’ means to ‘make’. Manufacturing
Manufacturing industry as a whole, or an individual industry is the general term used for the secondary
factory, can be regarded as a system. Industrial sector of economic activity. Manufacturing is often
systems, like agricultural systems, have inputs, described or classified by the use of opposing
processes and outputs (Figure 3.51). terms, such as ‘heavy industry’ and ‘light industry’
RE-INVESTMENT
INPUTS PROCESSES OUPUTS
First processing stage

(e.g. pulp, steel)
Products for sale
Physical inputs
(e.g. timber, iron ore)
By-products
and human/economic inputs Second processing stage,
(e.g. labour, capital) (e.g. newspapers) or Waste product
assembling of parts
(e.g. cars)
Expenditure (costs) Stores Profit and loss
▲ Figure 3.51 Industrial systems diagram

205

3.3 Industry
(Table 3.12). In this case iron and steel would be ‘High-tech’ companies use or make silicon chips,
an example of a heavy industry, using large amounts computers, software, robots, aerospace components
of bulky raw materials, processing on a huge scale and other very technically advanced products. These
and producing final products of a significant size. companies put a great deal of money into scientific
In contrast, the assembly of computers is a light research. Their aim is to develop newer, even more
industry. Figure 3.52 shows another example of a advanced products. Think of the latest products from
light industry — a factory producing tapestries in companies such as Apple, Samsung and Sony.
Vietnam. High-technology industries often cluster together
in science parks, the idea for which was originally
created in the USA. They are often found in close
proximity to leading universities because of the need
to employ well-qualified graduates in science and
technology, and to be aware of the latest research
taking place in universities. The Cambridge Science
Park is a major example in the UK. The clustering
of high-technology industry means that companies
can collaborate easily on joint projects, and highly
skilled workers can move easily from one company to
another.
Table 3.12 Classification of industry
Classification Characteristics
contrasts
Large scale Depending on the size of plant and
▲ Figure 3.52 Tapestry weaving in Vietnam and small machinery, and the numbers employed
scale
Processing and assembly Heavy and
light
Depending on the nature of processes and
products in terms of unit weight
industries Market Depending on the location of the industry
A significant distinction is between processing and oriented and or firm, which is drawn either towards the
raw material market or the raw materials required —
assembly industries. Processing industries are based
oriented usually because of transportation costs
on the direct processing of raw materials. Again, the
Processing Processing involves the direct processing of
iron and steel industry would be an example, using and assembly raw materials; assembly is to do with putting
large quantities of iron ore, coal and limestone. together parts and components
Processing industries are often located close to Capital Depending on the ratio of investment in plant
their raw materials. In contrast, assembly industries intensive and machinery to the number of employees
put together parts and components that have been and labour
made elsewhere. A large car assembly plant will use intensive
thousands of components to build a car. Assembly Fordist and Fordist industries, named after the
flexible assembly-line methods used in the early
industries usually have a much wider choice of automobile industry, mass produce on a
location than processing industries and thus they are large scale, making standardised products
often described as footloose industries.
Flexible industries make a range of
High-technology industry specialised products using high technology
to respond quickly to changes in demand
High-technology industry is the fastest growing National and Many firms in the small- to medium-size
manufacturing industry in the world. It all began in transnational range manufacture in only one country
the 1960s in ‘Silicon Valley’ (the Santa Clara valley), Transnationals, which are usually extremely
south of San Francisco. Since then it has spread large companies, produce in at least two
across the world. Virtually all developed countries countries but may manufacture in dozens of
and NICs have at least one high-technology cluster nations
(companies grouped together in one region).
206

Factors affecting the location of industry
locations available. For each possible location a wide

Interesting note
range of factors can have an impact on total costs
The Boeing aircraft factory in Washington and thus influence the decision-making process. The
State, USA is the largest building in the world factors affecting industrial location differ from industry
by volume. This is the assembly site for the to industry and their relative importance is subject
company’s largest aircraft. to change over time. These factors can be broadly
subdivided into physical and human (Table 3.13). They
relate both to individual factories and to industrial zones.
The combined influence of a range of factors will
Activities have an impact on the decision making of a company
1 Explain the industrial systems diagram shown in in terms of the following:
Figure 3.51.
2 With regard to manufacturing industry, explain the » Location — companies decide on particular
difference between: locations for a variety of reasons. Most will look
a heavy and light to the location that is seen as the ‘least-cost
b processing and assembly
c capital intensive and labour intensive. location’ or the ‘highest-profit location’. A poor
3 Suggest why high-technology industries often cluster choice of location can mean a company making a
together. loss and eventually closing. An excellent location,
resulting in considerable profits, may prompt a
company to expand.
Factors affecting the » Scale of production — the amount of a product
a company plans to produce will be an important
location of industry factor in deciding location. Companies can achieve
economies of scale by manufacturing more of a
Every day, decisions are made about where to locate product. However, if they decide on a larger scale of
industrial premises, ranging from small workshops to production they have to be sure that they (a) have
huge industrial complexes. In general, the larger the a physical site large enough for the desired scale of
company the greater the number of real alternative production, (b) can recruit sufficient skilled labour
Table 3.13 Physical and human factors influencing industrial location

Physical factors Human factors
Site: The availability and cost of land is important. Large Capital (money): Business people, banks and governments are
factories in particular will need flat, well-drained land on solid more likely to invest money in some areas than others.
bedrock. An adjacent water supply may be essential for some
Labour: Increasingly it is the quality and cost of labour rather
industries.
than the quantity that are the key factors here. The reputation,
Raw materials: Industries requiring heavy and bulky raw turnover and mobility of labour can also be important.
materials that are expensive to transport will generally locate
Transport and communications: Transport costs are lower
as close to these raw materials as possible.
in real terms than ever before but remain important for
Energy: At times in the past, industry needed to be located heavy, bulky items. Accessibility to airports, ports, motorways
near fast-flowing rivers or coal mines. Today, electricity can and key railway terminals may be crucial factors for some
be transmitted to most locations. However, energy-hungry industries.
industries, such as metal smelting, may be drawn to countries
Markets: The location and size of markets is a major influence
with relatively cheap hydroelectricity, such as Norway.
for some industries.
Natural routeways and harbours: These were essential factors
Government influence: Government policies and decisions can
in the past and are still important today as many modern roads
have a big direct and indirect impact on the location of industry.
and railways still follow natural routeways. Natural harbours
Governments can encourage industries to locate in certain
provide good locations for ports and the industrial complexes
areas and deny them planning permission in others.
often found at ports.
Quality of life: Highly skilled personnel who have a choice
Climate: Some industries, such as aerospace and film, benefit
about where they work will favour areas where the quality
directly from a sunny climate. Indirect benefits, such as lower
of life is high (leisure facilities, good housing, attractive
heating bills and a more favourable quality of life, may also be
scenery etc.).
apparent.
207

3.3 Industry
in the region and (c) will have enough customers » attracting new business by providing an integrated
for their higher scale of production. infrastructure in one location
» Methods of organisation — companies can follow » separating industry from residential areas to try to
various methods of organisation from traditional to reduce the environmental and social impact
highly innovative. Location factors can influence » eligibility of industrial estates for grants and loans
such decisions. The most advanced companies in under regional economic development policies.
an industry tend to be very capital intensive, while
more traditional companies tend to be more labour The changing location of
intensive. manufacturing
» The product or range of products manufactured —
many large companies produce a range of products. Changes in the location of manufacturing industry
Some locations may be more suited to the can be recognised at a range of scales:
production of one product than another because of » The global shift in manufacturing industry from
the cost factors involved. the developed world to NICs and developing
countries has already been discussed as part of
Industrial agglomeration the process of globalisation (see Topic 3.1).
Industrial agglomeration is the clustering together » Within each country, rich or poor, there are areas
of economic activities. Agglomeration can result in where manufacturing is highly concentrated and
companies enjoying the benefits of external economies other regions where it is largely absent. In the USA
of scale. This means the lowering of a firm’s costs due the northeast ‘manufacturing belt’, which covers
to external factors. The success of one company may only one-eighth of the country, has over 35 per
attract other companies from the same industry group. cent of all manufacturing jobs although 100 years
External economies of scale can be subdivided into: ago the figure was around 70 per cent. Over the last
60 years in particular, industry in the USA has been
» urbanisation economies, which are the cost savings drawn towards the ‘sunbelt’ states of the south and
resulting from urban location due to factors such west for a number of important locational reasons.
as the range of producer services available and the Similar concentrations can be recognised in other
investment in infrastructure already in place countries as well as changes in location over time.
» localisation economies, which occur when a firm In most cases the most significant locational
locates close to suppliers (backward linkages) change has been from traditional manufacturing
or firms that it supplies (forward linkages). regions, more often than not on coalfields, to
This reduces transport costs, allows for faster higher quality of life regions offering the hard
delivery, and facilitates a high level of personal and soft infrastructural requirements of modern
communication between firms. industry.
» Within individual regions or countries, manufacturing
Industrial estates has historically been concentrated in and around
An industrial estate is an area zoned and planned the major urban areas. However, in recent decades
for the purpose of industrial development. Industrial there has been a significant shift of industry towards
estates are also known as industrial parks and trading greenfield rural locations. This movement has been
estates. A more ‘lightweight’ version is the business so great that it is generally recognised as the most
park or office park, which has offices and light important locational change of manufacturing in the
industry, rather than larger-scale industry. developed world since 1950.
Industrial estates can be found in a range of locations, » At the urban scale the relative shift from inner
from inner cities to rural areas. Industrial estates city to suburbs increased as the twentieth century
are usually located close to transport infrastructure, progressed. Although there has been much
especially where more than one form of transport meet. debate about the demise of the inner city in the
The logic behind industrial estates includes: developed world, many would agree that the loss
of employment, much of it in manufacturing, was
» concentrating dedicated infrastructure in a small
the initiating factor in the cycle of inner city
area to reduce the per-business expense of that
decline.
infrastructure
208

Industrial agglomeration
Activities
1 Describe and explain two physical factors and two
Describe 3 What is an industrial estate?
human factors that affect the location of industry.
human 4 Suggest reasons for the shift of manufacturing industry
2 Why does industrial agglomeration occur? from urban to rural areas.
Case study: Bangalore — India’s high-tech city

Bangalore, the capital city of Karnataka State (Figure 3.53), India’s ICT sector has benefited from the filtering down of
is the most important city in India for high-technology business from the developed world. Many European and
industry. Bangalore’s pleasant climate, moderated by its North American companies that previously outsourced
location on the Deccan Plateau over 900 m above sea level, their ICT requirements to local companies are now using
is a significant attraction to foreign and domestic companies Indian companies (Figuer 3.54). Outsourcing to India occurs
alike. Known as the ‘Garden City’, Bangalore claims to have because:
the highest quality of life in the country. Because of its dust-
• labour costs are considerably lower
free environment, large public-sector undertakings, such as
• a number of developed countries have significant ICT
Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd and the Indian Space Research
skills shortages
Organisation, were established in Bangalore by the Indian
• India has a large and able English-speaking workforce
government. In addition, the state government has a long
(there are about 80 million English speakers in India).
history of support for science and technology. There are
many colleges of higher education in this sector and there Bangalore’s population grew from 2.4 million in 1981 to
has been large-scale investment in science and technology over 12 million in 2017. It is the fastest growing Indian
parks. The city prides itself on a ‘culture of learning’, which urban area after New Delhi. The city has grown into a
gives it innovative leadership within India. major international hub for ICT companies, giving it the
In the 1980s Bangalore became the location for the first nickname of the ‘Silicon Valley of India’. Bangalore has
large-scale foreign investment in high technology in India steadily built up a large pool of highly skilled labour
when Texas Instruments selected the city above a number that can undertake a wide range of complex tasks in
of other possibilities. Other TNCs soon followed as the high-technology industries. There has been very high
reputation of the city grew. Important backward and forward investment into the city’s infrastructure to accommodate
linkages were steadily established over time. This was a such a high rate of expansion. The city’s landscape has
classic example of the process of cumulative causation. changed dramatically, with many new glass and steel
Apart from ICT industries, Bangalore is also India’s most skyscrapers and numerous cybercafés.
important centre for aerospace and biotechnology.
PAKISTAN
NEPAL
New Delhi Kathmandu
Ahmadabad Kolkata
INDIA
Mumbai
Pune
Hyderabad
Arabian
Sea Bay of Bengal
Bangalore Chennai N
SRI LANKA
0 500km
Colombo
▲ Figure 3.53 Location of Bangalore ▲ Figure 3.54 One of the modern office buildings in a
suburb of Bangalore
209

3.3 Industry
Facts about Bangalore • NASDAQ, the world’s biggest stock exchange, opened
its third international office in Bangalore in 2001.
• Bangalore is the fourth largest technology cluster in • 80 per cent of global ICT companies have based their
the world after Silicon Valley, Boston and London. India operations and R&D centres in Bangalore.
• The number of ICT companies increased from 13 in • Companies in Bangalore employ about 35 per cent of
1991 to 2200 in 2013. India’s pool of ICT professionals.
• The ICT industry is divided into three main clusters: • Bangalore accounts for half of the 260 biotechnology
Electronics City, International Technology Park and the companies in India.
Software Technology Park. New, smaller clusters have
emerged in recent years.
• Major companies include Hewlett Packard, Siemens, Case study analysis
Tata Consulting Services (TCS), Infosys Technologies, 1 Describe the location of Bangalore.
Wipro and Kshema Technologies. 2 Explain the reasons for the development of Bangalore
• The city has attracted outsourcing right across the IT as a major international ICT hub.
spectrum from software development to IT enabled 3 State four facts that illustrate the importance of
services. Bangalore as a high-tech city.
• The city boasts 21 engineering colleges.
Interesting note
Bangalore has a very skewed female–male
gender ratio with 908 women for every 1000
men. Suggest a reason for such a considerable
imbalance.
210

3.4 Tourism
Key questions
H What are the reasons for the growth of tourism in relation to the main
attractions of the physical and human landscape?
H What are the benefits and disadvantages of tourism to receiving areas?
H Why is careful management of tourism required in order for the
industry to be sustainable?
▲ Figure 3.55 Tourists in the ancient city of Ayutaya, Thailand
The growth of tourism 1800 Estimates

Number of tourists (millions)
1600
Over the last 50 years tourism has developed into a 1400
Asia,
Africa and
major global industry, which is still expanding rapidly 1200 Middle
(Figure 3.56). It is one of the major elements in the 1000 East
process of globalisation. Tourism is defined as travel 800
away from the home environment: 600 Europe
and
» for leisure, recreation and holidays 400 Americas
» to visit friends and relations (VFR) 200
» for business and professional reasons. 0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
▲ Figure 3.56 Growth in global tourism
211

3.4 Tourism
Tourism has developed in response to the main By far the greatest developments have occurred since
attractions of the physical and human landscape. the end of the Second World War, arising from the
The medical profession was largely responsible for substantial growth in leisure time, affluence and
the growth of taking holidays away from home. mobility enjoyed in developed countries. However, it
During the seventeenth century doctors increasingly took the jet plane to herald the era of international
began to recommend the benefits of mineral waters, mass tourism. In 1970, when Pan Am flew the first
and by the end of the eighteenth century there Boeing 747 from New York to London, scheduled
were hundreds of spas in existence in Britain. Bath planes carried 307 million passengers. By 2016 the
and Tunbridge Wells were among the most famous number had reached 3.8 billion. The International
(Figure 3.57). The second stage in the development Air Transport Association expects this to grow to 7.2
of holiday locations was the emergence of the seaside billion by 2035.
resort. Sea bathing is usually said to have begun at
Scarborough in Britain in about 1730. Those who Reasons for the growth of global
could afford it were beginning to appreciate coastal
landscapes in a new way. tourism
Table 3.14 shows the range of factors responsible for
the growth of global tourism. More and more people
have become aware of the attractions of the physical
and human landscape in their own country and abroad,
and rising living standards have allowed an increasing
number of people to experience such attractions.
Table 3.14 Factors affecting global tourism
Economic
• Steadily rising real incomes
• The decreasing real costs of holidays
• Widening range of destinations within the middle-income
range
▲ Figure 3.57 Bath’s historical mineral waters • Heavy marketing of shorter foreign holidays aimed at
those who have the time and disposable income to take an
The annual holiday, away from work, for the masses additional break
was a product of the Industrial Revolution, which • Expansion of budget airlines
brought big social and economic changes. However, • ‘Air miles’ and other retail reward schemes aimed at travel
until the latter part of the nineteenth century, only the and tourism
very rich could afford to take a holiday away • ‘Globalisation’ has increased business travel considerably
from home. Social
The first package tours were arranged by Thomas
• Increase in the average number of days of paid leave
Cook in 1841 in the UK. These took travellers from
Leicester to Loughborough, 19 km away, to attend • Increasing desire to experience different cultures and
landscapes
temperance (abstinence from alcoholic drink)
meetings. At the time it was the newly laid railway • Raised expectations of international travel with increasing
network that provided the transport infrastructure media coverage of holidays, travel and nature
for Cook to expand his tour operations. Of equal • High levels of international migration over the last decade
importance was the emergence of a significant middle or so, which means that more people have relatives and
friends living abroad
class, with time and money to spare for extended
recreation. It was not long before such activities Political
spread to other countries. There was a growing • Many governments have invested heavily to encourage
appreciation of what human landscapes could offer, tourism
in particular the attractions of large cities such as • Government backing for major international events such
Paris, Rome and London. as the Olympic Games and the World Cup
212

The growth of tourism
Recent data economies have shown very fast growth rates in

recent years. When people can afford to travel they
In 2012 international tourist arrivals (overnight
usually do. Tourist-generating countries have a big
visitors) worldwide exceeded 1 billion for the first
impact on the flow of money around the world.
time ever, reaching a total of 1035 million tourists.
Fifty-three per cent of inbound tourism is for the
By 2015 it had reached 1186 million. In 1950 there
purpose of leisure, recreation and holidays
were only 25 million international tourists. The
(Figures 3.59 and 3.60). The second most important
World Tourism Organization forecasts an increase to
reason is visiting friends and relatives. Inbound
1.8 billion in 2030. International tourism receipts
tourism by mode of transport in 2015 comprised:
reached $1260 billion in 2015. International tourism
now represents 7 per cent of the world’s exports » air, 54 per cent
in goods and services. As a global export category, » road, 39 per cent
tourism ranks third after fuels and chemicals. » water, 5 per cent
Europe remains the world region with the greatest » rail, 2 per cent.
number of both tourist arrivals and tourism receipts
Seasonality is the major problem with tourism as
(Figure 3.58). People from developed countries
a source of employment, having a major impact
still dominate global tourism, but many emerging
on incomes and the quality of life during the less
Europe
ITA 608 million (51%)
ITR $451 billion (36%)
Asia and Pacific

Americas ITA 279 million (24%)
ITA 193 million (16%) ITR $418 billion (33%)
Middle East
ITA 53 million (4%)
Global totals
ITA (International
Tourist Arrivals)
1186 million
ITR (International Africa
Tourist Receipts) ITA 53 million (5%)
$1260 billion ITR $33 billion (3%)
▲ Figure 3.58 International tourist arrivals and international tourism receipts, 2015
VFR, health,
religion, other
27%
Leisure, recreation
and holidays 53%
Business and
professional
14%
Not specified
6%
▲ Figure 3.60 The London Eye — one of the most popular
▲ Figure 3.59 Inbound tourism by purpose of visit, 2015 tourist attractions in the UK
213

3.4 Tourism
popular times of the year. Many popular tourist people concerned with the tourist industry think
destinations try to extend the tourist season by they do, but critics of the impact of tourism have
staging music festivals and other events. presented some strong arguments of their own.
Figure 3.61 shows that tourism has many indirect as
Interesting note well as direct effects.
Supporters of the development potential of tourism
In 2015, the countries with the largest numbers put forward the following arguments:
of international tourist arrivals were France (84.5
million), USA (77.5 million), Spain (68.2 million), » It is an important factor in the balance of
payments of many nations. Tourism brings in
China (56.9 million) and Italy (50.7 million).
valuable foreign currency (Figure 3.62). This
foreign currency is necessary for countries to
Activities pay for the goods and services they import from
1 Describe the growth of global tourism (Figure 3.56).
abroad. Many small developing countries have
2 What were the factors responsible for the early few other resources that they can use to obtain
development of tourism? foreign currency.
3 Discuss the economic, social and political factors
affecting modern tourism.
4 Produce a bullet-point summary of the information
5 Write a brief summary of Figure 3.59.
The benefits and

disadvantages of tourism to
receiving areas ▲ Figure 3.62 Cruise ship on the River Nile — tourism is
Egypt’s main source of foreign currency
The economic impact » Tourism benefits other sectors of the economy,

Many countries, both developed and developing, providing jobs and income through the supply
have put a high level of capital investment chain. It can set off the process of cumulative
into tourism. This is money invested in hotels, causation whereby one phase of investment can
attractions, airports, roads and other aspects of trigger other subsequent phases of investment.
infrastructure that facilitate high-volume tourism. » It provides governments with considerable tax
There has been considerable debate about the revenues, which help to pay for education, health
wisdom of such a strategy. Do the economic benefits and other things for which a government has to
outweigh the economic costs? The majority of find money.
» By providing employment in rural areas it can
What is thought of as the ‘tourism industry’ is only the tip of the iceberg
help to reduce rural-to-urban migration. Such
Tourism industry: direct effect
Accommodation, recreation, migration is a major problem in many developing
catering, entertainment, transportation countries.
Tourism economy: indirect effect » A major tourism development can act as a growth
Aircraft manufacturing, chemicals, pole, stimulating the economy of the larger
computers, concrete, financial services, foods
region.
and beverages, furniture and fixtures, iron/steel,
laundry services, metal products, mining, oil/gas » It can create openings for small businesses such as
suppliers, plastics, printing/publishing, rental car manufac- taxi firms, beach facility hire companies and small
turing, resort development, sanitation services, security, ship cafés.
building, suppliers, textiles, utilities, wholesalers, wood
» It can support many jobs in the informal sector
(Figure 3.63), which plays a major role in the
▲ Figure 3.61 The direct and indirect economic impact of the
economy of many developing countries.
tourist industry
214

The benefits and disadvantages of tourism to receiving areas
» At some destinations tourists spend most of their

money in their hotels, with minimum benefit to
the wider community.
» Tourism might not be the best use for local resources,
which could in the future create a larger multiplier
effect if used by a different economic sector.
» Locations can become over-dependent on tourism,
which causes big problems if visitor numbers fall.
» The tourist industry has a huge appetite for
resources, which often impinge heavily on the
needs of local people. A long-term protest against
▲ Figure 3.63 Beach artist, Agadir, Morocco — an example of tourism in Goa highlighted the fact that one five-
informal sector employment star hotel consumed as much water as five local
villages, and the average hotel resident used 28
However, critics argue that the value of tourism is
times more electricity per day than a local person.
often overrated because of the following:
» International trade agreements such as the General
» Economic leakages (Figure 3.64) from developing Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) allow the
to developed countries run at a rate of 60–75 per global hotel giants to set up in most countries.
cent. Economic leakages are the part of the money Even if governments favour local investors there is
a tourist pays for a foreign holiday that does not little they can do.
benefit the destination country because it goes
elsewhere. With cheap package holidays, by far the The social and cultural impact
greater part of the money paid stays in the country The traditional cultures of many communities in
where the holiday was purchased. the developing world have suffered because of the
development of tourism. The disadvantages include the
DEVELOPING WORLD TOURIST DESTINATION following:
Total money spent on tourism to this destination
» the loss of locally owned land as tourism
Transport costs paid Payments to foreign companies buy up large tracts of land in the most
to airlines and other owners of hotels and scenic and accessible locations
carriers other facilities
» the abandonment of traditional values and practices
The cost of goods and
services imported for
$ Remittances sent home
by foreign workers
» the displacement of people to make way for tourist
developments
the tourist industry
» changing community structure — communities
Foreign debt relating $ Payments to foreign
companies to build
that were once very close socially and economically
to tourism
tourist infrastructure
may be weakened considerably due to a major
outside influence such as tourism
» abuse of human rights by large companies and
LEAKAGES governments in the quest to maximise profits
▲ Figure 3.64 Economic leakages » crime and anti-social behaviour
» visitor congestion at key locations, hindering the
» Tourism is labour intensive, providing a range movement of local people
of jobs especially for women and young people. » local people denied access to beaches to provide
However, most local jobs created are menial, low- ‘exclusivity’ for visitors
paid and seasonal. Overseas labour may be brought » loss of housing for local people as more visitors
in to fill middle and senior management positions. buy second homes in popular tourist areas
» Money borrowed to invest in the necessary (Figure 3.65).
infrastructure for tourism increases the national debt.
215

3.4 Tourism
Figure 3.66 shows how attitudes to tourism can However, tourism can also have positive social and
change over time. An industry that is usually seen cultural impacts:
as very beneficial initially can eventually become the
» Tourism development can increase the range of
source of considerable irritation, particularly where
social facilities for local people.
there is a big clash of cultures.
» It can lead to greater understanding between
people of different cultures.
» Family ties may be strengthened by visits to
relatives living in other regions and countries.
» Visiting ancient sites can develop a greater
appreciation of the historical legacy of host
countries.
» It can help develop foreign language skills in host
communities.
» It may encourage migration to major tourist
generating countries.
» A multitude of cultures congregating together for
major international events such as the Olympic
Games can have a very positive global impact.
The tourist industry and the various scales of
government in host countries have become
increasingly aware of the problems the industry
creates. They are now using a range of management
techniques in an attempt to mitigate such effects.
Education is the most important element, so that
▲ Figure 3.65 Entrance to a National Park in Andalucia, Spain visitors are made aware of the most sensitive aspects
— the graffiti refers to the number of foreigners buying up
houses in the nearby village of Frigiliana
of the host culture.
1 Euphoria
• Enthusiasm for tourist development
• Mutual feeling of satisfaction
• Opportunities for local participations
• Flows of money and interesting contacts
2 Apathy
• Industry expands
• Tourists taken for granted
• More interest in profit making
• Personal contact becomes more formal
3 Irritation
• Industry nearing saturation point
• Expansion of facilities required
• Encroachment into local way of life
4 Antagonism
• Irritations become more overt
• The tourist is seen as the harbinger of all that is bad
• Mutual politeness gives way to antagonism
5 Final level
• Environment has changed irreversibly
• The resource base has changed and the type of tourist has
also changed
• If the destination is large enough to cope with mass tourism
it will continue to thrive
▲ Figure 3.67 Armed tourism police on a Nile cruise ship
▲ Figure 3.66 Doxey’s ‘Index of Irritation’ caused by tourism
216

The management and sustainability of tourism
Activities
1 Compare the direct and indirect effects of tourism.
2 Explain how economic leakages occur.
3 Explain the sequence of changes illustrated in
Doxey’s Index (Figure 3.66).
4 Research the social impact of international tourism
in one destination.
The management and

sustainability of tourism
Tourism has reached such a large scale in so many
parts of the world that it can only continue with ▲ Figure 3.68 Sand dune restoration works, County Kerry,
careful management. In most popular tourist Ireland
destinations the stated objective is that tourism
should be sustainable. However, sustainable tourism
strategies have been much more successful in some
areas than others. Sustainable tourism is tourism
organised in such a way that its level can be
sustained in the future without creating irreparable
environmental, social and economic damage to the
receiving area.
As the level of global tourism increases rapidly it is
becoming more and more important for the industry
to be responsibly planned, managed and monitored.
Tourism operates in a world of finite resources where
its impact is becoming of increasing concern to a
growing number of people. At present, only about 5 per
▲ Figure 3.69 Combating severe informal footpath erosion on
cent of the world’s population have ever travelled by
Mt Vesuvius, Italy
plane. However, this is undoubtedly going to increase
substantially, putting even greater pressure on tourist Virtually every aspect of the industry now recognises
destinations. that tourism must become more sustainable.
Environmental groups are keen to make travellers Ecotourism is at the leading edge of this movement.
aware of their destination footprint. This is the Ecotourism is a specialised form of tourism in which
environmental impact caused by an individual tourist people experience relatively untouched natural
on holiday in a particular destination. environments such as coral reefs, tropical forests and
They are urging people to: remote mountain areas, and ensure that their presence
does no further damage to these environments.
» ‘fly less and stay longer’
» carbon-offset their flights
» consider ‘slow travel’. Protected areas
Over the course of the last 130 years or so, more and
Tourists might consider the impact of their activities more of the world’s most spectacular and ecologically
both for individual holidays but also in the longer sensitive areas have been designated for protection
term. For example, they may decide that every second at various levels. The world’s first National Park was
holiday will be in their own country (not using air established at Yellowstone in the USA in 1872. Now
transport). It could also involve using locally run there are well over 1000 worldwide. Many countries
guesthouses and small hotels as opposed to hotels have National Forests, Country Parks, Areas of
run by international chains. This enables more money Outstanding Natural Beauty, World Heritage Sites
to remain in local communities. and other designated areas that merit special status
217

3.4 Tourism
and protection. Wilderness areas with the greatest visitors increases and people want to travel beyond
restrictions on access have the highest form of the tourist enclaves.
protection.
In many countries and regions there are often Quotas
differences of opinion when the issue of special Quotas seem to be one of the best remedies on offer.
protection is raised. For example, in some areas The UK Centre for Future Studies has suggested a
jobs in mining, forestry and tourism may depend lottery-based entrance system, an idea endorsed by
on developing presently unspoilt areas. So it is Tourism Concern. Here, the number of visitors would
not surprising that values and attitudes can differ not be allowed to exceed a sustainable level. This is
considerably when big decisions about the future an idea we are likely to hear much more about in the
of environmentally sensitive areas are being made. future.
Often, a clear distinction has to be made between
the objectives of preservation and conservation. Ecotourism in Ecuador
Preservation is maintaining a location exactly as it Ecuador’s tourism strategy has been to avoid
is and not allowing development. Conservation is becoming a mass market destination and to market
allowing for developments that do not damage the ‘quality’ and ‘exclusivity’ instead, in as eco-friendly a
character of a location. way as possible.
Ecotourism has helped to bring needed income
Tourist hubs to some of the poorest parts of the country. It has
The concept of tourist hubs or clusters is a model provided local people with a new alternative way
that has been applied in a number of locations. The of making a living. As such it has reduced human
idea is to concentrate tourism and its impact in one pressure on ecologically sensitive areas.
particular area so that the majority of the region or The main geographical focus of ecotourism has
country feels little of the negative impacts of the been in the Amazon rainforest around Tena,
industry. Benidorm in Spain and Cancun in Mexico which has become the main access point. The
are examples where this model was adopted but both ecotourism schemes in the region are usually run
locations show how difficult it is to confine tourism by small groups of indigenous Quichua Indians
within preconceived boundaries as the number of (Figure 3.70).
The Quichua people

insist that all visitors Exchanges of clothing or other Avoid any displays of When walking in the rainforest:
must abide by personal items with community affection, even with close • do not touch any branches
certain rules and members are not allowed. Nor friends. In this community without looking carefully first –
are community members it is considered rude to they may carry thorns, dangerous
regulations allowed to accept gifts. hold hands or kiss in public. insects or even snakes
• do not pull on branches or
vines – they may fall down on top
If you need to go to the of you.
toilet, and facilities are not
immediately available, go
to the side of the rainforest Visitors should never
track, never in or near a go off alone. It’s easy
stream or lake. to get lost in the
rainforest.
All rubbish, e.g. Do not enter people’s houses without Always check first before touching plants
empty bottles and being invited in. Do not make promises or animals. They may cause a rash, or
tubes, must be taken you may not be able to keep, e.g. to sting you. Do not collect plants, insects
away by visitors. send back photos after the visit. or animals unless you have permission.
▲ Figure 3.70 Ecotourism in Ecuador’s rainforest
218

The management and sustainability of tourism
Activities
1 Define ‘sustainable tourism’. 4 What do you think of the idea of quotas for visitor
2 What do you understand by the term ‘destination numbers at certain locations?
footprint’? 5 What do you understand by the concept ‘slow travel’?
3 Which environments in the region in which you live are 6 Describe the operation of ecotourism in Ecuador’s
protected, and why? rainforest.
Case study: Jamaica — the benefits and disadvantages associated with the
growth of tourism
Economic importance Tourism is the largest source of foreign exchange for the
country. The revenue from tourism plays a significant part
Tourism has become an increasingly vital part of Jamaica’s
in helping central and local government fund economic
economy in recent decades. The contribution of tourism
and social policies. Special industry taxes have gone
to total employment and GDP has risen substantially. It
directly into social development, healthcare and education,
has brought considerable opportunities to its population,
all of which are often referred to as ‘soft infrastructure’.
although it has not been without its problems. Jamaica
However, tourism has also spurred the development of
has been determined to learn from the mistakes of other
‘hard infrastructure’ such as roads, telecommunications
countries and ensure that the population will gain real
and airports. Also, as attitudes within the industry itself are
benefits from the growth of tourism.
changing, larger hotels and other aspects of the industry
Tourism’s direct contribution to GDP in 2014 amounted to
have become more socially conscious. Classic examples
8.1 per cent of total GDP. Adding all the indirect economic
are the funding of local social projects.
benefits increased the figure to 27.2 per cent of total GDP.
Direct employment in the industry amounted to 90,000 but
the overall figure, which includes indirect employment, is National Parks and ecotourism
over three times as large. In the most popular tourist areas Figure 3.71 shows the location of Jamaica’s National
the level of reliance on the industry is extremely high. and Marine Parks. Further sites have been identified
In 2015, tourist arrivals totalled 2.12 million. In addition, for future protection. The Jamaican government sees
1.5 million visited on cruise ships. The tourist industry in the designation of the parks as a positive environmental
Jamaica has been growing at an annual average rate of about impact of tourism. Entry fees to the Parks pay for
4 per cent. Most visitors arrive from the USA and the UK. conservation. The desire of tourists to visit these areas
Montego Bay Caribbean Sea

Marine Park
Negril Ocho Rios
Marine Montego Bay Marine Park
Park
Ocho Rios
Negril
JAMAICA Port Antonio
Marine Park
Caribbean Sea Blue and John

Crow Mountains
Spanish Town
Jam
Kingston National Park

N
aic
a Channel
0 30 km
Caribbean Sea
▲ Figure 3.71 Jamaica’s National and Marine Parks

03.03.14 IGCSE Geography
219

3.4 Tourism
and the need to conserve the environment to attract future The Jamaica Tourist Board (JTB) is responsible for
tourism drives the designation and management process. marketing the country abroad. Recently it used the fact
The marine parks are attempting to conserve the coral that Jamaica was one of the host countries for the 2007
reef environments off the coast of Jamaica (Figure 3.72). Cricket World Cup to good effect. The JTB also promotes
They are at risk from damage from overfishing, industrial the positive aspects of Jamaican culture — for example,
pollution and mass tourism. The Jamaica Conservation the Bob Marley Museum in Kingston has become a popular
and Development Trust is responsible for the management attraction. Such attractions are an important part of
of the National Parks, while the National Environmental Jamaica’s objective of reducing seasonality. The physical
Planning Agency has overseen the government’s attractions of Jamaica almost sell themselves, so the
sustainable development strategy since 2001. government is putting much effort in trying to boost the
island’s human attractions.
The disadvantages of tourism
The high or ‘winter’ season runs from mid-December to
mid-April when hotel prices are highest. The rainy season
extends from May to November. It has been estimated
that 25 per cent of hotel workers are laid off during the
off-season. This has an adverse impact on the standard of
living of households reliant on the tourist industry. It also
of course means that expensive tourism infrastructure is
underused for part of the year.
Although seasonality is seen as the major problem
associated with tourism in Jamaica, other negative
aspects include:
• the environmental impact of tourism, which includes
traffic congestion and pollution at popular locations,
and the destruction of the natural environment to make
▲ Figure 3.72 A beach fringed with palm trees in Montego way for tourism infrastructure
Bay Marine Park • the heavy use of resources, particularly water, by
hotels
Ecotourism is a developing sector of the industry with,
• under-use of facilities in the off-season
for example, raft trips on the Rio Grande river increasing
• socio-cultural problems, illustrated by the behaviour
in popularity. Tourists are taken downstream in very
of some tourists, which clashes with the island’s
small groups. The rafts, which rely solely on manpower,
traditional morals; some people have a negative image
leave singly with a significant time gap between them to
of Jamaica because of its perceived level of violent
minimise any disturbance to the peace of the forest.
crime and harassment.
Community tourism
Considerable efforts are being made to promote
Case study analysis
community tourism so that more money filters down 1 Explain the importance of tourism to the economy of
to the local population and small communities. The Jamaica.
Sustainable Communities Foundation Through Tourism 2 Describe the location and importance of Jamaica’s
(SCF) programme has been particularly active in central National and Marine Parks.
and southwest Jamaica. Community tourism is seen 3 Describe an example of ecotourism in Jamaica.
as an important aspect of pro-poor tourism. This is 4 Define:
tourism that results in increased net benefits for poor a community tourism
people. b pro-poor tourism.
5 Discuss the main problems associated with tourism.
220

3.5 Energy
Key questions
H How important are non-renewable fossil fuels, renewable energy supplies,
nuclear power and fuelwood, globally and in different countries at different
levels of development?
H What are the benefits and disadvantages of nuclear power and renewable
energy sources?
▲ Figure 3.74 Aircraft refuelling at Gatwick airport, UK
little or no environmental pollution. Renewable

energy includes hydroelectric, biofuels, wind, solar,
▲ Figure 3.73 Oil refinery, Milford Haven, UK geothermal, tidal and wave power.
At present, non-renewable resources dominate
global energy. The challenge is to transform the
Non-renewable and global energy mix to achieve a better balance
between renewables and non-renewables.
renewable energy supplies There is a huge gap in energy consumption
Non-renewable sources of energy are the fossil between rich and poor countries. Wealth is the main
fuels and nuclear fuel. Fossil fuels consisting of factor explaining the energy gap. The use of energy
hydrocarbons (coal, oil and natural gas) were formed can improve the quality of life in so many ways.
by the decomposition of prehistoric organisms in That is why most people who can afford to buy cars,
past geological periods. These resources are finite so televisions and washing machines do so. However,
that as they are used up the supply that remains is there are other influencing factors, with climate at
reduced. Eventually, these non-renewable resources the top of the list.
could become completely exhausted. The burning The demand for energy has grown steadily over
of fossil fuels (Figure 3.74) creates considerable time. Figure 3.75 shows the increase in world primary
amounts of pollution and is the major source of energy consumption between 1990 and 2015. Between
greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change due to 2005 and 2015 the increase was 20.2 per cent. Fossil
these emissions is by far the biggest environmental fuels dominate the global energy situation. Their
problem facing the planet. relative contribution in 2015 was: oil 37.3 per cent,
Renewable energy can be used over and over coal 17.4 per cent and natural gas 31.3 per cent.
again. These resources are mainly forces of nature In contrast, hydroelectric power (HEP) accounted
that are sustainable, and which usually cause for 2.5 per cent and nuclear energy 8.3 per cent.
221

3.5 EnErgy
Figure 3.75 includes commercially traded energy sources in Asia Pacific, Africa and South and
only. It excludes fuels such as wood, peat and animal Central America. It is most important in Europe
waste, which, though important in many countries, and Eurasia and North America.
are unreliably documented in terms of consumption » Renewables — consumption of renewable energy
statistics. other than HEP is rising rapidly, but from a very
low base. Renewables made the largest relative
Coal
14 000 contribution to energy consumption in Europe and
13 000
Renewables
12 000
Eurasia.
Hydroelectricity
Nuclear energy 11 000 Coal Hydroelectricity Natural gas
Natural gas 10 000 Renewables Nuclear energy Oil
Million tonnes
Oil 9000
oil equivalent
8000 100
7000 90
6000 80
5000 70
4000 60
50
%
3000
2000 40
1000 30
0 20
1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2015 10
▲ Figure 3.75 Changes in world energy consumption by type, 0
North
America
South &
Central
America
Europe &
Eurasia
Middle
East
Africa
Asia
Pacific
1990–2015
Consumption by type of fuel varies widely by world

region (Figure 3.76): ▲ Figure 3.76 Regional energy consumption patterns, 1990–2015
» Oil — is the main source of energy in three of the Figure 3.77 shows per capita energy consumption
six regions shown in Figure 3.76, and second in around the world. The highest consumption countries,
importance in the other three regions. The largest such as the USA and Canada, use more than 6 tonnes
global consumers are the USA and China, with oil equivalent per person, while almost all of Africa and
19.7 per cent and 12.9 per cent of the world total. much of South America and Asia use less than 1.5 tonnes
» Coal — only in the Asia Pacific region is coal the oil equivalent per person. Figure 3.78 is a model showing
main source of energy. In contrast, it accounts for the relationship between resource use in general and the
only 1.2 per cent of consumption in the Middle level of economic development. This model applies well
East and just over 5 per cent in South and Central to energy usage, with the newly industrialised countries
America. China was responsible for 50 per cent having the highest rates of growth.
of global coal consumption in 2015, followed by In terms of usage by type of energy, some general
India (10.6 per cent) and the USA (10.3 per cent). points can be made:
The share of coal in global energy consumption fell
sharply between 2010 and 2015. » The most developed countries tend to use a wide
» Natural gas — natural gas is the main source of
mix of energy sources as they are able both to
energy in Europe and Eurasia, and it has recently taken invest in domestic energy potential and to buy
over the number one spot from oil in the Middle East. energy from abroad.
Its lowest share of the energy mix is just over 11 per » The high investment required for nuclear electricity
cent in Asia Pacific. The largest individual consumers means that only a limited number of countries
were the USA and the Russian Federation, with produce electricity this way. However, many
22.8 per cent and 11.2 per cent of the world total. countries that could afford the investment chose
» Hydroelectricity — the relative importance of HEP
not to adopt this strategy.
» Richer nations have been able to invest more
is greatest in South and Central America (22 per
cent). Elsewhere its contribution is much less. money in renewable sources of energy.
» Nuclear energy — nuclear energy is not presently In the poorest countries fuelwood is an important
available in the Middle East and it makes the source of energy, particularly where communities
smallest contribution of the five traditional energy have no access to electricity.
222

Non-renewable and renewable energy supplies
Tonnes of oil
equivalent
0–1.5
1.5–3.0
3.0–4.5
4.5–6.0
> 6.0
▶ Figure 3.77 Energy consumption

per capita, 2012
demand for fuelwood peaked in the mid-1990s, there
Developing NICs Developed
countries countries can be no doubt that there are severe shortages in
many countries. This is a major factor in limiting
development.
Level and rate of change of
In developing countries the concept of the ‘energy

resource consumption
ladder’ is important. Here, a transition from fuelwood

and animal dung to ‘higher-level’ sources of energy
occurs as part of the process of economic development
(Figure 3.80). Income, regional electrification and
household size are the main factors influencing the
demand for fuelwood. Forest depletion is initially heavy
near urban areas but slows down as cities become
High population Rate of population Low population
growth but poverty is growth declining growth but living wealthier and change to other forms of energy. It is
a severe constraint but rapid standards continue the more isolated rural areas that are most likely to
on resource industrialisation to rise. Resource
consumption leads to rapidly use increases but lack connection to an electricity grid. In such areas
rising rates of technological advances the reliance on fuelwood is greatest. Wood is likely to
resource use and recycling etc.
provide resource remain the main source of fuel for the global poor in
efficiencies in some areas the foreseeable future.
▲ Figure 3.78 Model of the relationship between resource use
and the level of economic development Millions of people
India 306.2
Nigeria 82.4
Fuelwood in developing countries Bangladesh
Ethiopia
66.6
62.9
In developing countries about 2.5 billion people Dem. Rep. Congo
Tanzania
56.9
38.2
rely on fuelwood, charcoal and animal dung for Kenya 31.2
cooking. Fuelwood and charcoal are collectively Sudan
Uganda
30.9
28.5
called fuelwood, which accounts for just over half of Myanmar 24.6
19.9
global wood production. Fuelwood provides much of Mozambique
Afghanistan 18.5
the energy needs for sub-Saharan Africa. It is also South Korea 18.0
the most important use of wood in Asia. In 2012, Madagascar
Philippines
17.8
15.6
1.1 billion people were still living without electricity, Pakistan 15.0
with a global electrification rate of 85 per cent. Burkina Faso
Niger
14.3
14.1
Figure 3.79 shows the countries with the greatest Indonesia 14.0
number of people lacking access to electricity. Malawi 13.6
Although at least one study claims that the global ▲ Figure 3.79 Electricity access deficit, 2010
223

3.5 EnErgy
The collection of fuelwood does not cause introducing nuclear electricity. However, heightened
deforestation on the same scale as the clearance fears about oil supplies, energy security and climate
of land for agriculture, but it can seriously deplete change have brought this controversial source of
wooded areas. The use of fuelwood is the main cause power back onto the global energy agenda.
of indoor air pollution in developing countries. The largest consumers of global nuclear energy
in 2015 by percentage were the USA (32.6), France
(17), Russian Federation (7.6), China (6.6) and South
Korea (6.4).
No other source of energy creates such heated
discussion as nuclear power. Concerns include the
following:
» Power plant accidents — could release radiation
into air, land and sea.
» Radioactive waste storage/disposal — most
concern is over the small proportion of ‘high-level
waste’. This is so radioactive that it generates heat
and corrodes all containers. It would cause death
within a few days to anyone directly exposed to
▲ Figure 3.80 Fuel station on the river Amazon, Brazil it. In the UK this amounts to about 0.3 per cent
of the total volume of all nuclear waste. However,
Interesting note it accounts for about half the total radioactivity.
The individual countries consuming the most No country has yet implemented a long-term
solution to the nuclear waste problem. The USA
energy in 2015, as a percentage of the world
and Finland have plans to build waste repositories
total, were: China (22.9), USA (17.3), India (5.3),
deep underground in areas of known geological
Russia (5.1) and Japan (3.4). stability.
» Rogue state or terrorist use of nuclear fuel for
weapons — as the number of countries with access
Activities to nuclear technology rises, such concerns are
1 List the non-renewable sources of energy. likely to increase. An interim report published in
2 Describe the changes in world energy consumption December 2008 by the US Congressional Commission
3 To what extent do the types of energy consumption
on the Strategic Posture of the United States
vary by world region? concluded: ‘It appears that we are at a “tipping
4 Provide a bullet-point summary of Figure 3.77. Refer point” in nuclear proliferation. Part of the concern
to all classes in the key. is that some countries which claim to be developing
5 a What is fuelwood? nuclear electricity only may well put themselves in a
b Why is it such an important source of energy in the position to develop nuclear weapons.’
developing world?
» High construction and decommissioning costs —
recent estimates put an average price of about
$6.3 billion on a new nuclear power plant. When a
The benefits and nuclear plant has come to the end of its useful life,
disadvantages of nuclear the costs of decommissioning are high.
» Because of the genuine risks associated with
power and renewable energy nuclear power and the level of security secrecy
required, it is seen by some people as less
Nuclear power ‘democratic’ than other sources of power.
Until a few years ago the future of nuclear power » The possible increase in certain types of cancer
looked bleak, with a number of countries apparently near nuclear plants — there has been much debate
‘running down’ their nuclear power stations and about this issue, but the evidence appears to be
many other nations firmly set against the idea of becoming more convincing.
224

The benefits and disadvantages of nuclear power and renewable energy
At one time the rise of nuclear power looked Renewable energy supplies
unstoppable. However, a serious incident at the Three
Countries are eager to harness renewable energy
Mile Island nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania USA in
resources to:
1979, and the much more serious Chernobyl disaster in
the Ukraine in 1986, brought any growth in the industry » reduce their reliance on often dwindling domestic
to a virtual halt. No new nuclear power plants have been fossil fuel resources
ordered in the USA since then, although public opinion » lower their reliance on costly fossil fuel imports
has become more favourable in recent years as Three Mile » improve their energy security with higher domestic
Island and Chernobyl recede into the past, and worries energy production
about polluting fossil fuels increase. Most of the recent » cut greenhouse gas emissions for a cleaner
nuclear power plants constructed have been in Asia. environment and to satisfy international
The advantages of nuclear power are as follows: obligations.
» Zero emissions of greenhouse gases — this has
become more and more important as concern about Hydroelectricity
climate change has risen. Along with hydropower, Of the traditional five major sources of energy, HEP is
nuclear electricity is the major source of ‘carbon- the only one that is renewable. It is by far the most
free’ energy used today. important source of renewable energy. The ‘big four’ HEP
» Reduced reliance on imported fossil fuels — more nations of China, Brazil, Canada and the USA account for
countries have become concerned about energy almost 54 per cent of the global total (Table 3.15).
security. Energy insecurity may lead to increased Table 3.15 HEP consumption, 2015: major countries
geopolitical tension and the potential for conflict as
consumers attempt to secure supplies. This will be Rank Country Million tonnes oil % share of
equivalent world total
most likely within a ‘business as usual’ framework
1 China 254.9 28.5
of reliance on fossil fuels. Nuclear power is seen by
2 Canada 86.7 9.7
a number of governments as a tried and tested way
3 Brazil 81.7 9.1
of reducing reliance on energy imports. France is a
4 USA 57.4 6.4
classic example of how this has been done.
5 Russia 38.5 4.3
» Nuclear power is not as vulnerable to fuel price
6 Norway 31.1 3.5
fluctuations as oil and gas — uranium, the fuel for
nuclear plants, is relatively plentiful. Most of the main
Most of the best HEP locations are already in use,
uranium mines are in politically stable countries.
so the scope for more large-scale development is
» In recent years nuclear plants have demonstrated
limited. However, in many countries there is scope for
a very high level of reliability and efficiency as
small-scale HEP plants to supply local communities.
technology has advanced and experience has been
Although HEP is generally seen as a clean form of
built up.
energy, it is not without its problems, which include:
» Nuclear technology has spin-offs in fields such as
medicine and agriculture. » large dams and power plants can have a huge
negative visual impact on the environment
This decade will be crucial to the future of nuclear
» the obstruction of the river for aquatic life
energy, with many countries making final decisions
» deterioration in water quality
to extend or begin their nuclear electricity capability.
» large areas of land may need to be flooded to form
The nuclear energy issue is likely to be a major
the reservoir behind the dam
political battleground in some countries.
» submerging large forests without prior clearance
can release significant quantities of methane, a
Activities greenhouse gas.
1 State three advantages and three disadvantages of
nuclear power.
2 When did the nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island Newer alternative energy sources
and Chernobyl occur? The first major wave of interest in new alternative
3 Why might nuclear electricity become more energy sources resulted from the energy crisis of
important in the future? the early 1970s. However, the relatively low price
225

3.5 EnErgy
of oil in the 1980s, 1990s and the opening years

of the present century dampened down interest
in these energy sources. Then renewed concerns
about energy in recent years and corresponding
price increases kick-started the alternative energy
industry again.
The main drawback to the new alternative energy
sources is that they invariably produce higher-cost
electricity than traditional sources. However, the
cost gap with non-renewable energy is narrowing.
Figure 3.81 shows the sharp increase in the
consumption of renewable energy (other than HEP) in
the last decade. In 2015, this accounted for almost
2.8 per cent of global primary energy consumption.
The newer sources of renewable energy making the
▲ Figure 3.82 A wind farm in California
largest contribution to global energy supply are wind
power and biofuels.
Apart from establishing new wind energy sites,
Asia Pacific 400 ‘repowering’ is also beginning to play an important
Europe & Eurasia 375 role. This means replacing first-generation wind
South & Central America 350
North America 325 turbines with modern multi-megawatt turbines, which
300 give a much better performance. As wind turbines
Million tonnes
oil equivalent
275
200 have been erected in more areas of more countries,
175 the opposition to this form of renewable energy has
150
125
increased. For example:
100
75 » People are concerned that huge turbines located
50 nearby could blight their homes and have a
25
0 significant impact on property values.
» There are concerns about the hum of turbines
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
disturbing both people and wildlife.

▲ Figure 3.81 Renewable energy consumption by world region, » Skylines in scenically beautiful areas might be
1995–2015 spoiled forever.
» Turbines can kill birds. Migratory flocks tend to
Wind power follow strong winds but wind companies argue that
The worldwide capacity of wind energy (Figure 3.82) they don’t place turbines near migratory routes.
reached 432 GW by the end of 2015, up from 10 GW » Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the
in 1998. The leaders in global wind energy are coast where land is both scenically beautiful and
China (145 GW), the USA (74 GW), Germany (45 GW), expensive.
India (25 GW) and Spain (23 GW). Together these The development of large offshore wind farms, for
countries account for over 67 per cent of the world example in UK waters, has become an increasingly
total. In recent years wind energy has reached debatable issue, mainly due to the visual impact of
the ‘take-off’ stage both as a source of energy and such large installations. Safety concerns with regard
a manufacturing industry. The main advantages to the movement of shipping are also an issue.
of wind energy are that, compared with most There has also been increasing debate about how
other forms of renewable energy, it can generate much electricity wind turbines in many areas actually
significant amounts of electricity, and it can be produce. There can be a big difference between the
harnessed to a reasonable degree in most parts of technical capacity of a wind turbine and the amount
the world. of electricity it actually produces.
226

Biofuels Steam control valves

in geothermal plants
Natural fissure: steam
from the heated
Biofuels are fossil fuel substitutes that can be groundwater rises up
made from a range of crops, including oilseeds, wheat
Permeable
and sugar. They can be blended with petrol and rock containing
diesel. The biggest producers of biofuels are the USA hot water or
(41.4 per cent), Brazil (23.6 per cent) and Germany steam under
pressure
(4.2 per cent). By increasing biofuel production these
countries have reduced the amount of oil they need
to consume, which is the main reason behind biofuel
production. Advocates of biofuels also argue that Impermeable
Surface water runs Heat from volcanic rock
biofuels come from a renewable resource (crops); activity and other
down fissures into
they can be produced wherever there is sufficient hot permeable rock processes
crop growth, helping energy security; and they ▲ Figure 3.83 Geothermal power
often produce cleaner emissions than petroleum-
based fuels. The USA is the world leader in geothermal electricity.
However, there are clear disadvantages in However, total production accounts for less than 0.4
biofuel production. Increasing amounts of per cent of the electricity used in the USA. Other
cropland have been used to produce biofuels, leading countries using geothermal electricity are the
adding to the ‘global food crisis’. Large amounts Philippines, Italy, Mexico, Indonesia, Japan, New Zealand
of land, water and fertilisers are needed for (Figure 3.84) and Iceland. Global operating capacity
large-scale crop production. The manufacture of reached 13.3 GW at the beginning of 2016, spread across
biofuels also uses significant amounts of energy, 24 countries. At present virtually all the geothermal
creating greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, power plants in the world operate on steam resources,
biofuels have a lower energy output than and have an extremely low environmental impact.
traditional fuels. Initially, environmental groups
such as Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace
were very much in favour of biofuels, but as the
damaging environmental consequences have
become clear, such environmental organisations
were the first to demand a rethink of this energy
strategy.
Global biofuel production increased from
19,651 thousand tonnes of oil equivalent in 2005 to
74,847 thousand tonnes of oil equivalent in 2015.
Geothermal electricity
Geothermal energy is the natural heat found in the
Earth’s crust in the form of steam, hot water and
hot rock (Figure 3.83). Rainwater may percolate
several kilometres down in permeable rocks, where
it is heated due to the Earth’s geothermal gradient.
This is the rate at which temperature rises as
depth below the surface increases. The average
rise in temperature is about 30°C per km, but the
gradient can reach 80°C near plate boundaries. This
source of energy can be used directly for industry,
agriculture, bathing and cleansing. For example, in
Iceland hot springs supply water at 86°C to 95 per
cent of the buildings in and around Reykjavik.
▲ Figure 3.84 Geothermal power, Wairakei, New Zealand
227

3.5 EnErgy
The advantages of geothermal power for those Table 3.16 Advantages and disadvantages of solar power
countries that have access to this form of energy are: Advantages Disadvantages
» extremely low environmental impact A completely renewable Initial high cost of solar
» geothermal plants occupy relatively small land areas resource plants
» not dependent on weather conditions (like wind No noise or direct pollution Solar power cannot be
and solar power) during electricity generation harnessed during storms, on
» relatively low maintenance costs. Very limited maintenance
cloudy days or at night
The limitations of this form of energy are: required to keep solar plants Of limited use in countries
running with low annual hours of
» there are few locations worldwide where significant sunshine
amounts of energy can be generated Solar power technology is
improving consistently over Large areas of land required
» total global generation remains very small time and reducing costs to capture the Sun’s
» some of these locations are far from where the energy in order to generate
Can be used in remote areas
energy could be used significant amounts of power
where it is too expensive to
» installation costs of plant and piping are relatively extend the electricity grid
high.
A generally positive public
Solar power perception
From a relatively small base the installed capacity of
solar electricity is growing rapidly. In 2012, global Tidal and wave power
solar power capacity passed 100,000 MW, but by the
end of 2016 it had reached 305 GW. This amounts to Although currently in its infancy, tidal energy
about 1.5 per cent of all global electricity generation. could eventually supply as much as 10 per cent
Experts say that solar power has huge potential for of US electricity, according to estimates by the
technological improvement, which could make it a Electric Power Research Institute. This potential
major source of global electricity in years to come. could be equalled in the UK and surpassed in
China, Japan, Germany, the USA and Italy currently Canada. So for some countries, potential energy
lead the global market for solar power. production from this source could be very high.
Solar electricity is currently produced in two ways: Tidal power plants act like underwater windmills,
transforming sea currents into electrical current.
» Photovoltaic systems — these are solar panels that Tidal power is more predictable than solar or wind
convert sunlight directly into electricity (Figure 3.85). power, and the infrastructure is less obtrusive.
» Concentrating solar power (CSP) systems — these However, start-up costs are high. Thus, the 240 MW
use mirrors or lenses and tracking systems to focus Rance facility in northwest France was the only
a large area of sunlight into a small beam. This utility-scale tidal power system in the world for
concentrated light is then used as a heat source 45 years until the Sihwa Lake tidal power station
for a conventional thermal power plant. opened in South Korea in 2011, which uses sea
Table 3.16 outlines advantages and disadvantages wall defence barriers complete with 10 turbines to
of solar power. generate 254 MW.
The site with greatest potential is Canada’s
Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, but there are
environmental concerns here. The main concerns
are potential effects on fish populations and other
marine life, levels of sedimentation building up
behind facilities, and the possible impact on tides
along the coast.
Because predicted building and maintenance
costs are expensive, the return on investment takes
a long time. Also, while generally predictable,
tidal energy is not as dependable as fossil-fired or
▲ Figure 3.85 Solar electricity being generated by photovoltaic nuclear generation.
panels in Spain
228

Wave energy is derived from generators placed

on the ocean’s surface, and energy levels are Activities
determined by the strength of the waves. The first 1 Explain the difference between renewable and non-
experimental wave farm was opened in Portugal in renewable sources of energy.
2008 at the Agucadoura Wave Park. However, due 2 Give two advantages and two disadvantages for each
of the following forms of renewable energy: wind,
to technical problems the facility was shut down biofuels, solar, geothermal, tidal.
2 months after opening. A number of research 3 Apart from hydroelectricity, why does renewable
projects are in operation, including one off the energy contribute so little to global energy supply?
shores of Oregon in the USA. The costs and benefits 4 For the country in which you live, find out which
of wave energy are broadly similar to those of tidal forms of renewable energy are used and how much
power. they contribute to total energy production.
Case study: Energy supply in China

China overtook the USA in total energy usage in 2009. China’s strategic petroleum reserve
The demand for energy in China continues to increase
significantly as the country expands its industrial base. In Priority was also given to building up the national oil
2015, China’s energy consumption breakdown by energy reserve. In 2007 China announced an expansion of its
sources was as follows: crude reserves into a two-part system. Chinese reserves
would consist of a government-controlled strategic
• coal 63.7 per cent reserve complemented by mandated commercial
• oil 18.6 per cent reserves. The government-controlled reserves are being
• hydroelectricity 8.5 per cent completed in three phases. This will protect China to a
• natural gas 5.9 per cent certain extent from fluctuations in the global oil price,
• nuclear energy 1.3 per cent which can arise for a variety of reasons.
• renewables 2.1 per cent.
Renewable energy policy
China’s energy policy has evolved over time. As the
economy expanded rapidly in the 1980s and 1990s, much Total renewable energy capacity in China reached 502 GW
emphasis was placed on China’s main energy resource, in 2015, up from 226 GW in 2009. This included:
coal. China was also an exporter of oil until the early • 319.4 GW of hydroelectricity
1990s; it is now a very significant importer. Chinese • 129.3 GW of wind energy
investment in energy resources abroad has risen rapidly. • 43.2 GW of solar PV
Long-term energy security is viewed as essential if the • 10.3 GW of biomass.
country is to maintain the pace of its industrial revolution.
In recent years China has tried to take a more balanced China’s wind power capacity grew rapidly between 2005 and
approach to energy supply and at the same time reduce 2015 and is now the largest in the world by a considerable
its environmental impact through: margin. Its wind turbine manufacturing industry is now
the largest in the world, and it is now also the largest
• energy conservation manufacturer of solar PV. China is very serious about
• placing a strong emphasis on domestic resources tackling air pollution and plans to have a total renewable
• diversified energy development capacity of more than 800 GW by 2021 (Table 3.17).
• environmental protection
Table 3.17 China’s projected renewable electricity capacity
• mutually beneficial international cooperation.
(GW), 2015–21
The development of clean coal technology is an important
aspect of China’s energy policy. China is constructing clean 2015 2018 2021
coal plants at a rapid rate and gradually retiring older, Hydropower 319.4 348.4 368.4
more polluting power plants. China has recently built a Bioenergy 10.3 14.4 18.4
small experimental facility near Beijing to remove carbon Wind: 129.3 189.4 257.1
dioxide from power station emissions and use it to provide onshore 128.3 186.8 250.3
carbonation for beverages. Overall coal consumption in offshore 1.0 2.6 6.8
China actually declined for the first time in 2015.
Solar PV 43.2 104.2 160.2
The further development of nuclear and hydropower is
CSP/STE 0.0 1.5 3.1
another important strand of Chinese policy. The country
also aims to stabilise and increase the production of oil Geothermal 0.0 0.1 0.1
while augmenting that of natural gas and improving the Ocean 0.0 0.0 0.0
national oil and gas network. Total 502.3 557.8 807.3
229

3.5 EnErgy
The Three Gorges Dam 38 main generators giving the scheme a massive
The Three Gorges Dam across the Yangtze river is the 22,500 MW generating capacity. The dam supplies
world’s largest electricity generating plant of any kind Shanghai and Chongqing in particular with electricity.
(Figure 3.86). This is a major part of China’s policy in This is a multipurpose scheme that also increases
reducing its reliance on coal. The dam is over 2 km the river’s navigational capacity and reduces the
long and 100 m high. The lake impounded behind potential for floods downstream. However, there was
it is over 600 km long. All of the originally planned considerable opposition to the dam for a number of
components were completed in late 2008. There are reasons (see page 123).
▲ Figure 3.86 The Three Gorges Dam
Case study analysis

1 When did China overtake the USA in total energy usage? 4 What name is given to China’s stock of oil kept aside in
2 Describe China’s energy consumption by source. case of an emergency?
3 What are the main principles of China’s current energy 5 Why has the Three Gorges Dam been so important to
policy? energy development in China?
230

3.6 Water
Key questions
H What are the methods of water supply?
H How does the use of water vary between countries at different levels of
economic development?
H What are the reasons for water shortages in some areas?
H Why is careful management required to ensure future supplies of water?
▲ Figure 3.87 Reservoir with water tower in Wales
The global water crisis world where there is enough water, it is being wasted,
mismanaged and polluted on a grand scale. In the
The longest a person can survive without water is poorest nations it is not just a question of lack of
about 10 days. All life and virtually every human water; the paltry supplies available are often polluted.
activity needs water. It is the world’s most essential
resource and a pivotal element in poverty reduction. Methods of water supply
But for about 80 countries, with 40 per cent of the Water supply is the provision of water by public
world’s population, lack of water is a constant threat. utilities, commercial organisations or by community
And the situation is getting worse, with demand for endeavours. The objective in all cases is to supply
water doubling every 20 years. In those parts of the water from its source to the point of usage. In 2015,
231

3.6 Water
91 per cent of the global population had access to excess water into specific regions. They may also be
a piped water supply through house connections or used to generate hydroelectricity and provide road
an improved water source through other means than bridges across valleys. A reservoir is an artificial lake
house supply, including standpipes, water kiosks, primarily used for storing water. Not all reservoirs are
spring supplies and protected wells. This compares held behind dams, but the really large ones usually
with 76 per cent in 1990. This left over 660 million are. These are ‘on-channel’ reservoirs where a dam
people who did not have access to an improved water has been built across an existing river. In contrast,
source and had to use unprotected wells or springs, ‘off-channel’ reservoirs usually use depressions in
canals, lakes or rivers for their water needs. the existing landscape or human-dug depressions
to store water. They may be in close proximity to
Dams and reservoirs rivers so that water can be moved from one to the
In the twentieth century, global water consumption grew other, depending on whether storage or supply is the
sixfold — twice the rate of population growth. Much immediate objective.
of this increased consumption was made possible by The world’s major dams are really massive
significant investment in water infrastructure, particularly structures capable of holding huge amounts of
dams and reservoirs, affecting nearly 60 per cent of the water in the reservoirs behind them. The volume of
world’s major river basins. Figure 3.88 shows water supply water in Lake Kariba, held behind the Kariba Dam
and management methods in the large Canadian province in Zimbabwe, is a staggering 180.6 km3. This water
of Alberta, where water supply is a concern in many parts can be released gradually as and when required by
of the region. the settlements downstream of the dam. Reservoir
A dam is a barrier that holds back water. Dams are storage needs have increased as world population
mainly used to save, manage and prevent the flow of has grown. There are approximately 80,000 dams
Cloud seeding
Snowpack management
and augmentation Water yield enhancement
Operating rule for

Forest water multiple users and
management multiple reservoirs
Off-channel Rainwater harvesting
On-channel reservoirs/lagoons and on-site grey
reservoirs water re-use
Water licence
exchange
Surface recharge
Aquifer storage Tanks
Vad reservoir well and towers
ose z
one
Mine storage
Sat
ura
Controlled storage ted End pit lake
zon
ea
qui
fer
Water supply management

and re-use
▲ Figure 3.88 Alternative water supply and management methods in Alberta, Canada
232

The global water crisis
of varying sizes in the USA alone. Globally the

construction of dams has declined since the Land Artesian
Artesian
surface Water well
height of the era in the 1960s and 1970s. This is well
rises to that
Permeable
because most of the best sites for dams are already recharge zone
this level flows
in use or such sites are strongly protected by

environmental legislation and therefore off-limits Impermeable layer
Impermeable
for construction. layer
An alternative to building new dams and reservoirs
is to increase the capacity of existing reservoirs by ▲ Figure 3.89 An aquifer and artesian wells
extending the height of the dam. For example, the
San Vicente Dam Raise Project in southern California Desalination: the answer to water
is adding 36 m to the existing 67 m structure. At a
cost of $530 million it will more than double the shortages?
current capacity of the reservoir. Desalination plants are in widespread use in the
Middle East where other forms of water supply are
Wells and boreholes extremely scarce. Most of these plants distill water
A well or borehole is a means of tapping into by boiling, generally using waste gases produced by
various types of aquifers (water-bearing rocks), oil wells. Without the availability of waste energy
gaining access to groundwater. They are sunk the process would be extremely expensive. This is the
directly down to the water table. The water table is main reason why desalination plants are few and far
the highest level of underground water. For many between outside of the Middle East.
communities groundwater is the only water supply However, another method of desalination does exist.
source. Aquifers provide approximately half of the Originally developed in California in the mid-1960s
world’s drinking water, 40 per cent of the water for industrial use, the ‘reverse osmosis’ technique is
used by industry and up to 30 per cent of irrigation now being applied to drinking water. Recent advances
water. have substantially reduced the cost of reverse-
Typically a borehole is drilled by machine and is osmosis systems. Large-scale systems using this new
relatively small in diameter. Wells are relatively large technology have been built in Singapore and Florida.
in diameter and are often sunk by hand, although The sea water will still have to undergo
machinery may be used. conventional filter treatment to rid it of impurities
Water from groundwater sources can be used such as microbes pumped into the sea from
directly or stored to build up a considerable sewage plants. Thus it is likely that even when the
surface supply. Figure 3.89 shows two types technology has been highly refined, desalinated
of artesian well. These are wells sunk through water will always be more expensive than water from
impermeable strata into strata receiving water conventional sources. However, desalination does
from an area at a higher altitude than that of the have other advantages:
well, so that there is sufficient pressure to force
» It does not affect water levels in rivers.
water to flow upwards. The well on the left in
» It could mean that controversial plans for new
Figure 3.89 will require pumping or manually drawn
reservoirs could be shelved.
buckets to bring water from the level to which it
rises to the surface. The artesian well on the right However, desalination plants are expensive and do
is below the water table, so water will flow to the not offer a viable solution to the poorest countries
surface unaided (a flowing artesian well). About unless costs can be drastically reduced.
35 per cent of all public water supply in England
and Wales comes from groundwater. Groundwater Cloud seeding
is even more important in arid and semi-arid Cloud seeding is a technique used to increase
areas. This is the main source of water in oasis rainfall (or snowfall) in an area. It can be
settlements such as those in the Sahara desert in used directly over an agricultural area where
north Africa. rainfall is required immediately, or mountain or
233

3.6 Water
‘orogenic’ cloud seeding can be used for snowpack

augmentation, particularly in snowmelt-dominated Activities
basins like those originating in the Rocky Mountains 1 Define:
in the USA and Canada (Figures 3.88 and 3.90). a a dam
The more snow that falls in winter, the more water b a reservoir.
2 Write a paragraph to explain Figure 3.89.
there is from snowmelt in spring. Cloud seeding is 3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
also sometimes used in major ski resorts to increase desalination?
snowfall. 4 Look at Figure 3.90 and explain how cloud seeding works.
How water use varies

Figure 3.91 shows the contrasts in water use in
developed and developing countries. In the latter,
agriculture accounts for over 80 per cent of total
water use, with industry using more of the remainder
than domestic allocation. In the developed world
agriculture accounts for slightly more than 40 per
cent of total water use. This is lower than the amount
allocated to industry. As in the developing world,
domestic use is in third place.
▲ Figure 3.90 How cloud seeding works As developing countries industrialise and urban-
industrial complexes expand, the demand for water grows
rapidly in the industrial and domestic sectors. As a result
Other methods of water supply the competition with agriculture for water has intensified
Other methods of water supply, shown in Figure 3.88, in many countries and regions. This is a scenario that has
are largely self-explanatory: already played itself out in many developed countries,
where more and more difficult decisions are having to be
» Forest water management can be very important in
made about how to allocate water.
many areas. Land management activities can affect
There can also be large variations in water allocation
water flow and degrade the quality of water. Many
within countries. For example, irrigation accounts for
countries rely on ‘protection forests’ to preserve
over 80 per cent of water demand in the west of the
the quality of drinking water supplies, alleviate
USA, but only about 6 per cent in the east. In general,
flooding and guard against erosion, landslides and
precipitation declines from east to west in the USA.
the loss of soil.
The amount of water used by a population depends
» Water can be stored underground as well as on the
not only on water availability but also on levels of
surface, thus reducing losses from evaporation.
urbanisation and economic development. As global
Underground storage usually uses existing
urbanisation continues, the demand for potable water
chambers, such as abandoned mines.
(drinking water) in cities and towns will rise rapidly.
» Water pricing and the granting of licences to use
In many cases demand will outstrip supply. In some
certain amounts of water from the public supply
countries water is delivered on a daily basis to urban
are now commonplace measures for large-scale
users of water. If a licence holder does not need
Developed countries Agriculture
to use all the water it is entitled to use under Domestic
the licence, the surplus water can be sold (water Industry
licence exchange). 0 20 40 60 80 100%

» Households may be encouraged to use water butts Developing countries
and to trap rainwater by other methods, thus
taking less from the piped public supply. They may
also be encouraged to use ‘grey water’ to water 0 20 40 60 80 100%
gardens, for example. Grey water is water that has ▲ Figure 3.91 Water used for agriculture, industry and
already been used, such as bath water. domestic purposes in the developed and developing worlds
234

Water shortages
» Over 60 per cent of the world’s population live in

areas receiving only 25 per cent of global annual
precipitation.
» The arid regions of the world cover 40 per cent of
the world’s land area, but receive only 2 per cent
of global precipitation.
» The Congo river and its tributaries account for
30 per cent of Africa’s annual runoff in an area
containing 10 per cent of Africa’s population.
Water scarcity is to do with the availability of potable
water. Physical water scarcity is when physical access
to water is limited. This is when demand outstrips a
▲ Figure 3.92 Water collection and distribution in central Asia region’s ability to provide the water needed by the
population. It is the arid and semi-arid regions of the
areas that are not yet connected to the mains supply world that are most associated with physical water
(Figure 3.92). scarcity. Here temperatures and evapotranspiration
In terms of agriculture, more than 80 per cent of crop rates are very high and precipitation low. In the worst
evapotranspiration comes directly from rainfall, with affected areas, points of access to safe drinking water
the remainder from irrigation water diverted from rivers are few and far between. Egypt is a clear example of
and groundwater. However, this varies considerably physical water scarcity, having to import more than half
by region. In the Middle East and North Africa, where of its food because it does not have enough water to
rainfall is low and unreliable, more than 60 per cent of grow it domestically.
crop evapotranspiration originates from irrigation. Economic water scarcity exists when a population
does not have the necessary monetary means to
Water shortages utilise an adequate source of water. The unequal
distribution of resources is central to economic
110,000 km3 of precipitation falls onto the Earth’s water scarcity, where the crux of the problem is lack
land surface each year. This would be more than of investment. This occurs for a number of reasons,
adequate for the global population’s needs, but much including political and ethnic conflict. Figure 3.93
of it cannot be captured and the rest is very unevenly shows that much of sub-Saharan Africa is affected by
distributed. For example: this type of water scarcity.
Little or no water scarcity

Approaching physical
water scarcity
Physical water scarcity
Economic water scarcity
Not estimated
▲ Figure 3.93 Physical water scarcity and economic water scarcity worldwide
235

3.6 Water
Securing access to clean water is a vital aspect of The Water Project, a leading NGO, has recently stated
development. The lack of clean, safe drinking water the following with regard to water:
is estimated to kill over 4000 children per day. While
» At any one time, half of the world’s hospital beds
deaths associated with dirty water have been virtually
are occupied by patients suffering from water-
eliminated from developed countries, in developing
borne diseases.
countries most deaths still result from water-borne
» Over one-third of the world’s population has no
disease.
access to sanitation facilities.
Water scarcity has been presented as the ‘sleeping
» In developing countries, about 80 per cent of
tiger’ of the world’s environmental problems,
illnesses are linked to poor water and sanitation
threatening to put world food supplies in jeopardy,
conditions.
limit economic and social development, and create
» One out of every four deaths of children under
serious conflicts between neighbouring drainage
the age of 5 worldwide is due to a water-related
basin countries. The UN estimates that two-
disease.
thirds of the world’s population will be affected
» In developing countries, it is common for water
by ‘severe water stress’ by 2025. The situation
collectors — usually women and girls — to have to
will be particularly severe in Africa, the Middle
walk several kilometres every day to fetch water. Once
East and south Asia. The UN notes that already a
filled, pots and jerry-cans can weigh as much as 20 kg.
number of the world’s great rivers are running dry
(Figure 3.94), such as the Colorado in the USA, and The link between poverty and water resources is very
that groundwater is also being drained faster than clear, with those living on less than $1.25 a day roughly
it can be replenished. Many major aquifers have equal to the number without access to safe drinking
been seriously depleted, which will present serious water. Access to safe water is vital in the prevention of
consequences in the future. In China, the over- diarrhoeal diseases, which result in 1.5 million deaths
exploitation of aquifers has been a major factor in a year, mostly among children under 5. Improving
the decline in rice production in some areas. access to safe water can be among the most cost-
effective means of reducing illness and mortality. The
UN World Water Development Report stated: ‘The real
tragedy is the effect it has on the everyday lives of
poor people, who are blighted by the burden of water-
related disease, living in degraded and often dangerous
environments, struggling to get an education for their
children and to earn a living, and to get enough to
eat. The brutal truth is that the really poor suffer
a combination of most, and sometimes all, of the
▲ Figure 3.94 The dried-up bed of the Rio Oja, northern Spain problems in the water sector.’
The Middle East and North Africa face the most serious The future
problems. Since 1972 the Middle East has withdrawn Scientists expect water scarcity to become more
more water from its rivers and aquifers each year severe, largely because:
than is being replenished. Yemen and Jordan are
withdrawing 30 per cent more from groundwater » the world’s population continues to increase
resources annually than is being naturally replenished. significantly
Israel’s annual demand exceeds its renewable supply by » increasing affluence is inflating per capita demand
15 per cent. In Africa, about 200 million people live in for water
water-stressed or water-scarce areas. » of the increasing demands of biofuel production —
A country is judged to experience water stress biofuel crops are heavy users of water
when water supply is below 1700 m3 per person per » climate change is increasing aridity and reducing
year. When water supply falls below 1000 m3 per person supply in many regions
a year, a country faces water scarcity for all or part » many water sources are threatened by various
of the year. forms of pollution.
236

Water management
Water management As water scarcity becomes more of a problem, the

investment required to tackle this global challenge
The general opinion in the global water industry is will rise. Table 3.18 shows the estimated investment
that in the past the cost of water in the developed needed by regions of the world for the period
world has been too low to encourage users to save 2005–30. There are very large contrasts between
water. Higher prices would make individuals and the different regions. Delivering water to the points
organisations, both public and private, think more where it is required is a costly business in terms of
carefully about how much water they use. Higher both constructing and maintaining infrastructure.
prices would: Overall, the sums of money illustrated in Table 3.18
» encourage the systematic re-use of used or ‘grey’
are huge and money may need to be diverted from
water other sectors of national government funding.
» spur investment in recycling and reclamation
However, investment in water as a proportion of GDP
systems has fallen by half in most countries since the late
» lead to greater investment in the reduction of
1990s.
water losses. Urban sanitation services are very heavy users
of water. Demand could be reduced considerably by
However, many consumers still see water as a ‘free’ adopting dry or low-water-use systems, such as dry
or very low-cost resource, and campaign groups are composting toilets with urine separation systems. A
concerned that higher prices would have an unfair number of pilot projects are in operation, such as in
impact on people on low incomes. Water pricing for the Gebers Housing Project in Stockholm.
both domestic and commercial users is a sensitive
issue. It has also become much more of a political Table 3.18 Water investment needs by area, 2005–30
issue as more and more countries have privatised $ (trillions)
their water resources. Asia/Oceania 9.0
Conserving irrigation water would have more South/Central America 5.0
impact than any other measure. Most irrigation is Europe 4.5
extremely inefficient, wasting half or more of the USA/Canada 3.6
water used. A 10 per cent increase in irrigation Middle East 0.3
efficiency would free up more water than is Africa 0.2
evaporated by all other users. The most modern drip
irrigation systems are up to 95 per cent efficient, but
require significant investment. Activities
Although some industries have significantly
reduced their use of water per unit of production, 1 Describe the differences shown in Figure 3.91.
2 Define:
most water analysts believe that much more can be a physical water scarcity
done. For example, production of 1 kg of aluminium b economic water scarcity.
can require up to 1500 litres of water. Other 3 In which world region is economic water scarcity
industries, such as paper production, are also very most widespread?
water intensive. Some countries, such as Japan and 4 Why is water scarcity likely to become more severe in
the future?
Germany, have made considerable improvements in 5 Give two examples of water management.
industrial water use. For example, Japanese industry
recycles more than 75 per cent of process water.
237

3.6 Water
Case study: The water problem in southwestern USA

The USA is a huge user of water. Over the country as mean annual precipitation. Yet each day the west
a whole there would not seem to be a water problem. uses as much water as the east. It is the southwest
However, the western states of the USA, covering in particular where the water problem is most
60 per cent of the land area with 40 per cent of the total intense (Figure 3.95). This is the area of the USA most
population, receive only 25 per cent of the country’s vulnerable to water shortages.
▲ Figure 3.95 Desert region in southwestern USA
R Metropolitan Water District

Klamath
California State Water Project aqueducts
Trin
i
R
ty
Shasta Reservoir
Sacramento R
R
Ee
er
lR
h
at
Tehame Calusa N
Fe
Canal Oroville Dam

NEVADA
Folsom Dam UTAH
North Bay Aqueduct
Sacramento
Peripheral Canal
San Francisco
Mono Lake
San Joaquin R
South Bay Aqueduct Lake Powell
Si
Friant Dam
er
Glen Canyon
ra
Delta Mendota Canal

Dam
Ne
Fresno
va
California Aqueduct
da
Grand Canyon Marble

Tulare
San Luis Drain Lake Mead Canyon
Owens Valley
R Aqueduct Bridge
r n Hoover Dam
Ke Canyon
Bakersfield
CALIFORNIA
Tehachapi Mts
Castaic Reservoir Lake Havasu Central Arizona
Perris
Project Canal ARIZONA
Co
Reservoir Parker
ac
Los Angeles Dam

he
lt R
do
lla
M.W.D. Colorado R Aqueduct Sa

ora
Salton Sea
Ca
na
Col
l
Imperial
San Diego Valley aR
0 200km Gil
Mexicali To Tucson
▲ Figure 3.96 Water management schemes in California
238

Water management
The southwest has prospered due to a huge investment in The $4 billion Central Arizona Project (CAP) is the
water transfer schemes. This has benefited agriculture, latest, and probably the last, big money scheme to
industry and settlement. Hundreds of aqueducts take water divert water from this great river (Figure 3.97). Before
from areas of surplus to areas of shortage. The federal CAP, Arizona had taken much less than its legal
government has paid most of the bill but now the demand entitlement from the Colorado. It could not afford to
for water is greater than the supply. If the west is to continue build a water transfer system from the Colorado to
to expand, a solution to the water problem must be found. its main cities and at the time the federal government
Although much of the southwest is desert or semi-desert, did not feel that national funding was justified. Most
large areas of dry land have been transformed into fertile of the state’s water came from aquifers but it was
farms and sprawling cities. It all began with the Reclamation overdrawing this supply by about two million acre-
Act of 1902 which allowed the building of canals, dams and feet a year. If thirsty Phoenix and Tucson were to
hydroelectric power systems in the states that lie, all or in remain prosperous, something had to be done. The
part, west of the 100th meridian. Water supply was to be the answer was CAP, which the federal government
key to economic development in general, benefiting not only agreed to part-fund. Since CAP was completed in 1992,
the west, but the USA as a whole. 1.85 trillion litres of water a year has been distributed
California has benefited most from this investment in water to farms, Native American reservations, industries and
supply. A great imbalance exists between the distributions of fast-growing towns and cities along its 570 km route
precipitation and population in the state. Seventy per cent of between Lake Havasu and Tucson. However, providing
runoff originates in the northern one-third of the state, but more water for Arizona has meant that less is available
80 per cent of the demand for water is in the southern two- for California. In 1997 the federal government told
thirds. While irrigation is the prime water user, the sprawling California that the state would have to learn to live with
urban areas have also greatly increased demand. The the 5427 million m3 of water from the Colorado it is
3.5 million hectares of irrigated land in California are situated entitled to under the 1922 Compact, instead of taking
mainly in the Imperial, Coachella, San Joaquin and lower 6414 million m3 a year.
Sacramento valleys. Figure 3.96 shows the major component
parts of water transfer and storage in the state.
Agriculture uses more than 80 per cent of the state’s
water, though it accounts for less than a tenth of the
economy. Water development, largely financed by the
federal government, has been a huge subsidy to California
in general and to big water users in particular. However,
recently there has been a move to bringing the price
mechanism to bear on water resources.
The Colorado: a river under pressure
The 2333 km long Colorado River is an important source
of water in the southwest. Over 30 million people in the
region depend on water from the river. The river rises
4250 m up in the Rocky Mountains of northern Colorado
and flows generally southwest through Colorado, Utah,
Arizona and between Nevada and Arizona, and Arizona
and California, before crossing the border into Mexico. The
river drains an area of about 632,000 km2.
The Colorado was the first river system in which the
concept of multiple water use was attempted by the
US Bureau of Reclamation. In 1922 the Colorado River
Compact divided the seven states of the basin into two
groups: Upper Basin and Lower Basin. Each group was
allocated 9.25 trillion litres of water annually, while a
1944 treaty guaranteed a further 1.85 trillion litres to
Mexico. Hoover Dam and Lake Mead, completed in 1936,
marked the beginning of the era of artificial control of
the Colorado. Despite the interstate and international
agreements (between the USA and Mexico), major
problems over the river’s resources have arisen because
population has increased alongside rising demand from ▲ Figure 3.97 Part of the Central Arizona Project
agriculture and industry.
239

3.6 Water
Resource management strategies • It has been claimed that various techniques of weather
modification, especially cloud seeding, can provide
Implementation of the following strategies would conserve
water at reasonable cost. However, environmental and
considerable quantities of water in the southwest of the
political considerations cannot be ignored here.
USA:
• In 1991, after several years of drought, the city of Santa
• measures to reduce leakage and evaporation losses — Barbara approved the construction of a $37.4 million
up to 25 per cent of all water moved is currently lost in desalination plant. Although much too expensive for
these ways irrigation water, it is likely that more will be built for
• recycling water in industry where, for example, it takes urban use.
225,000 litres to make one tonne of steel • The frozen reserves of Antarctic water could be exploited.
• recycling municipal sewage for watering lawns, Serious proposals have been made to find a 100 million
gardens and golf courses, which could be implemented tonne iceberg (1.5 km long, 300 m wide, 270 m deep) off
or extended, as Los Angeles has already shown Antarctica, wrap it in sailcloth or thick plastic, and tow
• introducing more efficient toilet systems it to southern California. The critical questions here are
• charging more realistic prices for irrigation water — cost, evaporation loss, and the environmental effects
many farmers pay well below the true cost of water of anchoring such a huge block of ice off an arid coast.
pumped to them, while the rest is subsidised by the There could also be political implications.
federal government • Offshore aqueducts might be constructed that would
• extending the use of the most efficient irrigation systems run under the ocean from the Columbia river in the
• changing from highly water-dependent crops, such as northwest of the USA to California.
rice and alfalfa, to those needing less water
There is now general agreement that planning for the
• requiring both cities and rural areas to identify the
future water supply for the southwest should embrace
source of water to be used before new developments
all practicable options. Sensible management of this
can begin.
vital resource should rule out no feasible strategy if this
important region is to sustain its economic viability and
Future options growing population.
Several ideas have been put forward for future strategies:
Case study analysis
• New groundwater resources could be developed. 1 Describe the imbalance in population and precipitation
Although groundwater has been heavily depleted between the eastern and western parts of the USA.
in many areas, in regions of water surplus such as 2 Discuss the main uses of water in California.
northern California they remain virtually untapped. 3 Why is the Colorado River under so much pressure?
However, the transfer of even more water from 4 Explain the resource management strategies that can
such areas would probably prove politically be used to try to improve the balance between supply
unacceptable. and demand.
Interesting note
The water level in the Colorado-fed Lake Mead,
the USA’s largest reservoir, has dropped by more
than 30 m since the beginning of the twenty-first
century. The basin is now only just over half full.
240

3.7 Environmental risks of economic
development
Key questions
H How can economic activities pose threats to the natural environment,
locally and globally?
H How important are sustainable development and management to economic
development?
H How important is resource conservation?
people, the strain on the natural environment

has become more obvious at all scales from local
to global. The planet is experiencing a range of
serious environmental challenges, many of which
are interlinked. At the largest scale enhanced global
warming is having an impact, or will have an impact,
on the whole of the world.
Pollution
Pollution is contamination of the environment. It
can take many forms — air, water, soil, noise, visual
and others. Pollution has a major impact on people
▲ Figure 3.98 Polluting factories and smog over Ulaanbaatar and the environment. Figure 3.99 shows how people
— flights in and out of the airport are regularly delayed due to
smog in one of the world’s most polluted cities
are exposed to chemicals and how exposure to these
chemicals can affect human health. The methods of
The threat of economic exposure to pollutants are:
activities to the natural » breathing in chemical vapours and dust

(inhalation)
environment » drinking or eating the chemical (ingestion)
» absorbing the chemical through the skin
As the scale of global economic activity has
(absorption).
increased, bringing considerable benefits to many
Wind direction
Wet
A B
deposition
Transformation
Dispersion
Dry deposition
Evaporation/
re-entrainment Air
HEALTH EFFECTS Bioaccumulation

• Reproductive effects in food
• Respiratory effects Inhalation
Target Absorption Ingestion
• Neurological effects
organ/tissue Organs
• Birth defects
• Cancer
Distribution Intake/uptake
• Other effects Storage
Tissues Blood
Metabolism
Fat
Excretion
▲ Figure 3.99 How exposure to pollution can affect human health
241

3.7 EnvironmEntal risks of Economic dEvElopmEnt
Air pollution Table 3.19 The most polluting industries
Of all types of pollution, air pollution has the Industrial sector Examples
most widespread effects on human health and the Fuel and power Power stations, oil refineries
environment. Air pollution affects people and the Mineral Cement, glass, ceramics
environment at a range of scales, from local to industries
global. In many parts of the developing world indoor Waste disposal Incineration, chemical recovery
air pollution is more severe than that experienced Chemicals Pesticides, pharmaceuticals, organic and
outdoors. This is the result of the use of biomass inorganic chemicals
fuels for cooking and heating. In many poor countries Metal industries Iron and steel, smelting, non-ferrous
metals
this is the only option available.
Others Paper manufacture, timber preparation,
Virtually every substance is toxic at a certain
uranium processing
dosage. The most serious polluters are the large-
scale processing industries, which tend to form deposition can be carried for considerable distances.
agglomerations as they have similar locational For example, pollution found in Alaska in the 1970s was
requirements (Table 3.19). The impact of a large traced back to the Ruhr industrial area in Germany.
industrial agglomeration may spread well beyond the Table 3.20 summarises the sources and effects on
locality and region to cross international borders. people and the environment of the major air pollutants.
For example, prevailing winds in Europe generally Air pollution is a massive environmental problem
carry pollution from west to east. Thus the problems leading to, among other things, global warming, acid
caused by acid rain in Scandinavia have been due rain and the deterioration of the ozone layer.
partly to industrial activity in the UK. Dry and wet
Table 3.20 Major air pollutants
Pollutant Sources Effects

Ozone: a gas that can be found in Ozone is not created directly, but is Ozone near the ground can lead to more
two places. Near the ground (the formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile frequent asthma attacks in people who
troposphere) it is a major part of smog. organic compounds mix in sunlight. have asthma, and can cause sore throats,
This should not be confused with the Nitrogen oxides come from burning coughs and breathing difficulty, even
protective layer of ozone in the upper gasoline, coal and other fossil fuels. leading to premature death. It can also
atmosphere (stratosphere), which The many types of volatile organic damage plants and crops.
screens out harmful ultraviolet rays. compounds come from sources ranging
from factories to trees.
Carbon monoxide: a gas that comes from Carbon monoxide is released when Carbon monoxide makes it hard for
the burning of fossil fuels, mostly in cars. engines burn fossil fuels. Emissions body parts to get the oxygen they need.
It cannot be seen or smelt. are higher when engines are not tuned Exposure to carbon monoxide makes
properly, and when fuel is not completely people feel dizzy and tired and gives them
burnt. Cars emit a lot of the carbon headaches. In high concentrations it can
monoxide found outdoors. Furnaces be fatal.
and heaters in the home can emit high
concentrations of carbon monoxide if
they are not properly maintained.
Nitrogen dioxide: a reddish-brown gas Nitrogen dioxide mostly comes from High concentrations of nitrogen dioxide
that comes from the burning of fossil power plants and cars. It is formed in can give people coughs and make
fuels. It has a strong smell at high two ways: when nitrogen in fuel is burnt, them short of breath. People exposed
concentrations. and when nitrogen in the air reacts with to nitrogen dioxide for a long time
oxygen at very high temperatures. It can are more vulnerable to respiratory
also react in the atmosphere to form infections. Nitrogen dioxide reacts in the
ozone, acid rain and particles. atmosphere to form acid rain, which can
harm plants and animals.
242

The threat of economic activities to the natural environment
Table 3.20 continued

Pollutant Sources Effects
Particulate matter: solid or liquid matter Particulate matter can be divided into Particulate matter that is small enough
that is suspended in the air. To remain two types: coarse and fine. Coarse can enter the lungs and cause health
in the air, particles must usually be particles are formed from sources problems, for example more frequent
between 0.00005 mm and 0.1 mm. such as road dust, sea spray and asthma attacks, respiratory problems
construction. Fine particles are formed and premature death.
when fuel is burned in vehicles and
power plants.
Sulfur dioxide: a corrosive gas that Sulfur dioxide mostly comes from Sulfur dioxide exposure can affect
cannot be seen or smelt at low levels, burning coal or oil in power plants. Also people who have asthma or emphysema
but has a ‘rotten egg’ smell at higher from factories making chemicals, paper by making it more difficult for them to
concentrations. or fuel. It reacts in the atmosphere to breathe. It can also irritate eyes, nose
form acid rain and particles. and throat. It can harm trees and crops,
damage buildings, and reduce visibility.
Lead: a blue-grey metal that is very toxic; Outside, lead comes from cars using fuel Large amounts of lead can affect young
found in a variety of forms and places. that is not unleaded. Also from power children’s brain development and cause
plants and other industrial sources. kidney problems. For adults, exposure
Inside, lead paint can still be found in to lead can increase the chance of heart
older houses; old lead pipes can be a attack and stroke.
source of lead in drinking water.
Toxic air pollutants: include a number Each pollutant comes from a different Toxic air pollutants can cause cancer, and
of chemicals, for example arsenic, source, but many are created in some can cause birth defects, skin and
asbestos, benzene and dioxin. chemical plants when fossil fuels are eye irritation, and breathing problems.
burned. Some pollutants can be found in
building materials or in food and water
supplies.
Stratospheric ozone depleters: CFCs are used in air conditioners and If stratospheric ozone is destroyed,
chemicals that can destroy the ozone refrigerators, because they work well people are exposed to more ultraviolet
in the stratosphere. These include in coolants. Also in aerosol cans, fire radiation from the Sun, which can lead to
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, extinguishers and solvents. skin cancer and eye problems. It can also
chlorine and bromine. harm plants and animals.
Greenhouse gases: gases that stay in Carbon dioxide is the most important The greenhouse effect can lead to
the air for a long time and warm the greenhouse gas. It comes from burning changes in the climate, for example more
planet by trapping sunlight. This is called fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants, extreme temperatures, higher sea levels
the ‘greenhouse effect’ because the houses and industry. Methane is and changes in forest composition, which
gases act like glass in a greenhouse. released during the processing of fossil in turn cause health problems for people.
Greenhouse gases include carbon fuels; also from natural sources such
dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. as cows and padi-fields. Nitrous oxide
comes from industrial sources and
decaying plants.
Pollution is the major externality of industrial and of pollution it is possible to map the externality
urban areas. Externalities are the side-effects — gradient and field. In general, health risk and
positive and negative — of an economic activity environmental damage are greatest immediately
that are experienced beyond its site. Pollution around the source of pollution and the risk decreases
is at its most intense at the focus of pollution- with distance from the source. However, atmospheric
causing activities, declining with distance from such conditions and other factors can complicate this
concentrations (Figure 3.100). For some sources pattern.
243

Maximum environmental our water being poisoned with a cocktail of drugs?’.

impact Scientists are worried that powerful and toxic anti-
cancer drugs are passing unhindered through sewage
works and making their way back into the water
Environmental impact
Externality
gradient supply.
Geographical
extent of
impact
Externality field
Distance
Location of
industry
▲ Figure 3.100 Externality gradient and field
Interesting note
H The countries with the largest total carbon
▲ Figure 3.101 A polluted river in Christchurch, New Zealand
dioxide emissions are China, the USA, India,
Russia and Japan. In terms of emissions per
China’s rapid economic growth has led to
capita, the USA and Russia are the largest
widespread environmental problems. Pollution
polluters. problems are so severe in some areas that the term
‘cancer village’ has become commonplace. In the
Water pollution village of Xiditou, southeast of Beijing, the cancer
rate is 30 times the national average. This has
Each year about 450 km3 of wastewater are
been blamed on water and air contaminated by
discharged into rivers, streams and lakes around the
chemical factories. Tests on tap water have found
world (Figure 3.101). While rivers in more affluent
traces of highly carcinogenic benzene that were 50
countries have become steadily cleaner in recent
per cent above national safe limits. In the rush for
decades, the reverse has been true in much of the
economic growth, local governments eagerly built
developing world. It has been estimated that 90 per
factories, but they had very limited experience of
cent of sewage in developing countries is discharged
environmental controls.
into rivers, lakes and seas without any treatment.
The UN estimates that almost half the population in » The Chinese government admits that 300 million
many developing world cities do not have access to people drink polluted water.
safe drinking water. For example, the Yamuna river, » This comes from polluted rivers and groundwater.
which flows through Delhi, has 200 million litres of » 30,000 children die of diarrhoea or other water-
sewage drained into it each day. For many people borne illnesses each year.
the only alternative to using this water for drinking » The river Liao is the most polluted, followed by
and cooking is to turn to water vendors who sell tap waterways around Tianjin and the River Huai.
water at greatly inflated prices.
Although most people in developed countries think
that their water supplies are clean and healthy there Noise and light pollution
is growing concern in some quarters about traces Not all pollution involves inhalation, ingestion and
of potentially dangerous medicines that may be absorption. Noise and light pollution are increasing
contaminating tap water and putting unborn babies hazards in developed societies. Noise pollution is
at risk, according to a report published in the UK in disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the
September 2008. One newspaper headline read: ‘Is activity or balance of human or animal life. Most
244

We
st
M25
Maidenhead min City
Ha & Fu
Hayes ste
Ke Ch mith
M4 Slough Ealing r
mm lha
ns e l
& ers
in se
M4
Sou
gt a
Heathrow
on
Windsor
thw
Airport
Hounslow
ark
55 decibels
60 65 70 75 Lambeth
N Twickenham Wandsworth
Feltham Noise comparison:
Egham Staines 55 decibels Average office
Richmond
60 decibels Air conditioner
upon Thames Merton Street traffic
65 decibels
0 3 Kingston
70 decibels Noisy restaurant
upon Thames
km M3 75 decibels Loud radio music
▲ Figure 3.102 London’s Heathrow airport (UK), with surrounding noise levels
outdoor noise is caused by machines and modes of have a serious impact on human health, causing
transport. Outdoor noise is generally referred to as fatigue, loss of sleep, headaches and loss of
‘environmental noise’. amenity.
The increase in air traffic is one of the major
contributors to noise pollution (and air pollution). A The relative risks of incidental and
large area is currently affected by aircraft noise from
Heathrow airport, near London, stretching from the sustained pollution
southern outskirts of Maidenhead in the west to the It is important to consider the different impacts
edge of Camberwell in the east (Figure 3.102). In this associated with incidental pollution (one-off
area, 600,000 people are affected by noise levels pollution incidents) and sustained pollution
of 55 decibels or over. People living close to the (longer-term pollution). The former is mainly linked
airport are affected by noise levels of 75 decibels. to major accidents caused by technological failures
Significant annoyance from aircraft noise begins at and human error. Causes of the latter include ozone
50 decibels. depletion and global warming. Some of the worst
The proposed third runway at Heathrow will examples of incidental pollution are shown in
increase the number of flights from 420,000 a year Table 3.21.
to 700,000 and will bring far more people within the Major examples of incidental pollution such as
area affected by aircraft noise. A recent study has Chernobyl and Bhopal can have extremely long-
highlighted the link between exposure to noise and lasting consequences, which are often difficult to
ill-health, noting in particular exposure to night-time determine in the earlier stages. The effects of both
aircraft noise and high blood pressure. The latter can accidents are still being felt more than two decades
lead to heart attacks and strokes. after they occurred.
Light pollution is excessive or obtrusive artificial It is usually the poorest people in a society who are
light. It is an externality of a developed society. exposed to the risks from both incidental and sustained
Its sources include the interior and external pollution. In the USA the geographical distribution
lighting of all sorts of buildings, advertising of both ethnic minorities and people on the lowest
and street lighting. It is most severe in highly incomes has been found to be strongly linked to the
industrialised and densely populated areas. It can distribution of the worst kinds of pollution.
245

Table 3.21 Major examples of incidental pollution
Location Causes and consequences

Seveso, Italy In July 1976 a reactor at a chemical factory near Seveso in northern Italy exploded, sending a toxic cloud
into the atmosphere. An 18 km2 area of land was contaminated with the dioxin TCDD. The immediate
after-effects — a small number of people with skin inflammation — were relatively mild. However, the
long-term impact has been much worse. The population is suffering increased numbers of premature
deaths from cancer, cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
Bhopal, India A chemical factory owned by the US company Union Carbide leaked deadly methyl isocyanate gas during
the night of 3 December 1984. The plant was operated by a separate Indian subsidiary, which worked to
much lower safety standards than those required in the USA. It has been estimated that 8000 people died
within two weeks and a further 8000 have since died from gas-related diseases. The NGO Greenpeace
puts the total fatality figure at over 20,000. Bhopal is recognised as the world’s worst industrial disaster.
Chernobyl, Ukraine The world’s worst nuclear power plant accident occurred at Chernobyl, Ukraine in April 1986. Reactor
number four exploded, sending a plume of highly radioactive fallout into the atmosphere, which drifted
over extensive parts of Europe and eastern North America. Two people died in the initial explosion and
over 336,000 people were evacuated and resettled. In total, 56 direct deaths and an estimated 4000 extra
cancer deaths have been attributed to Chernobyl. The estimated cost of $200 billion makes Chernobyl
the most expensive disaster in modern history.
Harbin, China An explosion at a large petrochemical plant in the northeast Chinese city of Harbin in 2005 released
toxic pollutants into a major river. Benzene levels were 108 times above national safety levels. Benzene
is a highly poisonous toxin, which is also carcinogenic. Water supplies to the city were suspended. Five
people were killed in the blast and more than 60 injured. Ten thousand residents were temporarily
evacuated.
Gases combine with

Activities moisture to form acid
Sulfuric and water droplets Sulfur dioxide
1 Define ‘pollution’. nitric acid and nitrogen
2 What are the means of human exposure to oxides
pollutants? Acid rain
Wet Affects
3 Which industries are the largest polluters? deposition vegetation Hot gases
4 Describe the sources and effects of two major air Dry deposition
pollutants.
5 Briefly explain Figure 3.100.
6 Why is water pollution much more of a problem in the Vehicle
developing world than in the developed world? exhausts
Fish die
7 What are the main sources of noise pollution?
8 Define light pollution. ▲ Figure 3.103 Acid deposition
9 What is the difference between incidental pollution
and sustained pollution? Acid deposition began entering the atmosphere in
large amounts during the Industrial Revolution.
Acidity is measured on the pH scale, which ranges
Acid deposition from 0 to 14. Pure water is neutral and has a pH of
Acid deposition (Figure 3.103) refers to the mix of air 7. However, natural rainwater is slightly acidic mainly
pollutants that together lead to the acidification of because of dissolved CO2, which produces carbonic
fresh water bodies and soils: acid (H2CO3). Thus, the pH of unpolluted rainwater
ranges from pH 5 to pH 6. Acid rain is generally
» Dry deposition: the direct uptake by the ground viewed as rainwater with a pH of less than 5. In
of pollutants in the form of particles, aerosols and some parts of the northern hemisphere the pH of the
gases in the absence of precipitation. rainwater has been recorded as low as 2.
» Wet deposition: acid rain, snow, fog and mist.
246

Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release

some chemicals that can cause acid deposition, Acid deposition on forests
but the vast majority of these chemicals result
from human activity. Acid precipitation is mainly
caused by the conversion of sulfur dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen (NOx), produced when fossil Leaves lose their protective waxy coating or
fuels are burned, into the sulfates and nitrates of are damaged in other ways
dry deposition and the sulfuric acid and nitric acids

of wet deposition. Wet deposition occurs when
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into With significant leaf damage, trees cannot
the atmosphere where they can react with water, produce enough food energy to remain healthy
oxygen and other chemicals to form mild solutions
of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Coal-burning power
plants are major producers of sulfur dioxide, but
Trees are now more vulnerable to cold
all processes that burn coal and oil contribute to weather, disease and insects
emissions of this gas. A range of industries also
produce significant amounts of sulfur dioxide. In ▲ Figure 3.104 The impact of acid deposition on forests
contrast, nitrogen oxides emanate mainly from
vehicle emissions.
Dry deposition is logically more important in areas
of low precipitation. When it falls to the surface
it can stick to the ground, buildings, cars and
vegetation. It can be washed from these surfaces by
precipitation at a later time. About half of the acidity
in the atmosphere falls back to Earth through dry
deposition. Dry deposition generally occurs relatively
close to emission sources. In contrast, wet deposition
can be carried great distances, sometimes thousands
of miles, and thus it is a significant factor in trans-
boundary pollution.
Acid deposition has a wide range of environmental
implications, which include:
» damaging forests, especially those at higher
elevations. Trees’ leaves and needles are harmed by
acids (Figure 3.104).
» robbing the soil of essential nutrients and
releasing aluminium in the soil, which makes it
hard for trees to take up water
» increasing the acidity of lakes, streams, wetlands
and other aquatic environments. This causes water
bodies to absorb the aluminium, which makes its
way from soil into lakes and streams. This can
make waters toxic to crayfish, clams, fish and other
aquatic animals.
» reducing crop yields because of increased acidity
» reducing visibility and harming public health
» accelerating the decay of building materials and
paints. Acid deposition can cause significant ▲ Figure 3.105 Acid deposition has significantly damaged the
damage to historical buildings and other structures ancient monuments at Angkor Wat, Cambodia; acid deposition
has darkened the stone, and eventually leads to its decay
over time (Figure 3.105).
247

Strategies to manage acid deposition come in two forms: The main greenhouse gases being created by human
activity are:
» Preventing its occurrence — burning less fossil
fuel; switching to lower-sulfur fossil fuels; reducing » carbon dioxide
vehicle emissions; advocating public transport over » methane
private car ownership. » nitrous oxides
» Repairing the damage — this mainly involves » chlorofluorocarbons
liming acid waters. Such measures are expensive » ozone.
and may not be sustainable in the long term.
Activities
1 Distinguish between wet and dry deposition. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the longwave radiation coming
2 Explain how forests can be damaged by acid from the Earth. Some of this energy is radiated to space, but some
deposition. back towards Earth, causing warming.
3 How can acid deposition adversely affect (a) soils and
crops and (b) lakes?
4 What strategies can be used to manage acid deposition? Sun
Enhanced global warming

Space
Growing level of
carbon dioxide and other
atmospheric pollutants
Atmosphere
Sun
Economic activities generating More heat
’s ra
than before
greenhouse gases
Heat (longwave
ys
radiation) given trapped in
Sun’s rays pass off by Earth atmosphere
There is no doubt among geographers and scientists through the
atmosphere without
so Earth
warms up
that the Earth’s climate is changing and that human being absorbed Earth’s surface
(shortwave heated
economic activities are at the very least a significant radiation), though
cause of these changes. The Earth–atmosphere some is reflected
back into space by Earth
system has a natural greenhouse effect (Figure 3.106) the clouds
that is essential to all life on Earth, but large-scale
pollution of the atmosphere by economic activities
has created an enhanced greenhouse effect. This is
causing temperatures to increase beyond the limits ▲ Figure 3.106 The greenhouse effect
of the natural greenhouse effect. Many parts of the
world are experiencing unexpected changes in their
weather. Some of these changes could have disastrous The consequences of enhanced
consequences for the populations of the areas affected
if they continue to get more severe. Human activity has global warming
significantly increased the amount of greenhouse gases There are many potential consequences of enhanced
in the atmosphere and this has caused temperature to global warming, including the following:
rise more rapidly than ever before. As the economies
» Global temperature variations and heatwaves: in
of China, India and other NICs expand even further,
general, higher latitudes and continental regions
greenhouse gas emissions will continue to increase.
will experience temperature increases significantly
» The present rate of change is greater than greater than the global average. There will be a
anything that has happened in the past. In the rising probability of heatwaves, with more extreme
twentieth century, average global temperatures heat days and fewer very cold days.
rose by 0.6°C. Most of this increase took place in » Rising sea levels: sea levels will respond more
the second half of the century. slowly than temperatures to changing greenhouse
» The predictions are for a further global average gas concentrations. Sea levels are currently
temperature increase of between 1.6°C and 4.2°C rising at around 3 mm per year and the rise has
by 2100. been accelerating. Rising sea levels are due
248

Enhanced global warming
to a combination of thermal expansion and

the melting of ice sheets and glaciers. Thermal
expansion is the increase in water volume due
to temperature increase alone. A global average
sea level rise of 0.4 m from this cause has been
predicted by the end of this century.
» Increasing acidity in oceans: as carbon dioxide
levels rise in the atmosphere, more of the gas
is dissolved in surface waters, creating carbonic
acid. Since the start of the Industrial Revolution
the acidity activity of the oceans has
increased by 30 per cent. This is having a
significant impact on coral reefs and shellfish
(Figure 3.107). ▲ Figure 3.108 Ice melting at the edge of Antarctica
» The warm water of the Gulf Stream: the Gulf

Stream originates in the Gulf of Mexico, and its
continuation — the North Atlantic Drift — has a
major influence on the climates of the east coast of
North America and western Europe. Climatologists
are concerned that melting Arctic ice could
disrupt these warm ocean currents, resulting in
temperatures in western Europe falling by at least
5°C. Winters in the UK and other neighbouring
countries would be much colder than they are now.
» Thawing peat bogs: an area of permafrost
spanning 1 million km2 has started to melt for the
first time since it formed 11,000 years ago at the
▲ Figure 3.107 Great Barrier Reef, Australia — increasing end of the last ice age. The area, which covers the
acidity in oceans is having an impact on coral reefs entire sub-Arctic region of western Siberia, is the
world’s largest frozen peat bog and scientists fear
» Melting of ice caps and glaciers: satellite that, as it thaws, it will release billions of tonnes
photographs show ice melting at its fastest rate of methane, a greenhouse gas 20 times more
ever. The area of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean potent than carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere.
has decreased by 15 per cent since 1960, while » El Niño: this phenomenon involves a change in the
the thickness of the ice has reduced by 40 per pattern of wind and ocean currents in the Pacific
cent. In 2007, the sea ice around Antarctica had Ocean. This causes short-term changes in weather
melted back to a record low. At the same time, for countries bordering the Pacific, such as flooding
the movement of glaciers towards the sea has in Peru and drought in Australia. El Niño events
speeded up. A satellite survey between 1996 tend to occur every 2–7 years. There is concern
and 2006 found that the net loss of ice rose by that rising temperatures could increase their
75 per cent. Temperatures in western Antarctica frequency and/or intensity.
have increased sharply in recent years, melting » Growth of the tropical belt: a study published
ice shelves and changing plant and animal in 2007 warned that the Earth’s tropical belt was
life on the Antarctic Peninsula (Figure 3.108). expanding north and south. A further 22 million
Ice melting could cause sea levels to rise by km2 of the Earth are experiencing a tropical climate
a further 5 m (on top of thermal expansion). compared with 1980. The poleward movement
Hundreds of millions of people live in coastal of subtropical dry belts could affect agriculture
areas within this range. and water supplies over large areas of the
249

Mediterranean, southwestern USA, northern Mexico,

southern Australia, southern Africa and parts of Activities
South America. The extension of the tropical belt 1 a Describe the natural greenhouse effect.
will put more people at risk from tropical diseases. b How has this effect been ‘enhanced’ by economic
» Changing patterns of rainfall: the amount and activities?
distribution of rainfall in many parts of the world 2 List the main greenhouse gases.
could change considerably. Generally, regions that 3 Discuss three potential consequences of enhanced
global warming.
get plenty of rainfall now are likely to receive even
more. And regions with low rainfall are likely to get
less. The latter will include the poor arid and semi-
arid countries of Africa. In 2009, the heaviest rain in Soil erosion and
53 years battered Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh.
» Declining crop yields: higher temperatures have desertification
already had an impact on global yields of wheat,
corn and barley. A recent study revealed that crop The extent and causes of soil
yields fall between 3 and 5 per cent for every 0.5°C erosion
increase in average temperature. Food shortages
Soil degradation is a global process. It involves
could begin conflicts between different countries.
both the physical loss (erosion) and the reduction
» Impact on wildlife: many species of wildlife may
in quality of topsoil associated with nutrient decline
be wiped out because they will not have a chance
and contamination. It has a significant impact on
to adapt to rapid changes in their environment.
agriculture and also has implications for the urban
For example, the loss of Arctic ice will have a huge
environment, pollution and flooding. The loss of the
effect on polar bears and other species that live
upper soil horizons containing organic matter and
and hunt among the ice floes.
nutrients and the thinning of soil profiles reduces
crop yields on degraded soils. Soil degradation can
cancel out gains from improved crop yields. The
statistics on soil degradation make worrying reading:
» Globally it is estimated that 2 billion hectares
of soil resources have been degraded. This is
equivalent to about 15 per cent of the Earth’s land
area.
» During the past 40 years nearly one-third of the
world’s cropland has been abandoned because of
soil erosion and degradation.
» In sub-Saharan Africa, nearly 2.6 million km2 of
cropland have shown a ‘consistent significant
decline’ according to a March 2008 report. Some
scientists consider this to be a ‘slow-motion
disaster’.
» It takes natural processes about 500 years to
replace 25 mm of topsoil lost to erosion. The
minimum soil depth for agricultural production is
150 mm.
In temperate areas much soil degradation is a
result of market forces and the attitudes adopted by
commercial farmers and governments. In contrast,
in the tropics much degradation results from high
population pressure, land shortages and lack of
▲ Figure 3.109 Giant climate change banner, Brussels awareness. The greater climate extremes and
250

Soil erosion and desertification
poorer soil structures in tropical areas give greater many developing countries — is generally a more
potential for degradation in such areas compared gradual process. Overgrazing is the grazing of natural
with temperate latitudes. This difference has been a pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock
significant factor in development, or the lack of it. carrying capacity. Population pressure in many
The main cause of soil degradation is the removal areas and poor agricultural practices have resulted
of the natural vegetation cover, leaving the surface in serious overgrazing. This is a major problem in
exposed to the elements. Figure 3.110 shows the many parts of the world, particularly in marginal
human causes of degradation, with deforestation ecosystems.
and overgrazing being the two main problems. The Agricultural mismanagement is also a major
resulting loss of vegetation cover is a leading cause problem due to a combination of a lack of knowledge
of wind and water erosion. and the pursuit of short-term gain against
Industry and consideration of longer-term damage. Such activities
urbanisation 1% include shifting cultivation without adequate fallow
Deforestation/fuelwood
periods, absence of soil conservation measures,
Agricultural
mismanagement
consumption 37% cultivation of fragile or marginal lands, unbalanced
27% fertiliser use and the use of poor irrigation
techniques.
Local soil degradation
Figure 3.111 illustrates how a combination of causes
and processes can operate in an area to result in soil
Overgrazing 35%
degradation. The diagram shows a range of different
▲ Figure 3.110 Causes of land degradation economic activities that have an impact on the soil.
Can you think of other economic activities that you
Deforestation occurs for a number of reasons, could reasonably expect to find in such an area?
including the clearing of land for agricultural use, What impact would these activities have on the soil?
timber and other activities, such as mining. Such Notice how the diagram shows an increase in the area
activities tend to happen quickly, whereas the loss characterised by sealing as the urban area expands at
of vegetation for fuelwood — a massive problem in the expense of farmland.
Acids
Manures and Sewage
Pesticides and
Diffuse input of contaminants as particulates fertilisers sludge
herbicides
Persistent substances
tals
y me
Heav
Gradual Gravel
disappearance ication Accumulation/ extraction
of farms Acidif Soil erosion contamination
Compaction
Sealing Release of toxic substances
Destruction of humus Salinisation
• Blocking of soil • Gradual • Changes in • Contamination of soils and groundwater with • Destruction of soil
functions destruction the structure applied agrochemicals and atmospheric
important to the of soils of soils pollutants
ecology of the
• Reduction in • Reduction in • Changes in soil composition
landscape
soil fertility soil fertility
• Destruction of soil • Adverse impacts on living organisms in the soil
▲ Figure 3.111 The causes and processes of local soil degradation
251

Environmental and socio-economic considerable problem in many parts of the world,

for example on the margins of the Sahara desert in
consequences of soil erosion northern Africa and the Kalahari desert in southern
The environmental and socio-economic consequences Africa. In semi-arid areas such as the edge of the
of soil degradation are considerable. Such Kalahari desert in southern Africa, a combination of
consequences can occur with little warning as damage low and variable precipitation, nutrient-deficient soils
to soil is often not perceived until it is far advanced. and heavy dependence on subsistence farming makes
Socio-economic consequences are both on-site (local) soil degradation a significant threat. At present,
and off-site (beyond the locality), while environmental 25 per cent of the global land territory and nearly
consequences are primarily off-site. 16 per cent of the world’s population are threatened
Desertification is the gradual transformation of by desertification. Table 3.22 summarises the
habitable land into desert. It is arguably the most consequences of desertification.
serious environmental consequence of soil degradation. Dust storms, which can seriously damage crops,
Desertification is usually caused by climate change may also be a problem in such areas (Figure 3.112).
and/or by destructive use of the land. Natural causes Dust storms occur naturally wherever dry soils and
of desertification include temporary drought periods of strong winds combine, but human activity can
high magnitude and long-term climate change towards increase their severity significantly. These human
aridity. The main human causes are: activities are removal of vegetation, overgrazing,
overcultivation and surface disturbance by vehicles.
» overgrazing
All these practices can add to the severity of the
» overcultivation
problem. In the Sahel the increase in dust-storm
» deforestation.
frequency has been shown to coincide with periods of
Desertification occurs when already fragile land in severe drought.
arid and semi-arid areas is over-exploited. It is a
Table 3.22 The consequences of desertification
Environmental Economic Social and cultural
Loss of soil nutrients through wind and water Reduced income from traditional Loss of traditional knowledge and
erosion economy (pastoralism and cultivation of skills
food crops)
Changes in composition of vegetation and loss Forced migration due to food scarcity
of biodiversity as vegetation is removed Decreased availability of fuelwood,
Social tensions in reception areas for
necessitating purchase of oil/kerosene
Reduction in land available for cropping and migrants
pasture Increased dependence on food aid
Increased sedimentation of streams because Increased rural poverty
of soil erosion, and sediment accumulations in
reservoirs
Expansion of area under sand dunes
a b
▲ Figure 3.112 Darkhan, Mongolia: (a) on a clear day and (b) during one of the regular dust storms that are contributing to soil
degradation. The number and strength of dust storms have increased in recent years
252

Examples of environments under threat
Soil degradation: a threat to food

security?
The increasing world population and the rapidly
changing diet of hundreds of millions of people
as they become more affluent is placing more and
more pressure on land resources. Some soil and
agricultural experts say that a decline in long-term
soil productivity is already seriously limiting food
production in the developing world.
Activities
Activities
1 What is soil erosion? ▲ Figure 3.113 Cropland in the Pampas, Argentina
2 To what extent is soil erosion a major global
problem?
3 Discuss the causes and processes of local soil
degradation shown in Figure 3.111.
Oil production in the Niger delta
4 a Define ‘desertification’. The Niger delta covers an area of 70,000 km2,
b Explain the causes of desertification. making up 7.5 per cent of Nigeria’s land area. It
5 Compare the photographs in Figure 3.112. contains over 75 per cent of Africa’s remaining
mangrove. A report published in 2006 estimated
that up to 1.5 million tonnes of oil have been spilt
Examples of environments in the delta over the past 50 years. The report
compiled by WWF says that the delta is one of
under threat the five most polluted spots on Earth. Pollution is
destroying the livelihoods of many of the 20 million
Agricultural change in Argentina’s people who live there. The pollution damages crops
Pampas and fishing grounds and is a major contributor to
the upsurge in violence in the region. People in the
Traditionally, cattle rearing has dominated farming in region are dissatisfied with bearing the considerable
the Pampas of Argentina. The Pampas is one of the costs of the oil industry while seeing very little in
world’s great grasslands. It is a flat prairie with deep, terms of the benefits. The report accused the oil
fertile topsoil. However, rapid change is underway companies of not using the advanced technologies
as crop production replaces cattle rearing over to combat pollution that are evident in other world
significant areas of the Pampas (Figure 3.113). There regions. However, Shell claims that 95 per cent of
are undoubted benefits to this process as farmers are oil discharges in the last 5 years have been caused
responding to changing patterns of global demand. by sabotage.
But there are also risks involved in such a radical The flaring (burning) of unwanted natural gas
change in land use. found with the oil is a major regional and global
The change from pastoral to arable farming has environmental problem. The gas found here
considerably increased chemical input onto the land. is not useful because there is no gas pipeline
This is having a significant impact on the ecosystem. infrastructure to take it to consumer markets. It
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is concerned is estimated that 70 million m3 are flared off each
that the Pampas is now being over-farmed. This
day. This is equivalent to 40 per cent of Africa’s
is endangering wildlife, including South American
natural gas consumption. Gas flaring in the
ostriches, pumas and wildcats. The WWF is also
Niger delta is the world’s single largest source of
concerned about the widespread destruction of
greenhouse gas emissions.
native grass.
253

▲ Figure 3.114 Environmental problems in the Niger delta, Nigeria
The threat to Australia’s Great N
Barrier Reef
The Great Barrier Reef (Figure 3.115) is one of the
great tourist attractions in Australia. It includes Haggerstone Island G
R
over 2900 reefs, around 940 islands and cays, and Pipon Island
Howick Island
E
stretches 2300 km along the coast of Queensland.

A
Lizard Island
T
Cooktown B
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park covers an area Snapper Island
Double Island
A
R
Port R
of 345,000 km2. This is an ecosystem of immense Douglas Ribbon Reef
Green Island
IE
R
diversity. However, there are several significant Cairns Fitzroy Island and
Frankland Island
Coral Sea Reefs
R
E
Mission Dunk Island E
problems relating to the Great Barrier Reef: Beach Bedarra Island Central Barrier Reef
Hinchinbrook Island
F
Orpheus Island
» The impact of land-based pollution from agriculture, Townsville
Magnetic Island
Wreck of SS Youngala
industry, residential areas and tourism is causing Airlie Beach
significant damage to the reef ecosystem. Proserpine
Brampton Island
» Overfishing — the use of dragnets in particular — Mackay
POMPEY COMPLEX
can damage the coral. 0 300 km
» Coral bleaching is exacerbated by increasing sea
temperatures due to global warming. This causes ▲ Figure 3.115 The Great Barrier Reef, Australia
coral polyps to die, leaving only the white ‘skeleton’
of the coral, and the range of colours is lost.
» Tourists visiting the reef cause damage by dropping
Sustainable development
and dragging anchors, walking and diving on and management
the reef and by pollution from the tourist boats The two key terms that have become increasingly
visiting the area. important in terms of economic activity are resource
management and sustainable development.
Resource management is the control of the
254

Sustainable development and management
exploitation and use of resources in relation to environmental and other adverse consequences of
environmental and economic costs. Sustainable maximising production. However, as the disadvantages
development is a carefully calculated system of became more obvious the CAP was reformed to take
resource management, which ensures that the current greater account of the environment. For example,
level of exploitation does not compromise the ability farmers can now receive payments for taking their
of future generations to meet their own needs. land out of agricultural production (set-aside).
It can be argued that the CAP is still a long way from
Resource management in the EU truly sustainable agriculture, but there is no doubt it
Figure 3.116 shows what has happened in so many of is moving in the right direction. The development of
the world’s fishing grounds. Without careful resource sustainable policies often occurs in stages.
management fish stocks could be totally depleted in
some areas. Yet it is often difficult to get countries to Environmental impact statements and
agree on what to do. The European Union’s Common pollution control
Fisheries Policy is perhaps the most advanced Most countries now require some form of environmental
international attempt to manage the fishing grounds impact statement for major projects such as a new
belonging to this group of countries. While the road, an airport or a large factory. The objective is to
fishing industry in the EU frequently complains that identify all the environmental consequences and to try
the amount of fish it is allowed to catch (the total to minimise these as far as possible.
allowable catch) is too low, environmental groups Industry has spent increasing amounts on research
argue that the total allowable catch is much too high and development to reduce pollution — the so-called
and that fishing in EU waters cannot be sustainable ‘greening of industry’. In general, after a certain stage
in the long term. Other people have an interest too. of economic development the level of pollution will
For example, consumers worry that if fewer fish are decline (Figure 3.117). This is because countries have
caught the price will increase. become more aware of their environmental problems,
with higher levels of economic activity, and they
Need for resource
Rich fishing grounds have also created the wealth to invest in improving
attract boats from
management
many countries
the environment.
The 1990s witnessed the first signs of ‘product
stewardship’. This is a system of environmental
responsibility whereby producers take back a product,
recycling it as far as possible, after the customer has
finished with it. For example, in Germany the 1990 ‘take-
back’ law required car manufacturers to take responsibility
for their vehicles at the end of their useful lives.
Total catch
Total catch
increases
decreases
for a time
GDP
Quantity index
Then fish stocks

fall, reducing
reproduction
Pollution
▲ Figure 3.116 Fishing and resource management
The European Union also tries to manage agriculture

Cleaner and Time
in its member countries through its Common more efficient
Incentives to protect
Agricultural Policy (CAP). In the early years the CAP’s the environment technologies
generous incentives for farmers encouraged high levels introduced adopted in
of production and the farming of marginal lands. It response
didn’t seem that there was much thought about the ▲ Figure 3.117 The relationship between GDP and pollution
255

Financial Conservation of Safeguarding

contribution rainforest ecosystem services
Loss of rainforest Pressure on

Ecotourism
diversity rainforest ecosystems
High proportion of
Non-consumptive
biodiversity located in
use of rainforest
developing countries
• Unique vegetation Potentials Problems • Population growth

Developing
• Popular or rare animals • Lack of capital
countries
• Spectacular landscapes • Foreign debt
• Demand for nature-based

vacations Developed
• Willingness to pay for countries
conservation
▲ Figure 3.118 The role of ecotourism in rainforest conservation
International action maintaining capacity to meet the needs of future

generations. Conservation includes both the
Increasingly, successful policies developed in one protection and rational use of natural resources.
country are being followed elsewhere. A good Conservation and the use of natural resources are
example is the role of ecotourism in rainforest social processes because they rely on people’s
conservation (Figure 3.118). International behaviour, values and decisions. Both the demand
organisations are the only hope of getting to grips for, and supply of, resources need to be planned
with the really big problems, such as climate change. and managed to achieve a sustainable system. In
The success of international cooperation in tackling addition, there is growing pressure from individual
the hole in the ozone layer gives us reasonable hope governments and international organisations for a
for the future. greater degree of equity in the use of the world’s
resources. They argue that there is a need for
Activities environmental policies and laws that contribute to
1 What is meant by the terms:
more equitable sharing of the costs and benefits of
a resource management conservation.
b sustainable development? Conservation involves actions to use these
2 Explain the sequence of events shown in Figure 3.116. resources most efficiently, thus extending their
3 Look at Figure 3.118. Describe and explain how life as long as possible. For example, by recycling
ecotourism can enhance rainforest conservation. aluminium, the same piece of material is re-used
in a series of products, reducing the amount of
aluminum ore that must be freshly mined. Similarly,
The importance of resource energy-efficient products help to conserve fossil fuels
conservation since the same energy services, such as lighting or
transportation, can be attained with smaller amounts
The conservation of resources is the management of fuel.
of the human use of natural resources to provide Conservation also involves the re-use of resources.
the maximum benefit to current generations while Plastic bags are an obvious example, but there are
256

The importance of resource conservation
many others. Returning wire clothes hangers to dry

cleaners, donating clothes and other items you no
longer want to charities rather than dumping them,
and repairing household items where possible rather
than buying anew are all common examples in
developed countries. In the recent recession, many
shoe repairers increased their trade as people looked
to extend the life of their shoes rather than have the
expense of buying new ones.
In many developing countries re-using plastic
bottles, tins and other containers is a common form
of conservation. There has long been a culture of
re-use and recycling because people could not afford
to buy new replacements. It is a common sight to
see waste collectors roaming streets in search of
re-usable items. The re-use of rubber tyres is an ▲ Figure 3.119 Various categories of recycling
example.
Renewable resources, in contrast, can be seriously
depleted if they are subjected to excessive harvest or
otherwise degraded. No substitutes may be available
for food products such as fish or agricultural crops.
When the demise of biological resources causes the
complete extinction of a species or the loss of a
particular habitat, there can be no substitute for that
diversity of life.
Various strategies can be used in the attempt
to conserve resources. The agreement of quotas
is an increasingly frequent resource management
technique, illustrated by the EU’s Common Fisheries
Policy. Quotas involve agreement between countries
to take only a predetermined amount of a resource. ▲ Figure 3.120 Green waste recycling in the UK
Quotas may change on an annual or longer time considerably on fresh deposits of a resource.
period basis. Much further along the line is rationing. Recycling also involves the recovery of waste. New
This is very much a last-resort management strategy technology makes it possible to recover mineral
when demand is massively out of proportion to content from the waste of earlier mining operations.
supply. For example, individuals might only be However, the proportion of a material recycled
allowed a very small amount of fuel and food per is strongly influenced by the cost of the process
week. Some senior citizens will remember that this in comparison with the price of the original raw
happened during the Second World War. material, although governments are doing more and
At various times the use of subsidies has been more to weaken this relationship.
criticised by environmentalists. It has been argued Supermarkets have made significant efforts in
that reducing or abandoning some subsidies would recent years to reduce the number of plastic bags
aid conservation. used. Some now charge for bags while others just
encourage re-use of bags. Supermarkets, like Tesco
Waste reduction and recycling in the UK, claim to have drastically reduced the
Recycling involves the concentration of used or number of new plastic bags used by customers each
waste materials, their reprocessing, and their year. However, environmental groups are putting
subsequent use in place of new materials. If pressure on supermarkets to do more, claiming
organised efficiently, recycling can reduce demand that many products have far too much packaging,
257

while the supermarkets themselves are high users Substitution

of energy.
Recycling does not only conserve valuable Substitution is the use of common and thus less
resources of — it is also fundamental in the reduction valuable resources in place of rare, more expensive
of landfill. Landfill is undesirable for a number of resources. An example is the replacement of copper
reasons: by aluminium in the manufacture of a variety of
products. Historically, when non-renewable resources
» Leachate pollution: leachate is a solution formed have been depleted, new technologies have been
when water percolates through a permeable developed that effectively substitute for the
medium. The leachate may be toxic or carry depleted resources. New technologies have often
bacteria when derived from solid waste. reduced pressure on these resources even before
» Biodegradable waste rotting in landfill creates they are fully depleted. For example, fibre-optic
methane, which is 21 times more potent as a cables have replaced copper ones in many electrical
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. applications.
» Increasingly large areas of land are required for
such sites.
Activities
1 Explain the term ‘conservation of resources’.
2 Define:
a re-use
b recycling.
3 What is product stewardship?
4 How can substitution help to conserve important
resources?
Energy efficiency
Meeting future energy needs in developing, emergent
and developed economies while avoiding serious
environmental degradation will require increased
▲ Figure 3.121 Collecting and sorting plastic bottles in
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
emphasis on radical new approaches, which include:
» much greater investment in renewable energy
Product stewardship » conservation
» recycling
Product stewardship is an approach to environmental
» carbon credits
protection in which manufacturers, retailers and
» ‘green’ taxation.
consumers are encouraged or required to assume
responsibility for reducing a product’s impact on Managing energy supply is often about balancing
the environment. Also called ‘extended producer socio-economic and environmental needs. We have
responsibility’, it is a growing aspect of recycling. all become increasingly aware that this requires
In many cases this is a system of environmental detailed planning and management. Carbon credits
responsibility whereby producers take back a product, and carbon trading are an important part of the
recycling it as far as possible, after the customer EU’s environment and energy policies. Under the
has finished with it. For manufacturers, this includes EU’s emissions trading scheme, heavy industrial
planning for — and if necessary paying for — the plants have to buy permits to emit greenhouse gases
recycling or disposal of the product at the end of over the limit they are allowed (carbon credits) by
its useful life. This may be achieved, in part, by government. However, this could be extended to
redesigning products to use fewer harmful substances, other organisations such as banks and supermarkets.
to be more durable, re-useable and recyclable, and to From 2008 the UK government has been offering the
make products from recycled materials.
258

China’s Pearl River delta
free provision of visual display electricity meters so

that people can see exactly how much energy they Activities
are using at any time. Many countries are looking 1 Briefly explain the use of carbon credits and carbon
increasingly at the concept of community energy. trading.
Much energy is lost in transmission if the source of 2 What is the advantage of community energy?
3 Define microgeneration.
supply is a long way away. Energy produced locally 4 Give three energy conservation measures that
is much more efficient. This will invariably involve individual people can take.
microgeneration (Figure 3.122).
China’s Pearl River delta

The Chinese economy has attained such a size and
is continuing to grow so rapidly that it is now being
called the ‘new workshop of the world’, a phrase first
applied to Britain during the height of its industrial
revolution in the nineteenth century. However, in
the main industrial areas, the environment has been
put under a huge strain, leaving China with some
of the worst pollution problems on the planet. One
of China’s main industrial regions is the Pearl River
▲ Figure 3.122 Microgeneration — a small wind turbine on the
roof of a school delta in Guangdong province. It faces the challenge
of continuing to grow economically while trying to
Table 3.23 summarises some of the measures protect its environment. The Pearl River is China’s
governments and individuals can undertake to reduce third longest river.
the demand for energy and thus move towards a more
sustainable situation.
Table 3.23 Examples of energy conservation measures

Government Individuals
Improve public transport to encourage higher levels of usage Transport:
Set a high level of tax on petrol, aviation fuel etc. Walk rather than drive for short local journeys
Ensure that public utility vehicles are energy efficient Use a bicycle for short-to-moderate distance journeys
Set minimum fuel consumption requirements for cars and Buy low fuel consumption/low emission cars
commercial vehicles
Reduce car usage by planning more ‘multi-purpose’ trips
Impose congestion charging to deter non-essential car use in
Use public rather than private transport
city centres
Join with others in a car pool
Offer subsidies/grants to households to improve energy
efficiency In the home:
Encourage business to monitor and reduce its energy usage Use low-energy light bulbs
Encourage recycling Install cavity wall insulation
Promote investment in renewable forms of energy Improve loft insulation
Pass laws to compel manufacturers to produce more efficient Turn boiler and radiator settings down slightly
electrical products Wash clothes at lower temperatures
Purchase high-energy-efficiency appliances
Don’t leave appliances on standby
259

Case study: Environmental problems in the Pearl River delta

The Pearl River delta region, an area the size of Belgium The three major environmental problems in the Pearl
in southeast China (Figure 3.123), is the focal point of River delta are air pollution, water pollution and
a massive wave of foreign investment into China. The deforestation.
Pearl River drains into the South China Sea. Hong Rapid industrialisation resulted in serious pollution
Kong is located at the eastern extent of the delta, with of the river system. In many tributaries pollution levels
Macau situated at the western entrance. The region’s became worse than the lowest national surface water
manufacturing industries already employ 30 million quality standard, and therefore unfit as drinking water
people, but this number will undoubtedly increase in sources. The World Bank has supported the provincial
the future. Major industrial centres include Shunde, government’s efforts to improve environmental quality,
Shenzhen, Dongguan, Zhongshan, Zhuhai and Guangzhou. particularly in terms of expanding waste water treatment.
In 2011, the Pearl River delta accounted for: In 2007, eight out of every ten rainfalls in Guangzhou
were classified as acid rain. The high concentration of
• 4.2 per cent of China’s population
factories and power stations is the source of this problem,
• 9.2 per cent of China’s GDP
along with the growing number of cars in the province.
• 26.7 per cent of China’s total exports.
The city has the worst acid rain problem in the province
The region is gradually growing into a single, colossal of Guangdong. The province’s environmental protection
megalopolis as individual cities expand outwards and bureau has reported that two-thirds of Guangdong’s 21 cities
move closer together. In 2015, a World Bank report were affected by acid rain in 2007.
described the delta region as the world’s largest megacity. Almost all the urban areas have overexploited their
neighbouring uplands, causing a considerable reduction
Guangzhou CHINA in vegetation cover. This has resulted in serious erosion.
Half of the wastewater in Guangdong’s urban areas is
Dongguan N not treated before being dumped into rivers, compared
Running shoes with the national average of 40 per cent. Chemical oxygen
Shunde demand (COD) is a key measurement of water pollution.
Microwave ovens Guangdong Guangdong’s government is working to reduce COD and
also to cut sulfur dioxide emissions.
Shenzhen The environmental protection bureau classifies
Photocopiers the environmental situation as ‘severe’ and says the
Pearl Artificial Christmas government is committed to taking the ‘necessary
Zhongshan River
Electric lighting
trees measures’ to reduce pollution. Among the measures
Delta
used to tackle the problems are (a) higher sewage
Zhuhai treatment charges, (b) stricter pollution regulations on
Computer games HONG KONG factories and (c) tougher national regulations on vehicle
Consoles emissions.
Golf clubs Analyses of pollution problems in the Pearl River
delta and elsewhere in China have focused strongly on
Macau institutional factors relating to the incentive structure
for local government officials (to achieve a high level
JAPAN
of economic growth) and the limited powers and
South China CHINA independence of the Ministry of Environmental Protection.
Sea
Case study analysis
Pacific
Ocean
1 Describe the location of the Pearl River delta.
2 List four major urban areas in this region.
0 20 PHILIPPINES
3 What are the causes of pollution in the Pearl River
km delta?
4 List the main measures used to tackle pollution in the
▲ Figure 3.123 The Pearl River delta
Pearl River delta.
260

Topic 3.1 Development
Where a Billion People Still Live Without Electricity
According to a new report from the World Bank, 1.6 billion people gained access to electricity between
1990 and 2000, 70 percent of them in urban areas. But, as of 2010, 1.2 billion people were still living
without it−173 million of them in urban areas. Because urban populations have been swelling even as
access to electricity has grown, the global urban electrification rate actually hasn’t changed much in 30 years,
sitting at around 95 percent:
100
Access rate to electricity (% of population)
80
60
40
20
0
1990 2000 2010
Total Rural Urban
▲ Figure 3.124 Global trends in the electrification rate, 1990–2010
The numbers in rapidly urbanising countries like India are particularly stark. Here are the populations,
in millions of people, without access to electricity in the 10 countries with the farthest to go, as of 2010:
Electricity access deficit

(millions of people)
India 306.2
Nigeria 82.4
Bangaladesh 66.6
Ethiopia 63.0
Congo D.R. 55.9
Tanzania 38.2
Kenya 31.2
Sudan 30.9
Uganda 28.5
Myanmar 24.6
▲ Figure 3.125 Electricity access deficit for the 10 major countries
1 a How many people worldwide still lack access to 3 a Comment on location and characteristics of the
electricity? 10 countries with the greatest electricity access
b Describe the trends illustrated in Figure 3.124. deficit (Figure 3.125).
2 a Discuss the reasons for the different access rates in b How does lack of access to electricity hinder the
urban and rural areas. development process?
b Why has there been little or no change in the overall
access to electricity?
261

tHEmE 3
Topic 3.2 Food production

Table 3.24 Adverse influences on global food production and distribution
Nature of adverse influence Effect of adverse influence
Economic Demand for cereal grains has outstripped supply in recent years
Rising energy prices and agricultural production and transport costs have pushed up costs
along the farm-to-market chain
Serious underinvestment in agricultural production and technology in LEDCs has resulted in
poor productivity and underdeveloped rural infrastructure
The production of food for local markets has declined in many LEDCs as more food has been
produced for export
Ecological Significant periods of poor weather and a number of severe weather events have had a major
impact on harvests in key food-exporting countries
Increasing problems of soil degradation in both MEDCs and LEDCs
Declining biodiversity may impact on food production in the future
Socio-political The global agricultural production and trading system, built on import tariffs and subsidies,
creates great distortions, favouring production in MEDCs and disadvantaging producers in LEDCs
An inadequate international system of monitoring and deploying food relief
Disagreements over the use of trans-boundary resources such as river systems and aquifers
1 a Study Table 3.24. Why has the demand for cereal 1 a Look at Figure 3.126. How do Plans A and B differ?
grains increased in recent years? b Describe the characteristics of an industrial estate.
b Suggest why the demand for cereal grains has c Suggest two ways in which the factories might save
outstripped supply. money by locating together on an industrial estate.
c Why has the production of food for local markets 2 a Why might the local council and people living in the
declined in many developing countries (LEDCs)? general area prefer Plan B to Plan A?
2 a Discuss the ways in which severe weather b Discuss one possible disadvantage to the local
conditions can reduce food production. community of Plan B.
b What is soil degradation and how does it affect 3 Suggest why high-technology industries often cluster
food production? together.
3 a What is food aid (food relief)?
b Why are people often critical of the way in which Topic 3.4 Tourism
food aid is organised? 1 a Define ‘tourism’.
b Look at Figure 3.127. Describe the increase in
Topic 3.3 Industry international tourism between 1950 and 2012 and
the forecast for 2030.
Plan A 0 1km
06
c Discuss three reasons for the growth of
B6 international tourism.
A467 (T) 2 a What proportion of global employment is related to
tourism?
b Explain the difference between direct and indirect
Four factories located separately along trunk road employment in the tourist industry.
3 a What proportion of world trade is related to
tourism?
Plan B
06 b Why is tourism more important to the economies of
B6 some countries than others?
A467 (T)
4 Discuss the disadvantages of tourism to developing
countries.
Four factories grouped on an industrial estate
▲ Figure 3.126 Groupings of factories
262

Tourism: key to development, prosperity and well-being

Tourism in the
world: • An ever increasing number of destinations have opened up and
key figures invested in tourism, turning tourism into a key driver of socio-economic
progress through export revenues, the creation of jobs and enterprises,
and infrastructure development.
9% of GDP - direct, indirect
and induced impact
• Over the past six decades, tourism experienced continued expansion
I in II jobs and diversification, becoming one of the largest and fastest-growing
economic sectors in the world. Many new destinations have emerged
apart from the traditional favourites of Europe and North America.
$1.3 trillion in exports
6% of the • Despite occasional shocks, international tourist arrivals have shown

world’s exports virtually uninterrupted growth − from 25 million in 1950, to 278 million in
1980, 528 million in 1995, and 1035 million in 2012.
from 25 million international
tourists in 1950
Long-term outlook
to 1035 million in 2012
5 to 6 billion • International tourist arrivals worldwide will increase by 3.3% a year from
domestic tourists 2010 to 2030 to reach 1.8 billion by 2030 according to UNWTO long
term forecast, Tourism Towards 2030.
1.8 billion international
tourists forecast
for 2030 • Between 2010 and 2030, arrivals in emerging destinations (+4.4% a
year) are expected to increase at double the pace of those in advanced
ecconomies (+2.2% a year).
• The market share of emerging economies increased from 30% in 1980

to 47% in 2012, and is expected to reach 57% by 2030, equivalent to
over one billion international tourist arrivals.
▲ Figure 3.127 Tourism in the world — key figures
Topic 3.5 Energy

3000
2500
2000
TWh
1500
There are now over 430 commercial nuclear power
1000 reactors operating in 31 countries. About 70 more
reactors are under construction. Sixteen countries
depend on nuclear power for at least a quarter of
500 their electricity. In 2011 and 2012, output declined
due to cutbacks in Japan and Germany following
the Fukushima accident.
99
01
03
05
07
09
11
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
71
73
75
77
79
81
83
20
20
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
Year
▲ Figure 3.128 Global nuclear electricity production, 1971–2012
1 a How many countries operate nuclear power 3 a Some countries that could build nuclear power plants
reactors? have decided not to. Explain three concerns about the
b Name two countries that produce nuclear electricity. production of nuclear electricity.
2 a Describe the changes in global nuclear electricity b Give three advantages of nuclear power according to
production between 1971 and 2012 (Figure 3.128). people who support the use of this form of electricity
b Suggest reasons for the changes you identify. production.
263

tHEmE 3
Topic 3.6 Water Topic 3.7 Environmental risks of

economic development
BILLIONS DAILY AFFECTED BY
WATER CRISIS
Without water, life would not exist. It is a prerequisite for all

human and economic development.
Yet today, 780 million people − about one in nine−lack access to
clean water. More than twice that many, 2.5 billion people, don’t
have access to a toilet.
1 hectare of land
In most developed nations, we take access to safe water for
granted. But this wasn’t always the case. A little more than 100 years
ago, New York, London and Paris were centers of infectious disease. produces produces
Child death rates were as high then as they are now in much of
sub-Saharan Africa. It was sweeping reforms in water and sanitation
that enabled human progress to leap forward. It should come as
no surprise that in 2007, a poll by the British Medical Journal found
that clean water and sanitation comprised the most important
medical advancement since 1840.
The health and economic impacts of today’s global water crisis are
staggering.
• More than 3.4 million people die each year from water,
7.5 tonnes of wheat grain 0.3 tonnes of beef
sanitation and hygiene-related causes. Nearly all deaths,
(11,500 loaves of bread) (1200 steaks)
99 percent, occur in the developing world.
• 2.5 billion people lack access to improved sanitation;
1.1 billion still practise open defecation. ▲ Figure 3.130 The efficiency of energy conversion in arable
and pastoral farming
• Lack of access to clean water and sanitation kills children at
a rate equivalent of a jumbo jet crashing every four hours.
• 443 million school days are lost each year due to water-related
illness. Increasing demand for meat
• Women and children bear the primary responsibility for water
collection in the majority of households. This is time not spent
working at an income-generating job, caring for family
members or attending school.
Greater amounts of cattle feed required

▲ Figure 3.129 The global water crisis
1 a Study Figure 3.129. How many people worldwide

lack access to clean water and proper sanitation?
More land needed for soybean production
b In which parts of the world are these problems most
and other sources of cattle feed
severe?
c How do water and sanitation problems impact on:
i health; ii education; and iii employment?
2 a Define ‘potable water’.
Environmental impact, particularly the
b Explain the difference between physical water clearing of rainforest
scarcity and economic water scarcity.
3 How can the problems of lack of access to clean water ▲ Figure 3.131 The environmental impact of the increasing
and proper sanitation in poor countries be tackled? demand for meat
1 a Compare the production of wheat grain and beef

from 1 hectare of land (Figure 3.130).
b Which type of farming will feed the most people?
2 a To what extent and why does the consumption
of meat vary between developed and developing
countries?
b Why is the global demand for meat increasing at a
significant rate?
3 Discuss the impact of this increasing demand for meat
on the environment (Figure 3.131).
264

THEME 4
Geographical
skills and
investigations
Topics
4.1 Geographical and mathematical skills
4.2 Geographical investigations: coursework and the
alternative to coursework
This theme Looks at a range of skills that geographers

should be able to use. These include:
• mathematical skills, e.g. means, range and inverse

proportions
• mapwork skills, e.g. grid and square references,
distance, direction and land use
• graphical skills, e.g. scatter graphs, pie charts and
triangular graphs
• fieldwork skills, e.g. sampling, pilot studies and
questionnaires.

4.1 Geographical and mathematical
skills
Grid and square references
Grid references are the six-figure references that
locate precise positions on a map. The first three
figures are the eastings and these tell us how far a
position is across the map. The last three figures are
the northings and these tell us how far up the map
a position is. An easy way to remember which way
round the numbers go is ‘along the corridor and up
the stairs’.
In Figure 4.2, the church at Rose Hill is located
at 691045 and the church at Davis Town is found at
737043.
Sometimes a feature covers an area rather than a
point, for example all of the villages and the areas
of woodland in Figure 4.2. Here a grid reference is
inappropriate, so we use four-figure square references.
▲ Figure 4.1 Urban environments offer a range of coursework
» The first two numbers refer to the eastings.
opportunities
» The last two numbers refer to the northings.
Scale The point where the two grid lines meet is at

the bottom left-hand corner of the square. So in
Most Ordnance Survey maps that we use are either at Figure 4.2, most of the village of Seafield is found
a 1:50,000 or a 1:25,000 scale. On a 1:50,000 map, in 7504. Some features may occur in two or more
1 cm on the map relates to 50,000 cm on the ground. squares, for example Long Bay is found in squares
On a 1:25,000 map every 1 cm on the map relates to 7006 and 7106.
25,000 cm on the ground. In every kilometre there are
100,000 centimetres (1000 × 100 cm). So:
» on a 1:50,000 map every 2 cm corresponds to a
Direction
kilometre Directions can be expressed in two ways:
» on a 1:25,000 map every 4 cm corresponds to a » compass points, for example southwest
kilometre. » compass bearings or angular directions, for
A 1:25,000 map is more detailed than a 1:50,000 map example 45°
and is therefore an excellent source for geographical Sixteen compass points are commonly used. Some of
enquiries. 1:50,000 maps provide a more general these are shown in Figure 4.3.
overview of a larger area. You may come across other Compass bearings are more accurate than compass
scales, for example 1:10,000 and 1:2500. points but they can be quite confusing. Compass
Measurement on maps is made easier by grid lines. bearings show variations from magnetic north. This is
These are the regular horizontal and vertical lines you slightly different from the grid north on the Ordnance
can see on an Ordnance Survey map. Survey map (which is the way in which the northings
The horizontal lines are called northings and go). True north is different again — this is the
the vertical lines are called eastings. They help to direction of the North Pole.
pinpoint the exact location of features on a map.
266

Relief and gradient
07
N
06
05
04
03
02
68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76
▲ Figure 4.2 Part of the 1:50,000 map of Jamaica
North
360°/000°
NNE
Relief and gradient
Northeast
045°
Contour lines
A contour line is an imaginary line that joins places
ENE of equal height.
East
» When the contour lines are spaced far apart the
090° land is quite flat.
» When the contour lines are very close together the
ESE land is very steep (when the land is too steep for
contour lines a symbol for a cliff is used).
Southeast » When contour lines are close together at the
▶ Figure 4.3
Compass points SSE
135° top, and then get further apart lower down, this
suggests a concave slope.
» When contour lines are close together at the
bottom and far apart at the top, this suggests a
convex slope (Figure 4.4).
Gradients
The gradient of a slope is its steepness. We can get a
rough idea of the gradient by looking at the contour
267

4.1 GeoGraphical and mathematical skills
N 50
49
48
▲ Figure 4.5 Cable car from Lago di Fadala to Marmaloda

Glacier
» the horizontal distance between two places — this

may or may not be a straight line (for example, a
meandering stream would not be straight).
Working out gradient
47
Make sure that you use the same units for both
19 20
vertical and horizontal measurements.
21
▲ Figure 4.4 Part of the 1:25,000 map showing Marmaloda Divide the difference in horizontal distance (D) by
Glacier and Lago di Fadala in the Dolomites, northeastern Italy the height (H). If the answer is, for example, ‘10’ or
‘5’ express it as ‘1:10’ (‘one in ten’) or ‘1:5’ (‘one in
pattern. If the contour lines are close together the slope
five’). This means that for every 10 metres along you
is steep, and if they are far apart the land is quite flat.
rise (or drop) 1 metre, or for every 5 metres in length
However, these are not very accurate descriptions. To
the land rises (or drops) 1 metre. Alternatively,
measure gradient accurately we need two measurements:
divide the height (H) by the difference in horizontal
» the vertical difference between two points (this can distance (D) and multiply by 100 per cent ([H/D] ×
be worked out using the contour lines or spot heights) 100%). This expresses the gradient as a percentage.
Activities
Study the OS map shown in Figure 4.2. 5 What is the six-figure grid reference for:
1 How far is it: a the two schools at Dundee
a in a straight line b Greenwood Great House?
b by road 6 What is found at 705023?
from the school in Goodwill to the school in the middle 7 Give the four-figure grid reference for Chatham and
of Dundee? for Davis Town.
2 What is the length of the coastline (to the nearest 8 Suggest reasons why there is an airstrip in grid square 6905.
kilometre) as shown on the map extract? 9 In what direction is:
3 Approximately how long is the airstrip? a Long Bay from Davis Town
4 How wide is: b Goodwill from Rose Hill?
a the coral in Long Bay 10 Copy Figure 4.3 and complete the missing compass
b the mangrove forest between Minto and Salt Marsh? points.
268

Relief and gradient
Study Figures 4.4 and 4.5. (Note that contours are shown at 25 m intervals.)
11 In what direction is the cable car moving (towards the 13 Using map evidence, suggest why a hydroelectric power
glacier)? station was built at the head of Lago di Fadala.
12 Approximately what is the altitude of: Study Figure 4.6.
a the lake b the Marmaloda Glacier?
N
59
58
57
56
55
84 85 86 87 88
▲ Figure 4.6 Part of the 1:25,000 map of northern Montserrat in the Caribbean
269

14 What is the height of 17 Describe the relief (height and gradient) of squares 8658
a Silver Hill (8658) (Silver Hill), 8457 (Potato Hill) and 8655 (Judy Piece).
b Baker Hill (8455)? 18 Following an eruption of the Soufrière volcano in 1997,
(Note that the contours on this map are drawn at 50 feet much of the southern third of the island was evacuated.
intervals; assume that 3 feet equals 1 m.) Plans were made to develop the northern part of
15 In what direction does Little Bay (8457) face? Montserrat. Study the map.
16 How steep is the slope between Silver Hill and the a Comment on the problems of developing the
coastline at Thatch Valley (8659)? Measure from the northern part of the island.
peak of Silver Hill to the nearest point of the coast in b Which, in your opinion, is the best location to develop
Little Redonda. Express your answer as a ‘one in x housing, services and economic activity?
slope’. Give reasons for your answer.
Cross-sections measure every second contour or significant

contours, for example every 100 m).
A cross-section is a view of the landscape as it b Mark off important geographical features.
would appear if sliced open, or if you were to walk 2 Align the straight edge of the piece of paper
along it. It shows variations in gradient and the against a horizontal line on graph paper, which is
location of important physical and human features. exactly the same length as the line of the section.
Here’s how to draw a cross-section: Use a vertical scale of 1 cm:50 m, or 1 cm:100 m; if
you use a smaller scale (for example 1 cm:5 m) you
1 Place the straight edge of a piece of paper between
will end up with a slope that looks Himalayan!
the two end points (Figure 4.7).
a Mark off with a small dot each of the contours
a Mark off every contour line (in areas where
and the geographic features.
the contours are very close together you could
b Join up the dots with a freehand curve.
N
c Label the features.
d Remember to label the horizontal
and vertical scales, the title, and the
grid references for the starting and
8
94 finishing points.
50
00
0
10 50
95
10
10 0
95 Figure 4.8 shows a cross-section of
an extinct volcano in France. See how
steep the volcano looks when a scale
59 of 1 cm:50 m is used compared with
1 cm:100 m.
Describing river
landscapes
The long profile of a river can be shown
on a line graph when the height of a
58 river above base level is plotted against
distance from its source. As rivers
evolve through time and over distance,
streams pass through a series of distinct
changes. Figure 4.9 shows the long
profile of a river and illustrates these
stages.
96 97
▲ Figure 4.7 Drawing a cross-section—the Massif Central in France
270

Describing river landscapes
Metres » Look at the size and shape of the river channel.

» Is the channel constrained by relief — that is,
1050 1050 does it flow around interlocking spurs?
» Does the river meander across a flat floodplain?
1000 1000 » What are the features of the river? Can you identify any
1 cm:50 m
of the features listed in Figure 4.9 from map evidence?
950 950 Rivers have had a profound effect on both the
site and situation of human settlements. Human
900 900 activities have also had an increasing impact on
drainage basins and river channels. Map evidence
Metres
can be used to identify the relationship between
1100 1100
rivers and human activities.
1 cm:100 m
1000 1000 Describing a river’s influence on

site and situation
900 900
966593 975593 » Is the river navigable? (Is it straight and wide
Horizontal scale
1:25 000 enough to allow boats to pass up it?)
» Does the river valley provide the only flat land in
▲ Figure 4.8 Cross-sections of Puy de Vichatel an area of rough terrain?
» Does the valley provide a natural routeway for
Describing the stage of a river roads and railway lines?
» Do settlements avoid the river’s floodplain and
» Is the river in its upper, middle or lower course? locate on higher dry-point sites?
» Use the contour lines to describe the shape of the river » Are settlements located at crossing points on a
valley — a V-shaped valley with close contour lines river? (The name endings of the settlement, such
suggests the upper course; more gentle slopes with a as ‘ford’ and ‘bridge’, are evidence of this.)
broad, flat floodplain suggests the lower course.
Upper course
vertical erosion
Lon
weathering
gp
headward erosion
ro
• V-shaped valley
fil
e
• potholes
• interlocking spurs
• waterfalls
• rapids Middle course
• gorges lateral erosion Lower course
transportation transportation
• asymmetrical channel deposition
• floodplain • large channel
• truncated spurs • braiding
• meanders • oxbow lakes
• river cliff • large floodplain
• bluffs
• levées
• deltas/estuaries
▲ Figure 4.9 Features associated with different stages of a river

271

The human impact on river systems » Has there been any direct interference with
rivers through reservoir construction, channel
» Is there evidence of forest clearance and wetland
straightening, dams, new channels?
reclamation for agriculture? » Are there any obvious sources of pollution
» Does the map show any of the following land use
(industry, sewage works) on the map?
changes which can affect a river and its drainage
basin: mining activity, industrialisation,
urbanisation, land drainage schemes?
Activities
N
12 8 km
11
10
01 02 03
▲ Figure 4.10 Part of the 1:14,000 map of the West Coast Trail in British Columbia, Canada
272

Coastal landforms
Study Figure 4.10. b What is its altitude when it reaches Fairy Lake?
c What is the distance from the source of Fairy Creek
1 Describe the relief (height and gradient) of the map
to Fairy Lake?
extract.
d What is the gradient of Fairy Creek between its
2 In which direction does the Fairy Creek flow?
source and Fairy Lake? (Express the answer as a
3 a Describe the valley of the San Juan river.
1:x gradient, where gradient = vertical difference/
b How does this compare with the southern part of
horizontal distance.)
Fairy Creek?
4 a What is the altitude (height) of the source (start) of
Fairy Creek?
Coastal landforms » What is the direction of the coastline?

» Is there any evidence of longshore drift, for
example spits, bars, tombolos?
Describing coastal scenery » Are any of the features named? Give names and
» Does the coastline have steep slopes and cliffs, grid references.
suggesting a coastline of erosion? Or are there wide » Is there any map evidence of human attempts to
expanses of sand and mud suggesting deposition? protect the coastline, for example groynes, sea
» Are there many headlands and bays indicating local walls, breakwaters?
changes in processes? » Does the map tell you whether the stretch of
» Is the coastline broken by river mouths or estuaries? coastline is protected or open?
Activities
a
N b
▲ Figure 4.11 Extracts from

a 1: 25,000 map of Antigua
in the Caribbean c
273

a c
▲ Figure 4.12 Some coastal landforms on the Caribbean island of Antigua
1 Match each of the map extracts in Figure 4.11 with the 4 What features are shown in Figure 4.12b? Find located
three photographs in Figure 4.12. examples of these features on the map extracts.
2 Try to identify the cliff that is shown on Figure 4.12c. 5 What is the map evidence to suggest that tourism and
What is the map evidence to support your answer? recreation are important to this area?
3 What type of feature is shown in Figure 4.12a? Try to 6 Using map evidence, suggest how easy or difficult it
find the named example of the feature on one of the may be to develop tourism further in the area.
maps.
Describing volcanic Rural settlements

landscapes Geographers should be able to find various types
of information when studying rural settlements on
When describing volcanic landscapes consider the a map. They should be able to comment on the
following questions: following key terms:
» Is the land gently sloping or steep? » Site: the immediate location of a settlement —
» Is there a crater present at the top of the volcano? that is, the land upon which it is built, for example
» Is there a central cone or are there lots of on a floodplain, close to a river, on a south-facing
secondary cones? slope, on a crossroads, or at a wet point or dry
» Are there any lava flows present? point.
» Is there vegetation present? » Situation: the relative location of a settlement to
» Is there any other map evidence (quarrying, mining, a larger area.
tourism) that can be used to infer volcanic activity?
274

Rural settlements
» Have physical features influenced its shape? For

Activity example, a steep hillside or a floodplain may
limit the growth of a town so that it becomes
Using Figure 4.13, give reasons why this area may be
volcanic in origin. elongated, following the direction of the level or
N
dry land.
Describing the size and function of

a settlement
» What is the size of the settlement? How many grid
squares does it cover? (Each grid square represents
1 km2.)
» Are the houses tightly packed together or
dispersed?
» What functions are evident? For example, is
it residential (housing), commercial (post
office, administrative buildings), schools,
industrial (works, quarries, railway sidings) and/
or tourist-related (tourist information centre,
viewpoints)?
▲ Figure 4.13 Extract from the 1:25,000 map of
Lac d’Aydat in the Massif Central, France Describing the situation of a
settlement
» Function: any service or employment opportunities » Using the whole map area, describe the site
that a settlement offers, for example commercial, of the settlement in relation to large urban
recreational, industrial or agricultural. centres, motorways, roads, large rivers or other
» Shape: the appearance of the settlement, for large-scale physical features such as hills or
example linear, compact, T-shaped. valleys.
» Is the settlement on a rail link?
Describing and explaining the site » How accessible is the settlement to motorways,
and importance of a settlement railways and large urban areas? It might be
situated close to a motorway but have no direct
» Describe its location in relation to the relief of the access to it.
area, for example valley floor, near or away from
a river, direction of slope, dry point, wet point, Describing and accounting for the
exposed, sheltered etc.
» Describe how many routes there are and which
general distribution of settlement
forms of transport are available. How important are » Locate areas with little or no settlement. Account
the routes that meet at the settlement? How does for the lack of settlement in terms of natural
the relief affect these routes? disadvantage, for example exposed position, steep
gradient, flat land in danger of flooding. How is
Describing the form or shape of a this land used?
settlement » Locate areas of fairly close settlement. Account for
this in terms of natural advantages for land use
» Is it nucleated or dispersed? and occupation, for example farming, water, soil or
» Is it a linear or cruciform settlement? south-facing slope.
» Is any of it modern? (Modern settlement may be
recognised by a regular geometric street pattern
and more widely spaced houses.)
275

Activities
N
Key
road
hiking trail
steep hiking trail
climbing trail
0 1
km
▲ Figure 4.14 Part of southwest Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
276

Urban settlements
▲ Figure 4.15 Masca, Tenerife Canary Islands, Spain

Study Figure 4.14.
1 Describe the pattern of settlement (grey squares) as shown on the map extract.
2 Describe the relief and gradient of the area west of Masca.
3 Describe the road network (yellow lines) on the map extract.
4 What opportunities does this environment offer? Suggest reasons and use the map evidence and Figure 4.15 to
help you.
5 What difficulties does this environment create? Again give evidence and suggest reasons. (Note: The red line is a
hiking trail, the dashed red line is a steep hiking trail, and the red dots are climbing trails.)
Urban settlements Industrial location

The factors determining industrial location are
Urban landscapes changing. In the early part of the twentieth
It is important to identify different land use types century, heavy industries like iron and steel and
when describing an urban landscape. car manufacturing were located close to raw
materials and/or markets. Today, manufacturing
» Identify the lines of communication, for example
industry is drawn to out-of-town or edge-of-town
roads, railways, airports.
sites. One of the factors is space and another is
» Identify the types of land use, for example residential,
cost. There is more, cheaper land available away
industrial, commercial. What kind of residential land
from the built-up urban areas. Another factor is
use is it? Is it terraced, semi-detached, working class,
accessibility: edge-of-town sites are closer to
middle class? Is there industry present? If so, what
communications (motorways and railways) and
kind? Can you see a CBD or grouping of shops?
the residential areas where workers live. For many
» If the map is of a whole settlement, can you
heavy industries, location by a deepwater channel
identify old and new areas?
is important for the import of raw material and the
» Use descriptive words when discussing the area:
export of finished goods.
high-density/low-density housing; regular/
haphazard roads; derelict/high-tech industry.
» Can you identify any other land uses, for example
green spaces, derelict land, churches, schools,
hospitals?
277

Activities
89
N
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
79
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
▲ Figure 4.16 1:50,000 map of St Catharines, Ontario, Canada
278

Urban settlements
Study Figure 4.16. 5 Contrast the pattern of roads in square 4280 with those
in 4183 and 4083.
1 Describe the site of St Catharines.
6 Give a four-figure grid reference for:
2 Suggest contrasting reasons for the lack of settlement
a Martindale Pond
in parts of squares 4081 and 4679.
b Port Weller Harbour.
3 a What industries are located in 4681 and 4781?
7 Give a six-figure grid reference for Niagara College
b Suggest reasons for the large-scale industry in
(near the centre of St Catherines).
squares 4581 and 4681.
4 Describe the distribution of shopping centres, as shown
on the map.
N
▲ Figure 4.17 1:50,000 map of Hong Kong
Study Figure 4.17.

8 Give the square references for two (industrial) estates.
9 Compare the two sites that you have identified.
10 Suggest the reasons for the development at Tseung Kwan O industrial estate.
11 Approximately what size are Sheung Tak Estate and Tseung Kwan O?
12 How does the land in the two estates differ from the land on the rest of the island, as shown on the map?
279

Sketch maps and annotated Many photographs that are used in exams are aerial
views, which show industrial, residential, recreational
photographs and commercial land uses. In your projects, however,
you are more likely to use much simpler photos. If
You can label a photograph or diagram to make you study these carefully you can find out a number
it very informative. It is important that you label of interesting features.
clearly all the important features.
Activities
▲ Figure 4.18 Aerial view of Hyundai shipyard in Pusan, South Korea
▲ Figure 4.19 Sketch drawing of Figure 4.18
280

Using mathematical skills in geography
Study Figure 4.18.

1 a Copy Figure 4.19 and add the following labels in the
most appropriate locations.
• Harbour wall to reduce wave energy
• Flat land for large-scale industrial development
• Lack of development on steep ground
• Deep estuary allows development of port
industries
• High-rise residential accommodation
• Large docks for ships to be repaired or built
b Add a couple of other labels based on your own
observations.
▲ Figure 4.20 Jolly Harbour resort in Antigua

▲ Figure 4.21 Caledonian canal, Scotland
Study Figure 4.20. 3 Make a sketch of Figure 4.21, the Caledonian canal,
and add the following labels:
2 Make a sketch diagram of the resort and add the • The main river
following labels: • The Caledonian canal
• Purpose-built holiday resort • A lock
• Easy access to the beach • Barges and river boats
• Boat moorings • Large pastoral fields
• Fine, white sandy beach • An arable field
• Bay • Areas of woodland
• Lagoon • Settlement — possibly tourist accommodation
Using mathematical skills in » understanding significant figures and using them

appropriately
geography » recognising positive and negative relationships
shown by scatter graphs
There are a number of mathematical skills that you
» drawing and interpreting graphs from given data
should be able to perform. These include:
» selecting suitable scales and axes for graphs
» adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing » using a ruler and protractor.
» understanding map scale and the use of scale line
and representative fractions Map scale
» understanding the terms ‘mean’ and ‘range’
If the map scale is 1:50,000 every 1 cm on the map
» using averages, decimals, fractions, percentages
represents 50,000 cm on the ground (in reality).
and ratios
The representative fraction is expressed as
» using standard index notation (standard form),
1/50,000 — no units are given, as it could be
including both positive and negative indices
cm, m, km etc.
281

Activities
17
16
15
44 45 46 47
▲ Figure 4.22 A map of Woodstock, UK
Study Figure 4.22.

1 a State the scale of the map.
b Measure, in cm, the distance from the roundabout by Campsfield Wood (458157) to the junction of Upper
Campsfield Road and the Banbury Road (473173).
c State the distance from the roundabout by Campsfield Wood to the junction of Upper Campsfield Road and the
Banbury Road in (i) metres and (ii) km.
d Estimate the length of the River Glyme from the footbridge at 437152 to Lince Bridge (443146).
e Work out the distance of the longest runway at Oxford Airport.
Mean, averages and range There are other types of average. The mode refers
to the group/value that occurs most often. In
The mean is a type of average. It is found by totalling this example there are two modes, 1 and 4. A
(Σ) the values for all observations (Σ x) and then pattern that has two peaks (or two modes) is
dividing by the total number of observations (n): called bimodal, whereas a pattern with one peak is
Σx unimodal.
n The median is the middle value when all the data
For example, the mean number of services in eight are placed in either ascending or descending order.
villages was found to be: In this case, we have 8, 7, 5, 4, 4, 2, 1, 1. When
(5 + 4 + 7 + 8 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 4) 32 there are two middle values (as in this case), we
= 8 =4
8
282

Using mathematical skills in geography
take the average of the two values, which is this Significant figures
case is very easy as both middle values are 4, hence
The significant figures are the numbers that give
the median is 4.
some meaning to the measurement/size of a feature.
The range is the difference between the highest
Numbers are often rounded up or down to make them
and lowest value. In this example it is 8 − 1 = 7.
easier to understand. The world’s population is said
Decimals, fractions, percentages to be 7 billion — this is one significant figure —
seven times a billion. The world’s population was
and ratios 7,503,875,592 at 20.30 hours on 11 May 2017. This
A decimal is a number between two whole numbers. figure is too detailed (and now out of date). A value
For example, the world’s population is around 7.5 of 7 billion (one significant figure) or 7.5 billion (two
billion, which means that it is more than 7 billion significant figures) gives a better ‘feel’ for the size of
but less than 8 billion. the world’s population.
A fraction is part of a whole — for example, 1 of
3
Borneo’s rainforest has been deforested. Activity
A percentage is a number or ratio expressed as
Express 7,503,875,592 in terms of:
a fraction of 100 (%). To convert a fraction to a a 4 significant figures
percentage, convert first to a decimal and multiply b 7 significant figures
by 100%. To convert a fraction to a decimal, simply c 9 significant figures.
divide the number above the line (the numerator)
by the number below the line (the denominator).
You can use a calculator for this. Thus, in Positive and negative relationships
Borneo 13 or 0.33 × 100% = 33% of its forest has
shown by scatter graphs
been deforested.
A ratio is a method of comparing relative size or A positive relationship exists between two values
proportions. The area deforested in Borneo compared when one is a multiple of the other, for example
with forested is 1:2 (one-third has been deforested 1 cm = 10 mm. To convert cm to mm you always
and there are two-thirds left). multiply by 10. The symbol ∝ is shorthand for
proportional, for example y ∝ x.
A negative relationship exists when one value
Activity increases at the same rate as another decreases, i.e
y ∝ 1x . For example, if it takes three people 8 hours
The world’s population is approximately 7.5 billion, and
to harvest a field, how long would it take four people
China’s population is approximately 1.3 billion. Express
China’s population as a percentage of the world’s (all working at the same rate as the original three
population. people) to harvest the same field?
y ∝ 1x or kx
where k = the constant of proportionality.
Standard notation y = 8, x = 3, so y ∝ kx = 8, so if it takes three
Standard notation is the number that we would workers 8 hours, k = 8 × 3 = 24 hours of work in total
normally write, e.g. 567. The expanded standard index are required.
notation shows that 567 is 5.67 × 102. When k = 4, and k is still 24 hours, y = kx = 24
4
= 6.
A positive index is a power value that is positive, So it will take 6 hours for the four workers to complete
for example 22 = 2 × 2 = 4, or 33 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 27. the harvest.
Negative indices are powers that have a minus Relationships between values can be investigated
sign, for example 2−3 = 213 = 18. using scatter graphs. Figure 4.23 shows a positive
relationship (a), a negative relationship (b), a curved
relationship (c) and a positive relationship when all
values are considered but no relationship when a sub-
set is used (d).
283

(a) (b)
Line graphs
A line graph shows points plotted on a graph whereby
the points are connected to form a line. This type of
graph is used to show continuing data. It shows the
relationship between two variables, which are clearly
labelled on both axes of the graph. Many line graphs
show changes over time. However, time does not have
to be one of the variables of a line graph. Examples
of the use of line graphs include:
(c) (d)
» temperature changes during the course of a day
» pedestrian counts by time of day
» temperature change with altitude.
The axes of a line graph should begin at zero and
the variable for each axis should be clearly labelled.
Be careful with the choice of scale, as this will
▲ Figure 4.23 Relationships on a scatter graph
determine the visual impression given by the graph.
Figure 4.25 is an example of a line graph. Here, only
one line has been drawn but it is valid to show a
Mathematical skills: number of lines so long as the course of each line is
absolutely clear from start to finish.
graphical techniques The distance people travelled to come to the town centre
You may come across the techniques demonstrated 18
below in all parts of your geography course. Guidance 16
is given here on how to construct graphs for 14
coursework and the alternative to coursework, as well
No. of people
12
as how to interpret them. 10
Pictograms 8
6
Pictograms (or picture graphs) use pictures or 4
symbols to represent the data. The number of times a 2
symbol occurs can represent the value or amount — 0
in this way the pictogram acts very much like a bar 1–2 km 3–4 km 5–6 km 7–8 km Over 8 km
chart (Figure 4.24). Distance
▲ Figure 4.25 Example of a line graph
Electrical
Clothing
Sports
equipment
Books
Groceries
Newspaper
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
▲ Figure 4.24 What goods did you buy today?

284

Mathematical skills: graphical techniques
Line graphs can be simple (showing one feature)

or they may be multiple (showing many features Activities
and trends, e.g. the demographic transition model
1 Study Figure 4.24. How many people bought:
shown on page 5). Compound or stacked line a groceries
graphs show the value of each category on top b clothing
of the previous ones (e.g. page 222 Changes in on their visit?
world energy consumption, and page 211 Growth in 2 Using the data in Table 4.1, draw a line graph to show
global tourism). This is done in this way to show world population growth, 1800–2024.
the value of total energy consumption or total Table 4.1
world tourism, which would not be clear from a
multiple line graph. Year Population (billions)
1800 1
Pie charts and proportional pie 1930 2
charts 1960 3
Pie charts are subdivided circles. These are frequently 1974 4
used on maps to show variations in the composition 1987 5
of a geographical feature, for example gross regional
1999 6
domestic product (Figure 4.26). The pie chart may
also be drawn proportional in size, to show an extra 2011 7
dimension, in this case the size of GRDP. 2024 8
NORTH KOREA GRDP per capita

Over 1300 Tertiary Primary
industries industries
1100–1300
Incheon Gangwon 900–1100

Gyeonggi
N 700–900
Under 700
(thousand won)
Secondary
Seoul Chungbuk Employed persons industries
5000
3000
Chungnam 2000
Gyeongbuk
1000
Daejeon 500
Daegu (thousand persons)
Jeonbuk
Gwanglu
Gyeongnam
Busan
Jeonnam
0 50
Jeju
km
▲ Figure 4.26 Example of the use of pie charts: employment and gross regional domestic product (GRDP) in South Korea, 2000
285

Plotting the pie chart positive scale above the median line and the
The following steps should be followed in the negative scale below it (Figure 4.27). This type of
construction of a pie chart: bar graph can create a very good visual impression.
You can see instantly whether changes are positive
1 Convert the data into percentages. or negative and exactly what the extent of the
2 Convert the percentages into degrees (by individual changes are.
multiplying by 3.6 and rounding up or down to the
nearest whole number). Percentage change in mode of travel to school, 2000–07
3 Draw appropriately located circles on your base +30
map. +20
4 Subdivide the circles into sectors using the +10
figures obtained in step 2. Train
% 0
5 Differentiate the sectors by means of different Bus Walking Cycling
shadings or colours. –10
6 Draw a key explaining the scheme of shading and/ –20
or colours.
–30
7 Give your diagram a title.
▲ Figure 4.27 Example of a median-line bar graph
Bar charts
In a bar chart, the length of the bar represents the Histograms
quantity of the component being measured, for A histogram is a special type of bar graph
example places or time intervals. The vertical axis (Figure 4.28). It shows the frequency distribution
has a scale that measures the quantity. There are four of data. The x-axis must be a continuous scale, with
main types of bar chart: the values marked on it representing the lower and
upper limits of the classes within which the data
» Simple bar chart — each bar indicates a single have been grouped. The y-axis shows the frequency
factor, for example Figure 1.3, page 3. within which values fall into each of the classes.
» Multiple or group bar chart — features A vertical rectangle or bar represents each class.
are grouped together on one graph to help The bars must be continuous without any gaps
comparison, for example Figure 3.30, page 189. between them.
» Compound bar chart — various elements or factors
are grouped together on one bar (the largest or Pebble size
most stable element or factor, i.e. the one with (length of Tally marks
longest made in the
least variation, is placed at the bottom of the bar to axis in mm) field Frequency
avoid confusion).
0 to <5 4
» Percentage compound bar chart — this is a 5 to <10 11
variation on the compound bar chart. It is used 40 10 to <15 22
to compare features by showing the percentage 35
15 to <20 37
20 to <25 18
contribution, for example Figure 3.76, page 222. 30 25 to <30 6
These graphs do not give a total in each
Frequency
25 30 to <35 2
category but compare relative changes in terms 20
of percentages. 15 Table of data about the
10 sizes of pebbles collected
Median-line bar graphs 5 on a beach, and a histogram

drawn from these data
0
Median-line bar graphs are useful when the 0 10 20 30
objective is to show both positive and negative (mm)
changes. The median line is set at zero with the ▲ Figure 4.28 Example of a histogram and the data used
286

Activities
Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Contribution of the main economic sectors to

Korea’s GDP
City Micrograms per m3
1 Delhi, India 153 Agriculture Industry Services
2 Doha, Qatar 93 2.6% 39.2% 58.2%
3 Dhaka, Bangladesh 86 1 Table 4.2 shows data for air pollution in ten cities.
4 Kabul, Afghanistan 86 Construct a bar chart to show these data. Remember
to add a scale and a title.
5 Cairo, Egypt 74
2 a Using the data in Table 4.3, draw a pie chart showing
6 Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia 68 the contribution of each economic sector to Korean
7 Abu Dhabi, UAE 64 GDP.
b Comment on the chart you have drawn.
8 Beijing, China 56
9 Kathmandu, Nepal 50
10 Accra, Ghana 49
Kite diagrams Flow-line diagrams

A kite diagram is a form of line graph where the Flow-line diagrams and maps are used to illustrate
scale is split in two, i.e. half the values are shown movements or flows (Figure 4.30). One might be
above a horizontal line and half below. They are most used to show the variation in volumes of traffic from
commonly used to show vegetation distribution, for different smaller settlements into a larger settlement.
example along a sand dune or across a footpath and Straight lines are used but the width of the individual
its surrounding area (Figure 4.29). flow lines will be proportional to the amounts of
160
Observed
traffic they represent. Thus, a line 10 mm wide may
percentage of represent 500 vehicles an hour along a road. On the
vegetation
140 cover same scale a line 2 mm wide would represent 100
vehicles an hour. Flow lines could also be used to
%25 0 %25
120 show the number of buses coming into a town on a
Distance along transect/metres
particular day.
100 Main Nile
80
60
40
Atbarah
20
Blue Nile
0
s
s
er
as
as
th
gr
gr
White Nile
ea
am
h
H
uc
r
Co
ar
M
▲ Figure 4.29 Kite diagram ▲ Figure 4.30 Flow-line diagram to show sources of water
contributing to the River Nile
287

Dispersion diagrams Desire-line diagrams show movement from one place

to another. This type of diagram could be used to
A dispersion diagram is very useful for showing show where people live and the supermarket they
the range of a data set, the tendency to group or use. If there are four supermarkets in an area then
disperse, and for comparing two sets of data. It the rays would focus on four points rather than just
involves plotting the values of a single variable one as in a wind rose diagram. Desire-line diagrams
on a vertical axis. The horizontal axis shows the are therefore more complicated than wind rose
frequency. The resulting diagram shows the frequency diagrams.
distribution of a data set (Figure 4.31).
West-facing East-facing Semantic differential profiles
90–100 90–100 Semantic differential profiles (SDPs) (Figure 4.33)
80–89 80–89 are useful for recording perceptions of environmental
quality. They consist of a series of pairs of words
Group or class interval (%)
Group or class interval (%)
70–79 70–79
with opposite meanings. There should generally be
60–69 60–69
a minimum of five gradations between each pair
50–59 50–59
of words. The observer must decide where to place
40–49 40–49 a cross or other mark to state the condition of
30–39 30–39 the environment they are observing. When all the
20–29 20–29 observations have been made the crosses are joined
up with a ruler. If, for example, you were studying
10–19 10–19
three different housing areas in a town you could
0–9 0–9
show all three profiles on one SDP diagram by using
0 Frequency 0 Frequency different colours for each area.
▲ Figure 4.31 Dispersion diagrams showing the distribution of
The average semantic differential profile for Graveny ward
lichens on east- and west-facing gravestones
Ray diagrams Quiet Noisy
There are two main types of ray diagram: wind roses

Friendly Unfriendly
and desire lines. Ray diagrams are made up of straight
lines (rays), which show a connection or movement
Healthy Unhealthy
between two places.
Wind rose diagrams (Figure 4.32) show the Safe Unsafe
variations in wind direction for a certain time
period. The direction of each ray to the centre is the Tidy Untidy
direction from which the wind is blowing. Each ray
is proportional in length to the number of days the Attractive Unattractive
wind blew from that direction.
Wind directions recorded for one year at a school weather Interesting Boring
station in Liverpool, UK
Direction of wind N NE E SE S SW W NW Calm Pleasant Unpleasant

Number of days 26 37 39 32 30 57 60 53 51
per year Improving Deteriorating
N
Spacious Cramped
Rich Poor
Planned Unplanned
Varied Monotonous
▲ Figure 4.32 Example of a wind rose diagram ▲ Figure 4.33 A semantic differential profile
288

Radial (circular) graphs Pedestrian flow in and around a central business district
Radial (or circular) graphs (Figure 4.34) can be used 75 Sampling point with number of pedestrians
to plot: Isolines of pedestrian flows at 10 interval increases
» a variable that is continuous over time, such as

19
temperature data over the course of a year 18
» data relating to direction using the points of the
compass.
29 27
31
The two axes of a radial graph are the circumference
12
of the circle and the radius. Values increase from the
12
centre of the circle outwards.
67 40
87
Rate of weathering: Rahn’s index
N 97
6 75
90
NW 5 NE 80
4 70 71
60
3
32 50 52
2
1 40
W E 30 42
20 30
▲ Figure 4.35 An isoline map
SW SE
Scatter graphs
Scatter graphs show how two sets of data are related
S to each other, for example population size and number
A radial graph to show the influence of aspect on gravestone of services, or distance from the source of a river and
weathering. The graph shows the mean of Rahn’s index for
each compass direction.
average pebble size. To plot a scatter graph, decide which
Rahn’s index
variable is independent (population size/distance from
Class Description the source) and which is dependent (number of services/
1 Unweathered average pebble size). The independent is plotted on the
2 Slightly weathered: faint rounding to corners of letters horizontal or x-axis and the dependent on the vertical
3 Moderately weathered: gravestone rough, letters legible
4 Badly weathered: letters difficult to read or y-axis. For each set of data, project a line from the
5 Very badly weathered: letters indistinguishable corresponding x- and y-axis, and where the two lines
6 Extremely weathered: no letters left, scaling meet mark the point with a dot or an X (Figure 4.36).
▲ Figure 4.34 A radial graph The effect of gross domestic income (GDI) on
the total fertility rate in selected countries
8
Isoline diagrams 7
Uganda
Isolines join points of equal value on a map. They Malawi

Total fertility rate
6 Mozambique Oman
are similar to contours on an Ordnance Survey
Namibia
map. Isolines can only be drawn when the values 5
Ghana Jordan
under consideration change in a fairly gradual way 4
over the area of the map. Data for quite a large 3
Egypt
Chile
number of locations are required in order to draw a Vietnam
Norway
2 Mauritius
good isoline map. Isoline maps are unsuitable for Switzerland
Russia
patchy data. Figure 4.35 is an isoline map showing 1 Czech Republic
pedestrian flow in and around a central business 0
district. 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
GDI
▲ Figure 4.36 Scatter graph
289

When all the data are plotted, a line of best fit is 3 Use the square root for the radius of each circle.
drawn. This does not have to pass through the origin. By doing this the area of each of the circles will be
It is useful to label some of the points, for example mathematically proportional to the figures they are
the highest and smallest anomalies (exceptions), representing. For the radii you can use any units
especially if these are referred to in any later you want providing they are the same for each of
description. the circles.
Choropleth maps Table 4.4 shows a simple example.
Choropleth maps can use variations in colour or Table 4.4 To prepare proportional circles: an example
different densities of black and white shading.
Totals Square root Radius of circle
The following steps should be followed in the
construction of a choropleth map: 4 2 2 cm
9 3 3 cm
» Look at the range of data and divide it into
classes. There should be no less than four classes 16 4 4 cm
and no more than eight.
» Allocate a colour to each class. The convention is Bowthorpe/
Mancroft
that shading gets darker as values increase. Henderson
» Now apply each colour to the applicable areas of
the map. Catton
Grove
» Provide a key, scale and north point.
The choropleth map is a popular technique,
frequently used in atlases, textbooks and many Mile
ld
Cross Coslany
ho
Crome
se
other types of publication. It can convey a lot Heigham
ou
M
of information in a straightforward and visually Bowthorpe
Henderson Mancroft Thorpe
Hamlet
appealing way.
n
lso
N
n
he
University
Ne
The main disadvantage of the choropleth is that ep m

St
ha
St
n
ke
it can show abrupt changes at boundary lines, when Eaton
Town
Close
La
in reality change is much more gradual. It also gives

the impression of uniformity within individual areas
Eaton/St Stephen
on the map, when in reality a reasonable degree of
variation may be present. Careful selection of class Number of offences
committed Types of crime
sizes can reduce this problem.
Under 750 Violent/sexual assault
Proportional circles 750–999 Burglary

1000–1249 Theft
Proportional circles are the next step up from
pie charts. While pie charts are viewed as a basic 1250–1499 Theft of/from motor
vehicle (car crime)
graphical technique, proportional circles are a higher- 1500+
Criminal damage
level technique. Proportional circles are useful when Boundary of
beat areas Other (including
illustrating the differences between two or more robbery)
amounts. They are particularly effective when placed
on location maps. In Figure 4.37 the three circles ▲ Figure 4.37 Example of a choropleth map with
proportional circles
shown are proportional in area to the total number
of offences recorded in the three urban areas. The
method used to decide the radius of each circle is as Triangular graphs
follows: Triangular graphs are used to show data that can be
1 Write out each of the total figures for which circles divided into three parts, for example soil (sand, silt and
are to be drawn in the first column. clay), employment (primary, secondary and tertiary), or
2 Find the square root for each figure and write this population (young, adult and elderly) (Figure 4.38).
down in a second column. They require that the data are in the form of a
290

percentage and that the percentages total 100%. The LDCs Less developed countries
main advantages of the triangular graph are: MDCs More developed countries
UK United Kingdom
» they allow a large number of data to be shown Fr France
Sw Sweden Children Adults
on one graph (think how many pie charts or bar Jp Japan (0–19) (20–59)
charts would be needed to show all the data on Bo Bolivia 0 100 %
Figure 4.38)
10 90
» groupings are easily recognisable, for example
in the case of soils groups of soil texture can be 20 80 Elderly
identified 30 70
(60+)
» dominant characteristics can be shown easily 40

Fr
60
SwJp
» classifications can be drawn up. MDCs
50 Ghana UK 50
World
Triangular graphs can be tricky and it is easy to get 60 Brazil 40
confused, especially if care is not taken, but they Bo LDCs
70 30
do provide a fast, reliable way of classifying large
amounts of data that have three components. 80 20
90 10
▶ Figure 4.38 Triangular graph to show % 100 0
population composition in selected countries 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 %
Activities
1 Construct a scatter graph using the data in Table 4.5. 0 100
Table 4.5 10 90
ry
%
Site Discharge (m3/sec) Suspended load (g/m3) 20 80
ust
em
ind
1 0.45 10.8
plo
30 70
ary
ye
2 0.42 9.7
di
nd
40 60
nt
eco
3 0.51 11.2
ert
50 50
ns
iar
4 0.55 11.3
di
yi
60 40
ye
nd
5 0.68 12.5
plo
ust
70 30
em
6 0.75 12.8
ry
%
80 20
7 0.89 13.0
8 0.76 12.7 90 10
9 0.96 13.0 100 0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
10 1.26 17.4 % employed in primary industry
2 On a copy of Figure 4.39 and using the data in Table 4.6, ▲ Figure 4.39 Outline for a triangular graph
show how the workforce of Korea has changed over time.
3 Find two examples of line graphs in a geography textbook.
Table 4.6 Percentage of Korean workforce employed in What do the line graphs show in these examples?
primary, secondary and tertiary industries, 1970–2015 4 What is the difference between a histogram and an
Primary Secondary Tertiary
‘ordinary’ bar graph?
industries industries industries
5 Discuss the merits and limitations of choropleth maps.
6 Draw a series of proportional circles using fieldwork
1970 50.4 14.3 35.3 data or data from a textbook.
1980 34.0 22.5 43.5 7 Construct a semantic differential profile that could be
1990 17.9 27.6 54.5 used in your local area.
2000 10.9 20.2 68.9 8 Look at Figure 4.35, which shows an isoline map.
2015 5.7 24.2 70.2 Suggest two more examples for which isoline maps
could be drawn.
291

4.2 Gcoursework and the alternative to
eographical investigations:
coursework
scope of this syllabus offers many possibilities for
coursework.
IGCSE Component 3 is not compulsory because
IGCSE Paper 4 (Alternative to Coursework) can be
taken instead. Here students answer two compulsory
questions, completing a number of written tasks
based on the three themes covered in Paper 1. The
questions in Paper 4 involve an appreciation of
techniques used in fieldwork studies. Guidance on the
enquiry skills for Paper 4 is provided in the syllabus
document.
The enquiry skills for IGCSE Component 3, known as
the route to geographical enquiry, can be set out in
the following stages:
1 Identification of an issue, question or problem
▲ Figure 4.40 Risk assessment is essential for all geographical
investigations 2 Defining the objectives of the study
3 Collection of data
The assessment structure is different for IGCSE 4 Selection and collation of data
and O Level. IGCSE centres can choose between 5 Presentation and recording of results
Component 3 Coursework and Paper 4 Alternative 6 Analysis and interpretation
to Coursework, whereas O Level students must take 7 Conclusions, evaluation and suggestions for further
Paper 3 Geographical Investigations. IGCSE Paper 4 is work.
identical to O Level Paper 3.
For IGCSE Component 3, which is entitled
‘Coursework’, a school-based assignment set by Identification of an issue,
teachers of up to 2000 words must be completed.
The proposals for the coursework undertaken question or problem
by students must be approved beforehand by This section effectively forms your introduction to
the examination board, Cambridge Assessment the investigation. Here you clearly identify a topic
International Education. An example of an outline for investigation through observation, discussion,
submission to Cambridge is provided in the reading or previous study. Many geographical
syllabus document. investigations begin by stating one or a number
The coursework investigation can be based on of hypotheses used to test the issue, question or
human geography, physical geography, or on an problem. Hypotheses are the ideas you intend to
interaction between the two. The assignment test. Before you can set out your hypotheses with
must be clearly related to one or more of the confidence you need to ensure that you have a good
syllabus themes. understanding of the topic (for example, sand dunes)
Examples of suitable coursework assignments can under consideration. Studying the geographical
be found in the syllabus document. The wide-ranging background should ensure that you have clear
292
421363_4.2_IGCSE_OL_Geo_292-305.indd 292 16/01/18 12:00 PM

Collection, selection and collation of data
knowledge and understanding of the theories or

models that are used to try to explain your enquiry. Activities
You will refer back to these theories and models in
1 Draw a diagram to illustrate the route to geographical
your conclusion. enquiry.
Examples of hypotheses are as follows: 2 a What is a hypothesis?
b Give two examples.
» Pedestrian density is highest at the centre of the 3 Why is it important to study the geographical background
CBD, and declines with increasing distance from of your coursework topic?
the centre. 4 How would you go about justifying the geographical
» The sphere of influence of settlements increases location of your enquiry?
with settlement size.
» The pH of sand dunes decreases with distance
inland.
» Population density is higher in inner urban areas Collection, selection and
than in the suburbs.
» Average temperatures in urban areas are higher
collation of data
than in surrounding rural areas. Data can be collected on a group or individual basis,
which may include:
For each hypothesis you investigate you should
describe what you expect to find and explain why. » fieldwork to collect primary data, such as taking
Within this section of the investigation you should measurements and undertaking questionnaires
also justify the geographical location of your » gathering data from secondary sources, such as
inquiry. It should clearly be a good location to from census information and published maps,
address the issue, question or problem you intend newspapers and the internet.
to investigate. Make sure that you include the area’s Make sure that you clearly explain the difference
site as well as its regional situation. Include clearly between primary data and secondary data. Use as
labelled location maps. Give each map or diagram many different techniques as possible to gather
used in this section a figure number. For example, information, for example interviews, observations,
a map showing the location of your study area surveys, questionnaires, maps and looking at
within its wider region might be labelled ‘Figure 1: figures. Describe and justify each method. Describe
The location of Studland in Dorset’. Follow this the use of primary fieldwork methods and in
procedure for all illustrations used throughout your particular the method and/or equipment used to
investigation. Also make sure that you refer to each collect each type of information. Equally, describe
‘Figure’ in your text. and explain the use of secondary sources, for
example parish records.
Defining the objectives of Explain clearly how you decided to use your
figures, maps, answers to questions etc. Some
the study reasoning is necessary here — that is, justify why
you used that method or source. Explain in detail,
You now move on to define the objectives of the for example, how you questioned people, collected
study in specific terms, refining the content of census figures, obtained maps etc. Write this up
the previous section. You will also make decisions almost like the method for a scientific experiment.
concerning: You can use a planning sheet here, stating when
» what data are relevant to the study you collected data, where from, at what time,
» how the data can be collected. places you visited, observations you made,
interviews you conducted etc. If you are using a
It is useful in this section to briefly state the sequence questionnaire then you must justify the questions
of investigation you are going to follow. This should that you use, for example explain why you have
ensure that you are clear about the remaining stages recorded the age and gender of respondents in a
of the investigation and that you tackle the route to shopping survey. You need a range of methods to
geographical enquiry in a logical manner. obtain full marks.
293

4.2 GeoGraphical investiGations: coursework and the alternative to coursework
To collect data in a sound and logical way so that All three sampling types are shown in Figure 4.41.
valid conclusions can be drawn, you should be aware Here all of the sampling types are illustrated using
of the characteristics and importance of: the systematic method of sampling. When you have
» sampling read the next section you might think how these
» pilot surveys diagrams would look using random and stratified
» questionnaires and interviews sampling.
» methods of observing, counting and measuring
» health and safety, and other restrictions.
Sampling
The reasons for sampling
For many geographical investigations it is impossible Point Line Quadrat
to obtain ‘complete’ information. This is usually ▲ Figure 4.41 Point, line and quadrat sampling
because it would just take too long in terms of both
time and cost. For example, if you wanted to study
the shopping habits of all 1000 households in a Sampling methods
suburban area by using a doorstep questionnaire, it Random sampling
would be a huge task to visit every household. This method involves selecting sample points by
However, it is valid to take a ‘sample’ or proportion using random numbers (Figures 4.42 and 4.43).
of this total ‘population’ of 1000 households, Tables of random numbers can be used or the
providing you follow certain rules. The idea is that numbers can be generated by most calculators. The
you are selecting a group that will be representative use of random numbers guarantees that there is no
of the total population. human bias in the selection process.
You might decide to take a 5% or 10% sample,
which would involve talking to 50 or 100 of the 1000 61 89 04 24 98 65 96 96
households in the area. But how do you decide which 33 79 53 35 51 56 11 78
50 or 100 households to sample? There are three 96 84 68 33 84 15 08 10
28 34 05 81 54 02 60 18
recognised methods of sampling that are considered 19 35 37 56 39 97 66 15
scientifically valid. All three methods avoid bias, 37 21 22 09 18 99 33 03
which would make results unreliable. 46 77 77 83 19 39 43 48
12 44 97 58 79 57 42 30
Sampling types 08 91 47 87 38 21 74 24
98 17 54 62 62 21 06 90
Before selecting the sampling method you need to
73 53 29 99 11 76 30 00
consider how you are going to take a sample at each 35 28 06 62 12 99 48 48
location. There are three alternatives: 50 34 68 74 61 42 19 63
95 49 75 96 49 81 93 10
» Point sampling — making an observation or 22 30 86 92 56 79 71 50
measurement at an exact location, such as an 68 83 63 59 30 55 37 20
individual house or at a precise six-figure grid 69 67 64 05 14 37 16 36
04 43 66 24 01 62 72 98
reference. 03 40 89 99 66 22 11 32
» Line sampling — taking measurements along a 95 44 09 92 08 41 49 27
carefully chosen line or lines, such as a transect
across a sand dune ecosystem. ▲ Figure 4.42 Section of a table of random numbers
» Quadrat (or area) sampling — quadrats are mainly
used for surveying vegetation and beach deposits.
A quadrat is a gridded frame.
294

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University
College
St George's Mount
Gardens Pleasant
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Deciding on the size of the sample
Marylebone
70
St.
lebo
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oad University
of London
The larger the sample the more likely you are to
Mary MARYLEBONE
British
Museum
T obtain a true reflection of the total population.
Ed
However, this could happen with a very small sample

g
Royal
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ar
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60
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by chance. But, equally, a small sample could give a
St Paul's
Ro
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Oxford Cathedral
ad
King's
SOHO Royal College
MAYFAIR
Opera
Somerset
House
very misleading picture of the total population.
Bridge
Blackfriars
Pa
50
A good rule to follow at IGCSE with regard to
rk
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Hyde Park La
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sample size is to take as many samples as possible
loo
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SOUTHW
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St James’s
The Serpentine cc Hall
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40 with regard to:
at
Green Park County
er
St James’s
lo
Hall
o
Park
Wesminster
Ro
Buckingham
Bridge
» the time available
ad
Palace
Westminster
rt Abbey Houses of
30 Str. Parliament
BELGRAVIA Vict
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Imperial
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» the number of samples required for a particular

Lambeth
oa
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ad
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statistical technique, such as Spearman’s rank
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correlation coefficient
ad Chelsea V
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s id ha
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» your capacity to handle the data collected (there are

Royal
10 KENNINGTON
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Chelsge Qu
Brid
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am es Cricket
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Kennington
Park many computer programs available to help with this).
ea
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Power
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0 10 2 03 04 05 06 07 080
▲ Figure 4.43 How a grid and map can be used for random Pilot surveys
sampling A pilot study or trial run can play an important role
in any geographical investigation. A pilot study
Systematic sampling involves spending a small amount of time testing
With this method the sample is taken in a regular your methods of data collection. For example:
way. It might, for example, involve every tenth » If you are using equipment, does all the equipment
house or person. When using an Ordnance Survey work and can everyone in the group use it
map it might mean analysing grid squares at regular correctly?
intervals. » If your data collection involves a questionnaire,
can the people responding understand all the
Stratified sampling questions clearly?
Here the area under study divides into different » If a method of sampling is used, does everyone
natural areas. For example, rock type A may make up know how to select the sample points accurately?
60% of an area and rock type B the remaining 40%.
A small-scale pilot study allows you to make vital
If you were taking soil samples for each type, you adjustments to your investigation before you begin
should ensure that 60% of the samples were taken the main survey. This can save a great deal of time in
on rock type A and 40% on rock type B the long run.
(Figure 4.44).
Activities
1 Why is sampling so important in geographical
investigation?
2 Work in groups to provide outlines of different
geographical investigations that would involve:
a random sampling
b systematic sampling
Random Systematic Stratified c stratified sampling.
3 Why might it be beneficial to conduct a pilot study
▲ Figure 4.44 Random, systematic and stratified sampling prior to beginning a geographical investigation?
295

Questionnaires and interviews The disadvantages of questionnaires are as follows:

Questionnaire surveys involve both setting » Many people will not want to cooperate for a
questions and obtaining answers. The questions are variety of reasons. Some people will simply be too
pre-planned and set out on a specially prepared busy while others may be uneasy about talking to
form. This method of data collection is used to strangers. Some people may be concerned about
obtain opinions, ideas and information from people the possibility of identity theft.
in general or from different groups of people. The » Research has indicated that people do not always
questionnaire survey is probably the most widely provide accurate answers in surveys. Some people
used method to obtain primary data in human are tempted to give the answer that they think the
geography. In the wider world questionnaires are questioner wants to hear or the answer they think
used for a variety of purposes, including market shows them in the best light.
research by manufacturing and retail companies As with other forms of data collection, it is advisable
and to test public opinion prior to political to carry out a brief pilot survey first. It could be that
elections. some words or questions you find easy to understand
One of the most important decisions you are going cause problems for some people. Amending the
to have to make is how many questionnaires you questionnaire in the light of the pilot survey before
are going to complete. The general rules to follow you begin the survey proper will make things go
here are similar to those for sampling, set out in much more smoothly.
the previous section. Remember, if you have too
few questionnaire results, you will not be able to Delivering the questionnaire
draw valid conclusions. For most types of study, 25 There are really three options here:
questionnaires is probably the minimum you would
need to draw reasonable conclusions. On the other » Approach people in the street or in another public
hand it is unlikely you would have time for more than environment.
100 unless you were collecting data as part » Knock on people’s doors.
of a group. » Post questionnaires to people. With this approach
A good questionnaire (Figure 4.45): you could either collect the questionnaire later
or enclose a stamped addressed envelope. This
» has a limited number of questions that take no last method is costly and experience shows that
more than a few minutes to answer response rates are rarely above 30 per cent.
» is clearly set out so that the questioner can move Another disadvantage is that you will be unable
quickly from one question to the next — people do to ask for clarification if some responses are
not like to be kept waiting; the careful use of tick unclear.
boxes can help this objective
» is carefully worded so that the respondents are If you are conducting a survey of shopping habits
clear about the meaning of each question you may want to find out if there are significant
» follows a logical sequence so that respondents differences between males and females or between
can see ‘where the questionnaire is going’ — if a different age groups. In this case you would use
questionnaire is too complicated and long-winded a stratified sample divided by gender and the
people may decide to stop halfway through percentage of population in each age group.
» avoids questions that are too personal The time of day may also be important. In the
» begins with the quickest questions to answer and example given above, very few people in some age
leaves the longer/more difficult questions to the end groups may be around at a certain time of day. For
» reminds the questioner to thank respondents for example, most teenagers will be in school or college
their cooperation. at mid-morning on a weekday.
296

A good questionnaire A bad questionnaire

Introduction: ‘Excuse me, I am doing a school Introduction: ‘Excuse me, but I wonder if I could ask
geography project. Could I ask you one or two quick you some questions?’
questions about where you go shopping?’
1 Where do you live?
1 How often do you come shopping in this town
centre?
2 How do you get here?
More than once a week
Weekly Occasionally 3 Do you come shopping here often?
2 How do you travel here?
4 Why do you come here?
Walk Car Bus Train/Tube
Other
5 Do you buy high-or low-order goods here?
3 Roughly where do you live?
4 Why do you come here rather than any other
shopping centre? 6 Is this a good shopping centre and if so, why?
Near to home Near to work

More choice Pleasant environment 7 Where else do you go shopping?
Other
5 What sort of things do you normally buy here? 8 Do you shop there because it is cheaper or nearer
to your home?
Groceries Clothes/shoes
Everything
9 How old are you?
Other
6 Do you shop anywhere else, and if so where?
‘Right, that’s it then.’
7 Why do you go shopping there?
8 What do you buy there?
9 Sex: M F Age (estimate) under 20

20–30 30–60 Over 60
‘Thank you very much for you help’
▲ Figure 4.45 Two questionnaires, one good and one bad
Interviews and the other noting the answers. Also, be aware that
Interviews are more detailed interactions than shopping malls, individual shops and other private
questionnaires. They generally involve talking to premises may not allow you to conduct questionnaires
a relatively small number of people. A study of an without seeking permission beforehand.
industrial estate might involve interviews if you
were trying to find out why companies chose to Activities
locate on the estate. An interview is much more of a 1 Design a questionnaire that might be used as part of
discussion than a questionnaire, although you should an investigation into tourism in a small resort.
still have a pre-planned question sheet. It can be a 2 Briefly outline a geographical investigation in your
good idea to record interviews but you should ask the local area that could involve the use of interviews.
interviewee’s permission first.
Health and safety and other restrictions Observations, counts and
It may be sensible to work in pairs when conducting
questionnaires as some people can act in an
measurements
unfriendly manner when approached in the street. Field sketches
Working in pairs can also speed the process up Personal observations or perceptions may form an
considerably, with one person asking the questions important element of a coursework investigation.
297

A field sketch is a hand-drawn summary of an weather conditions and time of day. Such information will
environment you are looking at. In both urban and make annotation quicker and easier in the long run.
rural environments field sketching is a very useful An annotated photograph shows your key
way of recording the most important aspects of a perceptions about a location you have visited on
landscape and noting the relationships between fieldwork. A series of such photographs might show:
elements of such landscapes. The action of stopping
» how the type and quality of housing varies in an
for a period of time to sketch the landscape in front
inner city or suburban area
of you will often reveal details that may not have
» how a river and its valley changes from source to
been immediately apparent.
mouth.
Figure 4.46 is an example of a good field sketch. This
sketch highlights the important geographical features Annotations should be in the form of short, sharp
of the landscape. Key features should be clearly labelled sentences (Figure 4.47). Moderate abbreviation is fine
but make sure that your sketch is not too cluttered. This providing the meaning of the comment remains clear.
will detract from the really important details. A good Some annotations will be just descriptive, but where
field sketch will be viewed as a higher-level technique the opportunity arises some explanation should also
by your coursework moderator. be included. Annotation can be most effective when
the photograph is placed on the page in landscape
Annotated photographs format, which will allow more space for annotations
Annotated photographs should be seen as complementing on all four sides. As with field sketches, a series of
field sketches rather than just being an alternative annotated photographs could form a very effective
to them. Like field sketches, good, fully annotated part of your analysis. You should look to correlate
photographs are regarded as a higher-level skill. annotated photographs with the tables and graphs
Always record the precise location and conditions of showing your data analysis. Photographs are also
the photographs you take. This should include a grid useful to show how you carried out surveys and field
reference, the direction the photograph was taken in, measurements.
Remember you are Make your sketch Don’t exaggerate Simplify the landscape – A single line is
not drawing an as large as possible. the size of a hill. don’t try to include enough to show the
artistic picture. every detail. outline of a hill.
Heather moorland Limestone ‘scar’
Forest Flat-topped plateau Rough pasture

Rough pasture (sheep) Coniferous
Permanent (sheep)
Reservoir forest
grassland
Permanent grassland
Mixed arable and grassland Farm
Tribu
tary s Mixed arable
tre am in
narr and grassland
River undercutting o w
Village V-s Small
edge of floodplain hap
ed v alluvial
Deciduous Edge of alley
woodland fan
floodplain
River Meander
Floodplain – grassland with
occasional ploughed field Oxbow lake Road
Use colour only if it really adds to the Only label those features you want Keep the sketch as Use shading only
sketch. It might be an idea to label physical to draw attention to. Too many simple as possible. to show the angle
features in one colour and human features labels will clutter your sketch and and character of
in another colour (as here). disguise the main features. slopes.
▲ Figure 4.46 Example of a field sketch
298

Flat, marshy
floodplain
Fields inundated
as the river has
topped its banks
Road built
on an
embankment
Limited number
of trees to
intercept rainfall
Settlement built
on slightly higher
ground
▲ Figure 4.47 A river has overflowed its banks: example of an annotated photograph
Scoring systems
Activities
Scoring systems are used in quality of life and other
1 a Draw a field sketch of an urban or rural
types of survey. Figure 4.49 is an example of a scoring
environment within easy reach of your school.
b Suggest why this location has geographical system used to study variations in environmental
interest. quality in different parts of a residential area.
2 Annotate a photograph of a location of interest you Figure 4.49a shows that in this example ten local
have visited. environmental factors are being observed. Figure 4.49b
shows how the scoring system works. Here a score of
Recording tables 5 is the maximum possible for the best environmental
The most straightforward method of observation is conditions. The minimum score is 1. For each location
noting whether a physical or human feature exists the individual environmental scores are added together
in an area or not. Figure 4.48 is an example of a to achieve a total environmental score. In this
recording table showing park facilities. The objective example, the lowest possible total score is 10, and the
here is to compare the facilities in four parks before highest is 50. It can be useful to practise the system
attempting to explain the differences between them. in class using photographs before going out to conduct
Recording is done by placing a tick in the appropriate fieldwork.
square. Notice that there is a final column to
accommodate any unexpected findings.
Tennis/basket-
Sports pitches
Ornamental
fishing lake
playground
Info centre/
Restaurant/
bandstand
Woodland
ball courts
Children’s
Picnic site
gift shop
Size (ha)
Boating/
Pavilion/
Car park
gardens
Toilets
café
Park Other
High Lodge 120 Maze,
Forest Park jungle gym
Ditchingham 25
Estate Park
Long Stratton 4 Skate ramp
Park
Castle Mall 2 Viewpoint
Gardens
▲ Figure 4.48 Example of a recording table showing park facilities

299

a
Ward name: Location
Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Condition of brickwork/paintwork
2 Condition of pipes, guttering, windows
3 Quality/state of repairs of pavements
4 Quality/state of repair of roads
5 Extent of litter
6 Extent of graffiti
7 Presence/condition of vegetation
8 Availability of parking
9 General condition of front of house
10 Age/number of vehicles
Total:
Ward total:
Average Location Score:
b
Explanation of the ranking system used for the environmental checklist
Factor Explanations
1 Condition of brickwork/paintwork 1 Worst condition 5 Best condition

2 Condition of pipes, guttering, windows 1 Worst condition 5 Best condition
3 Quality/state of repairs of pavements 1 Worst condition 5 Best condition
4 Quality/state of repair of roads 1 Worst condition 5 Best condition
5 Extent of litter 1 Most litter 5 No litter
6 Extent of graffiti 1 Large amount present 5 None present
7 Presence/condition of vegetation 1 Worst condition/none 5 Best condition
8 Availability of parking 1 None noticeable 5 Space for 1+ car

9 General condition of front of house 1 Worst condition 5 Best condition
10 Age/number of vehicles 1 Outdated/no vehicle 5 New models/+1 vehicle
▲ Figure 4.49 Example of an environmental scoring system
Tally charts You will notice that Figure 4.50 does not give a
Counts of various kinds are an element of many time when the count took place or state how long
geographical investigations. Figure 4.50 is an example counting went on. In this example the number of
of a tally chart used to record visitor numbers at key visitors could vary significantly according to the time
locations in a park. The convention is to show counts of day. It is therefore very important to plan carefully
in groups of five, with the fifth count as a line drawn for your counts so that when you have collected and
across the previous four counts. presented your data you can justify the conclusions
you have drawn.
Children’s Sports
playground ground
Pedestrian counts often form part of urban
IIII IIII III
geography investigations. You could see how
Male IIII II
pedestrian counts decline with distance from the
I I
I
I
Female IIII III

centre of the CBD. Pedestrian counts could be
▲ Figure 4.50 Example of a tally chart conducted every 50 m or 100 m from this point.
300

Evaluation and suggestions for further work
results of the data analysis against standard models and

Activities theories.
1 Produce a recording table that could be used as part Link what you have discovered in your enquiry to
of a geographical investigation in your local area. what you have studied in the syllabus. For example, if
2 Look at the scoring system shown in Figure 4.49. you have looked at shopping, have you talked about
Discuss the merits and limitations of this example.
high-order and low-order shops, shopping hierarchies
and other relevant concepts? If your investigation
Presentation and recording is on leisure, have you linked this to the amount of
leisure time people have, spheres of influence of leisure
of results centres, how accessible places are and other key aspects
of the topic? These things should be mentioned briefly
A wide variety of graphical techniques can be used in the first section of your assignment and need to be
to present geographical data (see pages 284–291). discussed now in relation to your findings.
The skill is in choosing the best type of graph for the Having described your results, you need to explain
particular data set under consideration. Coursework and discuss them. Why have you arrived at such
marks can be lost by the incorrect use of graphical results? Do they confirm (accept) or refute (reject)
techniques. You should also consider the size of any your hypotheses?
graph or diagram you use. It is important that the labels
of axes and all other information can be clearly read.
It is important to integrate all maps, graphs,
photographs and diagrams with the text. The most
Evaluation and suggestions
elementary way of doing this is to use a sentence for further work
such as ‘Figure X is a line graph showing temperature
Your investigation is likely to be slightly less than
change in my garden’.
perfect, and you need to show the examiner that you
are aware of this. It is important to realise that you
Analysis and interpretation will not be marked down for showing an awareness of
the limitations of methods, results and conclusions.
Here you will analyse and interpret your findings There may be limits to where and when you could
on the issue/question/problem set out in the first carry out a survey, or the number of people you could
section of your investigation. This will be done with interview. There may be constraints in terms of expense,
reference to relevant geographical concepts. in terms of the equipment you are able to use, or
You need to describe the patterns in data how often you can visit the fieldwork location(s). The
presented in your graphs and tables of results. last item can also be due to a busy school timetable,
» After each graph or technique, describe fully which can mean your time at a fieldwork location is
the results or trend or association (using simple limited. Investigations in physical geography may be
descriptive statistics). What do your results tell hampered by unexpected conditions. For example, river
you? Describe your findings in detail by quoting measurements may be affected by floods or a drought.
the evidence from your methods of analysis. You need to make an assessment and state whether or
» Do the graphs and other techniques used help to not such limitations have impaired your investigation.
answer the question set? If they have, then your results are likely to be
» Make comments to link the data. For example, show compromised, and so will any conclusions that you have
how one diagram, graph or map relates to others. drawn. For example, a survey of tourists to Oxford on a
» Where relevant, consider the values and attitudes Tuesday afternoon in April found that most people were
of people involved. attracted to the university buildings and the colleges,
and listed the poor weather as their main criticism.
Making effective conclusions Had the survey taken place in another kind of tourist
destination, the attractions listed would have been very
Using the evidence from the data you should be able different. Similarly, had the survey taken place in July
to make judgements on the validity of the original or August the weather might not have been mentioned
hypothesis or aims of the assignment. Compare the as a problem. On the other hand, congestion due to too
301

many tourists might have been mentioned. This example formed dunes are by the sea. The dunes become older
shows that the methods (including the date and time with distance inland. Sand dunes form a series of
of any survey) produce results that can affect our ridges with intervening ‘slacks’ between them.
conclusions and, therefore, your evaluation. A useful starting point is to survey the morphology
The final part of your evaluation can lead you to (size and shape) of the dunes. Figure 4.52a shows
suggest future lines of enquiry from the insights how measurements can be taken across a sand dune
you have developed by following the route to ecosystem using a tape measure and a clinometer. The
geographical enquiry in your investigation. transect line should be at right-angles to the coast.
The first ranging pole is carefully placed where there is
Coursework assessment a distinct break in slope from the back of the beach,
marking the beginning of the sand dunes. The second
Before you begin your coursework enquiry you should ranging pole is placed at the next break of slope.
be aware of how your coursework will be assessed. The angle of slope is read from the clinometer. This
The mark scheme for the assessment of coursework process is repeated for each break of slope. With about
is in the syllabus document. This is in the form of a four people working as a team, all the measurements
matrix, which shows what you need to do to meet required to draw a cross-section of the dunes
each of the five assessment criteria. (Figure 4.52b) can be taken in a couple of hours. If a
larger group of people is available a number of transects
Activities could be taken across the sand dunes. Transects could
be compared and any differences discussed.
1 What is the difference between analysis and
interpretation? As the dune survey proceeds, other measurements
2 Write an analysis and interpretation of the isoline can also be taken. At regular locations across the
pattern shown in Figure 4.35. sand dune system the following can be measured:
3 What might you include in the evaluation of your
coursework? » vegetation cover, with the dominant plant species
noted
» maximum height of vegetation
Case studies » wind speed
» soil moisture content
Analysing sand dunes » soil organic content
» soil pH.
Figure 4.52c provides an example of a recording
sheet that could be used for such a survey. While the
first few readings might take a little time, once you
become familiar with what is required the process
should speed up considerably.
All these measurements can be used to test the
standard theories about sand dunes presented
in textbooks, which can be set out in a series of
hypotheses to be tested:
» Vegetation density increases with distance inland.
» The number of species increases with distance
inland.
» The height of vegetation increases with distance
▲ Figure 4.51 Sand dunes at Studland, Dorset, UK inland.
» Soil organic content increases with distance
Sand dunes provide an interesting and manageable inland.
ecosystem for study at IGCSE. This is because » Soil pH decreases with distance inland.
significant changes can be identified over a relatively » Wind speed decreases with distance inland.
small area. In a sand dune system the most recently
302

Case studies
a
Sight 1.5 m
on ranging Read
pole angle off
Break
clinometer
in slope
Tape
b measure Sight
clinometer
Place ranging pole
at 1.5 m on
Back of beach
Embryo dune at locations where

d ranging
there is a break in
Fore dune
Measure distance pole
the slope
between the two
Slack
Slack
Dune ranging poles
ridge
Main
feature
+2 –5
+4 –1 +8
–6 –8
Slack
Angle +6 –1 +3 –4
–1 –6 +8
+8 +3 –9
(degrees)
+5
–18
Distance 0 20 4 060 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
(metres) –2
–6
Sand dune transect recording sheet

Nailsworth-upon-Sea
LOCATION: ___________________________________ DATE:___________________________
Site Distance Angle (°) Vegetation Number Maximum Dominant plant Wind Soil Soil Soil
from sea (uphill) cover of vegetation species speed moisture organic pH
(m) (%) species height (m) (m/s) content (%) content (%)
1 10 +5 50 2 0.51 Marram grass 7.3 8.7 0.2 6.9

2 10 +8 92 3 0.56 Sea couch grass 4.4 25.9 0.4 6.8
3 20 +6 86 3 0.48 Marram grass 3.4 11.2 1.8 6.8
4 30 +4 95 3 0.51 Sea couch grass 3.0 25.0 3.3 6.8
5 40 –1 96 2 0.69 Marram grass 2.4 54.4 3.6 6.8
6 50 –6 94 3 0.71 Marram grass 3.2 9.1 3.7 6.7
7 60 –1 89 5 0.75 Sea couch grass 3.0 24.1 4.6 6.9
▲ Figure 4.52 Conducting a survey of a sand dune ecosystem
Investigating rivers For most river studies you will want to produce a cross-
section of the river channel. The method is as follows:
Streams and small rivers are a popular focus for
geographical investigation because most schools will » Use a tape measure to assess the channel width. This
not be too far from a suitable example. Figure 4.53 should be done at right-angles to the course of the
shows some of the measurements that can be taken river. If you want to produce a cross-section of the
at various locations along the course of a river. For river when discharge is at its highest you should look
safety reasons it is best to avoid working in streams for evidence of the highest point the water reaches
above the height of your knees. on each bank. This will give the bankfull width.
303

Measure surface speed by timing floats over Break in

a 10m distance. Do this at three positions, slope
A, B, C, across the stream. Record five
readings and take an average.
Area covered by stream

when bankfull
Measure width with
tape or clothes line.
Marshy
grass
Direction .Measure depth at suitable
A of flow intervals across the stream.
C
B
Rounded pebbles
Measure wetted perimeter by

putting a rope or tape measure Load measurements: collect stones at each
across the bed of the stream. Do point across the stream bed. Shut your eyes
this at the same place you measure the and take the first stones you touch to give a
width. This is best done on a warm day! random sample.
▲ Figure 4.53 Taking river measurements
1 metre = 4 cm Note: numbers in circles 20 indicate no. of squares in section

0
13 ‘Wet’ part
Depth in cm
25 19
37 45
57
50
82
95
75 122
Width = 4 m (i.e. 16 cm)

Area = 470 squares. This number has to be converted, according to the scale. The scale 4 cm = 1 m means that each 2-millimetre
square on the graph paper represents 0.0025 m2 in reality (1/400). If the scale had been 1 cm = 1 m then the scaling factor would be
1/ 2 2
100 = 0.01 m . In this example 470 × 0.0025 = 1.175 m .
▲ Figure 4.54 A river cross-section
» Channel depth should be measured at regular The discharge of the river can be calculated by
intervals across the river using a metre stick or multiplying the velocity by the cross-sectional area
ranging pole. Every 20 cm or 30 cm should provide (Figure 4.54). The gradient of a river can be measured
an adequate sampling interval. using ranging poles and a clinometer, in the same way
» A cross-section can then be drawn using graph that sand dune measurements were carried out in the
paper (Figure 4.54). As with all cross-sections, previous example.
careful choice of scale is important. Bedload measurements can also be taken to assess
the impact of attrition with increasing distance
Although various types of float can be used to downstream. Ensure that the samples of bedload are
measure river velocity, it is best to use a flow meter. selected randomly by a ranging pole or metre stick
The impeller (screw device) is pointed upstream at at intervals across the river. Collect the stones that
the same points across the river used to calculate the are touching the pole or stick. Measure the long axis,
depth intervals. You will be able to see how velocity shape and radius of curvature of each stone.
varies with distance from the banks and how velocity As in the sand dune case study, a series of hypotheses
varies with depth. You could also calculate the mean based on textbook theory can be set up to be tested.
flow rate for this stage of the river.
304

Command Words
Command words
The table gives examples of command words but it is not an exhaustive list of those that may appear in
examinations.
Command word What it means
Define or State the meaning Give the meaning or definition of a word or phrase.
of or What is meant by
Describe Write what something is like or where it is. Describe may be used for questions about resources
in the question paper (describe the trend of a graph, the location of a settlement on a map etc.). It
may also be used when you need to describe something from memory (describe a meander etc.).
It is often used with other command words, for example Name and describe (name the feature
and say what it is like) or Describe and explain (say what it is like and give reasons for this).
Devise or Plan Present a particular feature, such as a form or questionnaire, to meet a specific requirement or
requirements.
Draw Make a sketch of. Often used with a labelled diagram (draw a diagram/illustration with written
notes to identify its features).
Explain or Account for or Give Write about why something occurs or happens.
reasons for
Give your views or Comment on Say what you think about something.
How far do you agree Use evidence to make judgements about a statement.
Identify Pick out something from information you have been given.
Illustrate your answer Account for your answer by using specific examples or diagrams. (Often used alongside/with a
labelled diagram.)
Insert or Label Add specific names or details to an illustrative technique in response to a particular/requirement.
Justify Say why you chose something or why you think in a certain way.
List Identify and name a number of features to meet a particular purpose.
Locate Find where something is placed or state where something is found or mark it on a map or
diagram.
Measure Implies that the quantity concerned can be directly obtained from a suitable measuring
instrument.
Name State or specify or identify. To give the word or words by which a specific feature is known.
Predict Use your own knowledge and understanding, probably with information provided, to state what
might happen next.
Refer to or With reference to Write an answer that uses some of the ideas provided in a map/ photograph/diagram etc. or
other additional material, such as a case study.
State Set down in brief detail. To refer to an aspect of a particular feature by a short statement or by
words or by a single word.
Study Look carefully at (usually one of the figures in the question paper).
Suggest Set down your ideas on or knowledge of. Often used with why (requires a statement or an
explanatory statement referring to a particular feature or features).
To what extent Make judgements based on evidence.
Use or Using the information Base your answer on the information.
provided
With the help of information in Write an answer which uses some of the information provided as well as additional material.
What differences are shown Use comparative statements to describe the changes involved as A changes to B. Separate
between A and B factual descriptions of A and B are not required.
305

Glossary
Abrasion (or corrasion) A type of erosion in which rock Bay A wide, open, curving indentation of the sea.
fragments carried by waves or a river scrape and grind away Beach A feature of coastal deposition, consisting of pebbles
a surface such as a cliff face. on exposed coasts or sand on sheltered coasts. It is usually
Accessibility The ease with which a place can be reached. defined by the high and low water marks.
An area with high accessibility will generally have a well- Bid rent A model that states that land value and rent decrease
developed transport network and be centrally located. as distance from the central business district increases.
Active volcano A volcano currently showing signs of activity. Biodiversity Biological diversity — a measure of the
Afforestation Planting of trees in areas that have not variety of the Earth’s plant and animal species, of genetic
previously held forests. Trees may be planted to increase differences within species, and of the ecosystems that
interception by vegetation, to bind soil together and to support those species.
reduce overland runoff and thus soil erosion. Biofuel Any fuel produced from organic (once living) matter,
Age-specific mortality rate Mortality rate for a specific age either directly from plants or indirectly from industrial,
or age range, for example the infant mortality rate or child commercial, domestic or agricultural wastes. These fossil
mortality rate. fuel substitutes can be made from a range of crops,
Agricultural technology The application of techniques to including oilseeds, wheat and sugar.
control the growth and harvesting of animal and vegetable Birth rate The number of live births per thousand population
products. in a year.
Air pressure The pressure at any point on the Earth’s surface Braided channel The subdivision of a river into several
that is due to the weight of the air above it; it decreases as channels caused by deposition of sediment as small islands
altitude increases. At sea level the average pressure is 1013 in the main channel. Braided channels are common in
millibars (mb). Areas of relatively high pressure are called glacial meltwater streams.
anticyclones; areas of low pressure are called depressions. Brand A distinguished name and/or symbol intended to
Altitude Measurement of height, usually given in metres identify a product or producer.
above sea level. Temperature declines, on average, 1°C for Brown Agenda The range of environmental problems
every 100 m (and therefore rises 1°C with every decrease in associated with large cities.
altitude of 100 m). Brownfield site A site that has previously been used but has
Anti-natalist policies Policies that aim to reduce population become derelict. It must be made safe so that housing can
growth. be built on it.
Aquifer A rock that allows water to move through it, such as By-product Something left over from the main production
a layer of sandstone. The aquifer must occur above a layer process that has some value and can therefore be sold.
of rock that prevents the water seeping away, such as clay. Carbon credit A permit that allows an organisation to emit a
Arable farms The cultivation of crops; there is no specified amount of greenhouse gases.
involvement with livestock. Carbon trading When a company that does not use up the
Arch A natural bridge-like feature formed by erosion. Arches level of emissions it is entitled to can sell the remainder of
are formed from the erosion of a headland where two caves its entitlement to another company.
meet and break through the headland. Carrying capacity The largest population that the resources
Arid Arid areas are usually defined as areas that receive less of a given environment can support.
than 250 mm of rainfall each year. Cave Coastal caves are large holes formed where relatively
Ash Very fine-grained volcanic material. soft rock containing lines of weakness is exposed to severe
Aspect The direction in which something faces. wave action.
Attrition The process by which particles of rock being Central business district (CBD) The part of a town or city
transported by a river or the sea are rounded and become where most of the commercial activity is found.
smaller in size by being struck against one another. Particles Chamber The reservoir of magma located deep inside a volcano.
become smaller and more rounded as the distance downstream Cinders Small rocks and other coarse volcanic materials.
in a river increases. Particles near the shoreline become Cliff A rock-face along a coastline, where coastal erosion,
smaller and more rounded due to more frequent attrition. weathering and mass movements are active and the slope
Backwash The movement of water back down the beach due rises steeply (over 45°) and for some distance. The nature
to the effect of gravity. of the cliff depends on the nature of the rocks, their
Bar A depositional feature — a long ridge of sand or hardness and their jointing pattern.
pebbles running parallel to a coastline that is submerged Climate The combination of weather conditions at a particular
at high tide. Some bars develop as offshore bars when place over a period of time — usually a minimum of 30 years.
waves disturb sediments on the sea bed and form them Climate thus includes the averages, extremes and frequencies of
into a submarine ridge or bar, while others form from the all meteorological elements such as temperature, atmospheric
development of a spit across the whole of a small bay. pressure, precipitation, wind, humidity and sunshine.
306
421363_Gloss_IGCSE_OL_Geo_306-315.indd 306 16/01/18 12:33 PM

Glossary
Cloud Water vapour condensed into minute water particles quickly. The water vapour carried by the air condenses and
that float in the atmosphere. Clouds are formed by the rain falls heavily. Convectional rainfall is usually associated
cooling of air containing water vapour, which generally with thunderstorms.
condenses around tiny dust or ice particles. Coral Living organisms that may form large reefs. Coral reefs
Coastal management strategies Measures taken to prevent provide a habitat for a wide diversity of living organisms.
coastal erosion and/or flooding. To reduce erosion, several Counterurbanisation The process of population
different forms of coastal protection are used. These can be decentralisation as people move from large urban areas to
divided into hard engineering and soft engineering. smaller urban settlements and rural areas.
Coastline The area of contact between land and sea. Crater Depression at the top of a volcano following a volcanic
Collision boundary A plate boundary where two plates are eruption. It may contain a lake.
converging. These include destructive boundaries, where Cross-profile The cross-section of a river valley.
an oceanic plate meets a continental plate, and collision Cruciform settlement A settlement at an intersection of
boundaries, where the two plates are both continental roads that usually consists of lines of buildings radiating
plates. out from the intersection.
Commercial farming Farming for profit, where food is Cultural diffusion The process of the spreading of cultural
produced for sale in the market. traits from one place to another.
Communications systems The ways in which information Cumulative causation The process whereby a significant
is transmitted from place to place in the form of ideas, increase in economic growth can lead to even more growth
instructions and images. as more money circulates in the economy.
Community energy Energy produced close to the point of Dam Structure built to hold back water in order to prevent
consumption. flooding, to provide water for irrigation and storage, and to
Community tourism A form of tourism that aims to include provide hydroelectric power.
and benefit local communities, particularly in developing Death rate The number of deaths per thousand population in
countries. a year.
Commuter A person who travels into a large town or city Decentralisation The movement of people or industry away from
for work but lives in a different settlement. The term also the centre of the city to the suburbs or the edge of town.
applies to a person who travels to work from the suburbs Decimal A number between two whole numbers, e.g. 4.2.
to the centre of a large urban area. Deforestation Destruction of forest for timber, fuel, charcoal
Concentric model (Burgess) A model of urban land where burning and clearing for agriculture and extractive
different activities occur at different distances from the urban industries, such as mining. It causes fertile soil to be
centre. The result is a sequence of concentric circles or rings. blown away or washed into rivers, leading to soil erosion,
Cone volcano Steep volcano formed of sticky (viscous) acidic drought, flooding and loss of wildlife.
lava, ash and cinders. Delta A landform formed when a river, heavily laden with
Confluence The point at which two rivers meet. sediment, enters a body of standing water, such as a lake
Conservation Allowing for developments that do not damage or a sea, with negligible currents. The lack of velocity in
the character of a location. the lake or sea causes the river to deposit its load.
Conservation of resources The management of the human Demographers People who study human populations.
use of natural resources to provide the maximum benefit to Demographic divide The difference between countries where
current generations while maintaining capacity to meet the population growth remains high and those with very slow-
needs of future generations. growing, stagnant or declining populations.
Conservative plate boundary (or transform plate Demographic momentum Although the global population
boundary) Where two plates slide past one another growth rate has been declining for decades, the number of
without loss of material. people added each year remains very high because there
Constructive plate boundary A plate boundary where new are currently so many women in the child-bearing age
material is being formed by the upwelling of magma from range.
within the Earth’s interior. Demographic transition model A model illustrating the
Constructive wave A wave with a long wavelength and a low historical shift of birth and death rates from high to low
height. Constructive waves help to build up beaches by levels in a population.
deposition. Densely populated Having a high population density.
Consumer culture The equating of personal happiness with Dependency ratio The ratio of the number of people under
consumption and the purchase of material possessions. 15 and over 64 years to those in the 15–64 age group.
Convectional rainfall Rainfall associated with hot climates, Depopulation A decline in the number of people in a
resulting from the rising of convection currents of warm population.
air. Air that has been warmed by the extreme heating of Deposition The laying down of material carried by rivers or
the ground surface rises to great heights and is cooled the sea because of a reduction of velocity or discharge
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GLOSSARY
(both causing a loss of energy), often caused by increased Economic water scarcity When a population does not have
friction with vegetation or coarse particles. the necessary monetary means to utilise an adequate
Deprivation A condition in which a population group suffers source of water.
from a poor quality of economic, social and environmental Economies of scale The reduction in unit cost as the scale of
conditions. an operation increases.
Desalination The process of removing salt from seawater so Ecosystem An integrated unit consisting of a community
that it can be used for human consumption or for irrigation. of living organisms (animals and plants) and the physical
Desert A dry area with limited vegetation. Deserts can be environment (air, soil, water and climate) that they
either hot or cold. Characteristics common to all deserts inhabit. Individual organisms interact with each other and
include irregular rainfall of less than 250 mm per year. with their habitat.
Desertification The gradual transformation of habitable land Ecotourism A specialised form of tourism where people
into desert. experience relatively untouched natural environments such
Destination footprint The environmental impact caused as coral reefs, tropical forests and remote mountain areas,
by an individual tourist on holiday in a particular and ensure that their presence does no further damage to
destination. these environments.
Destructive plate boundary Plate boundary where an oceanic Emigration rate The number of emigrants per thousand
plate meets a continental plate. The oceanic plate is more population leaving a country of origin in a year.
dense than the continental plate, so it sinks below the Energy ladder The transition from fuelwood and animal dung
continental crust. to ‘higher-level’ sources of energy, such as electricity, as
Destructive wave A wave with a high height and a short part of the process of economic development.
wavelength, which helps erode beach materials and cliffs. Energy mix The relative contribution of different energy
Development The use of resources to improve the quality of sources to a country’s energy consumption.
life in a country. Enhanced greenhouse effect Global warming caused by large-
Development gap The differences in wealth, and other scale pollution of the atmosphere by economic activities.
indicators, between the world’s richest and poorest countries. Environmental impact statement A document required by
Diffusion The spread of a phenomenon over time and space. law detailing all the impacts on the environment of a
Direct proportion In mathematical terms, a direct proportion construction project above a certain size.
exists between two values when one is a multiple of the Epicentre The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the
other, e.g. 1 cm = 10 mm. focus of an earthquake. The strength of the shockwaves
Discharge The volume of water passing a certain point per generally decreases away from the epicentre.
unit of time. It is usually expressed in cubic metres per Erosion Wearing away of the Earth’s surface by a moving
second (cumecs). agent, such as a river, glacier or the sea. In a river, there
Dispersed settlement A settlement pattern in which most are several processes of erosion, including hydraulic action,
of the houses are scattered in the countryside rather than abrasion, attrition and solution. In coastal areas, hydraulic
being concentrated in towns and villages. action is the most potent form of erosion.
Dormant volcano A volcano that has not erupted for a very Evaporation The process in which a liquid turns to a vapour.
long time but could erupt again. Evapotranspiration The combined water losses of
Dormitory (commuter) settlement A settlement that has a evaporation and transpiration.
high proportion of commuters in its population. Extensive farming Where a relatively small amount of agricultural
Drainage basin The area of land drained by a river system produce is obtained per hectare of land, so such farms tend to
(a river and its tributaries). cover large areas of land. Inputs per unit of land are low.
Drought An extended period of dry weather leading to Externalities The side-effects — positive and negative — of
conditions of extreme dryness. Absolute drought is a an economic activity that are experienced beyond its site.
period of at least 15 consecutive days with less than Extinct volcano A volcano that has shown no signs of
0.2 mm of rainfall. Partial drought is a period of at least 29 volcanic activity in historic times.
consecutive days during which the average daily rainfall Fetch The distance of open water over which wind can blow
does not exceed 0.2 mm. to create waves. The greater the fetch the more potential
Dry point site An area free from flooding in an otherwise wet power waves have when they hit the coast.
region, for example a hilltop site surrounded by a marsh. Flood A discharge great enough to cause a body of water to
Dust storm A severe windstorm that sweeps clouds of dust overflow its channel and submerge (flood) the surrounding
across an extensive area, especially in an arid region. area.
Earthquake A sudden movement of the Earth’s crust. Floodplain An area of periodic flooding along the course of
Economic leakage The part of the money a tourist pays for a river valley. When river discharge exceeds the capacity of
a foreign holiday that does not benefit the destination the channel, water rises over the channel banks and floods
country because it goes elsewhere. the adjacent low-lying lands.
308

Glossary
Focus The position within the Earth where an earthquake Green village A village that consists of dwellings and other
occurs. Earthquakes can be divided into shallow-focus and buildings, such as a church, clustered around a small
deep-focus earthquakes, depending on how far below the village green or common, or other open space.
surface they occur. Gross national product The total value of goods and services
Food energy efficiency Producing food with the least produced by a country in a year, plus income earned by the
possible use of energy. For example, the efficiency of food country’s residents from foreign investments and minus income
production can be improved by reducing the number of earned within the domestic economy by overseas residents.
levels in the food production chain. An obvious example is Gross national product per capita The total GNP of a
eating and producing less meat. country divided by the total population.
Footloose industry An industry that is not tied to a certain Groundwater Water stored underground in a permeable rock,
area because of energy requirements or other factors. e.g. chalk or sandstone.
Form The shape of a settlement, mainly influenced by its Growth pole A particular location where economic
physical geography and topography. development is focused, setting off wider growth in the
Formal sector That part of an economy known to the region as a whole.
government department responsible for taxation, and to Groyne Wooden or concrete barrier built at right angles to
other government offices. a beach in order to block the movement of material along
Fossil fuel A fuel comprising hydrocarbons (coal, oil and the beach by longshore drift.
natural gas), formed by the decomposition of prehistoric Hamlet A small rural settlement that is more than just an
organisms in past geological periods. isolated dwelling but not large enough to be a village.
Fraction Part of a whole — for example, 1 of Borneo’s Typically it has 11–100 people. In the UK, it may have a
3
rainforest has been deforested. church and a pub, but very little else.
Function A classification of settlements based on their socio- Hard engineering Any coastal (or river) protection scheme
economic functions, for example market towns, commuter that involves altering the natural environment with
towns and ports. concrete, stone, steel, metal etc., for example the use
Gabion A wire basket filled with rocks or stones used for of sea walls, gabions, groynes and revetments. Artificial
stabilising slopes and protecting the base of cliffs in areas structures are built in order to protect the natural
of coastal erosion. environment from erosion.
Gentrification The movement of higher social or economic groups Headland A point of land projecting into the sea, also known
into an area after it has been renovated and restored. This as a cape or a promontory.
may result in the out-migration of the people who previously Hierarchy The organisation and structure of settlement based
occupied the area. It most commonly occurs in the inner city. on size and the number of functions that a settlement has.
Geothermal energy The natural heat found in the Earth’s At the top of the hierarchy are cities and conurbations. At
crust in the form of steam, hot water and hot rock. the base are individual farmsteads and hamlets.
Gini coefficient A technique used to show the extent of High-order goods/services/functions Expensive services
income inequality. and goods (comparison goods) such as electrical goods and
Global city A city that is judged to be a significant nodal furniture, that the shopper will buy only after making a
point in the global economic system. Global cities are comparison between various models and different shops.
major financial and decision-making centres. Hotspot A relatively small area of the Earth where magma
Global civil society All organisations or individuals, rises through a continental or oceanic plate. As the plate
independent from the state, who aim to improve society moves across the hotspot a chain of volcanoes may form,
through communal efforts at a national or international level. e.g. the Canary Islands and the Hawaiian Islands.
Globalisation The increasing interconnectedness and Human development index (HDI) The United Nations
interdependence of the world economically, culturally and measure of the disparities between countries using life
politically. expectancy at birth, mean years of schooling for adults
Gorge A narrow, steep-sided valley that may or may not have aged 25 years, expected years of schooling for children of
a river at the bottom. A gorge may be formed as a waterfall school entering age, and GNI per capita (PPP$).
retreats upstream. Humidity The quantity of water vapour in a given volume of
Greenfield site An area of agricultural land or some air (absolute humidity), or the ratio of the amount of water
other undeveloped site that is a potential location for vapour in the atmosphere to the maximum amount the air can
commercial development or industrial projects but has not hold (relative humidity). At dew point the relative humidity is
yet been developed. Such sites are normally on the edge of 100 per cent and the air is said to be saturated. Condensation
towns and have good transport links. (the conversion of vapour to liquid) may then occur.
Green Revolution The development of high-yielding varieties Hurricane (tropical cyclone) A region of very low
of seed and modern agricultural techniques in developing atmospheric pressure in tropical regions. Hurricanes
countries. originate in latitudes between 5° and 20° north or south
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GLOSSARY
of the equator, when the surface temperature of the ocean Lagoon A coastal body of shallow, salt water, usually with
is above 27°C. A central calm area, called the eye, is limited access to the sea. The term is normally used to
surrounded by inwardly spiralling winds (anticlockwise in describe the shallow sea area cut off by a coral reef or a bar.
the northern hemisphere) of up to 320 km/hr. Landfill A site at which refuse is buried under layers of earth.
Hydraulic action The erosive force exerted by water alone. It Land tenure The ways in which land is or can be owned.
is particularly effective on jointed rocks, especially during Lava Molten magma that has reached the Earth’s surface. It
storm conditions. may be liquid or may have solidified.
Hydrological cycle The water cycle, by which water is Least developed countries (LDCs) The poorest of the
circulated between the Earth’s surface and its atmosphere. developing countries. They have major economic,
Hypermarket A very large self-service store selling a wide institutional and human resource problems.
range of household and other goods, usually on the Levée A raised bank found along the side of a river channel.
outskirts of a town or city. Life expectancy at birth The average number of years a
Immigration rate The number of immigrants per thousand newborn infant can expect to live under current mortality
population entering a receiving country in a year. levels.
Incidental pollution A one-off pollution incident. Linear settlement Housing that has grown up along a route
Industrial agglomeration The clustering together of such as a road. Many settlements show this pattern, since
economic activities. roads offer improved access to employment centres.
Industrial estate An area zoned and planned for the purpose Load Material transported by a river. It includes material
of industrial development. carried on and in the water (suspended load), material
Infant mortality rate The number of deaths of children under carried in solution (soluble load) and material bounced or
1 year of age per thousand live births per year. rolled along the riverbed (bedload).
Infiltration The movement of water into the soil. The rate at Long profile The cross-section of a river from its source to its
which water enters the soil (the infiltration rate) depends mouth.
on the intensity of rainfall, the permeability of the soil, Longshore drift The movement of material along a beach by
and the extent to which it is already saturated with water. wave action. When a wave breaks obliquely (at an angle
Informal sector That part of the economy operating outside to the beach), pebbles are carried up the beach in the
official recognition. direction of the wave (swash). The wave returns to the
Inner city The area that surrounds the central business sea (backwash) at right-angles to the beach (direction of
district of a town or city. In many cities this is one of steepest slope), carrying material with it.
the older industrial areas and may suffer from decay Loss of sovereignty This results from the ceding of national
and neglect, leading to social problems. Inner cities are autonomy to other organisations.
characterised by poor-quality terraced housing with old Low-order goods/services/functions Items or services that
manufacturing industry nearby. are purchased/required frequently (convenience goods),
Inputs The elements that are required for processes to take such as milk or bread. People are not prepared to travel far
place, such as raw materials, labour, energy and capital. For to buy such items.
example, a farm requires a range of inputs, such as labour Magma Molten rock within the Earth. When magma reaches
and energy, before anything else can happen. the surface it is called lava.
Intensive farming Agriculture characterised by high inputs Malnutrition Weakness and poor health caused by not eating
per unit of land to achieve high yields per hectare. enough food or from eating food without the necessary
Interception The precipitation that is collected and stored by nutrients.
vegetation. Managed retreat When the coastline is allowed to retreat
Internally displaced people People forced to flee their (erode) in certain areas where the population density or
homes due to human or environmental factors, but who the value of land is low, so that nature takes its course.
remain in the same country. Mangroves Salt-tolerant forests of trees and shrubs that grow
Internet A group of protocols by which computers communicate. in the tidal estuaries and coastal zones of tropical areas.
Inverse proportion In mathematical terms, an inverse Mass media A section of the media specifically designed to
proportion exists when one value increases at the same reach a large audience. The term was coined in the 1920s
rate as another decreases, i.e. y ∝ 1x. with the advent of nationwide radio networks, and mass-
Involuntary (forced) migration When people are made to move circulation newspapers and magazines.
against their will due to human or environmental factors. Mass migration A large-scale migration between a particular
Irrigation Supplying dry land with water by systems of origin and a particular destination.
ditches and also by more advanced means. Maximum-minimum thermometer A thermometer that
Knick-point An indent or abrupt change in the smooth, shows both the maximum temperature in a given time
concave long profile of a river. A knick-point usually marks period and the minimum temperature in the same time
the location of a waterfall. period. Also known as Six’s thermometer.
310

Glossary
Mean In mathematical terms, this is a type of average. It is Out-of-town location A location found on the edge of town
found by totalling (Σ) the values for all observations (Σx) (often a greenfield site) where land prices are lower, land
and then dividing by the total number of observations is available for development, and accessibility for private
x cars is high.
(n): Σn.
Meander A shaped curve in a river that is flowing sinuously Outputs Finished products that are sold to customers or
across relatively flat country. consumed, for example what a farm produces, such as milk,
Median In mathematical terms, this is the middle value when eggs, meat and crops.
all the data are placed in either ascending or descending Overgrazing The grazing of natural pastures at stocking
order. intensities above the livestock carrying capacity.
Megacity A city with more than 10 million inhabitants. Overland flow Overland movement of water after rainfall.
Megalopolis The term used to describe an area where many Overpopulation When there are too many people in an
conurbations exist in relatively close proximity. area relative to the resources and the level of technology
Mercalli scale A scale of earthquake intensity based on available.
descriptive data. Oxbow lake A curved lake found on the floodplain of a river.
Microgeneration Using generators that produce electricity Oxbows are caused by the loops of meanders being cut off
with an output of less than 50 kW. at times of flood and the river subsequently adopting a
Migration The movement of people across a specified shorter course.
boundary — national or international — to establish a new Package tour The most popular form of foreign holiday where
permanent place of residence. travel, accommodation and meals may all be included in
Millionaire city A city with more than 1 million inhabitants. the price and booked in advance.
Mixed farming Cultivating crops and keeping livestock Padi-fields Flooded parcels of land used for growing rice.
together on a farm. Pastoral farming The rearing of livestock, such as dairy
Mode In mathematical terms, this refers to the group/value cattle, beef cattle, sheep and pigs.
that occurs most often in a set of figures. A pattern that Percentage A number or ratio expressed as a fraction of
has two peaks (or two modes) is called bimodal, whereas a 100 (%).
pattern with one peak is unimodal. Physical water scarcity When physical access to water is
Monsoon rain The rainy phase of a seasonally changing limited.
pattern of rainfall. Plantation A large farm or estate where one crop is produced
Mouth The point where a river enters the sea or a lake. commercially, such as palm oil in Malaysia or tea in Sri Lanka.
Multiplier effect The idea that an initial amount of Plantations are usually owned by large companies, often
spending or investment causes money to circulate in multinational corporations. Many plantations were established
the economy, bringing a series of economic benefits over in countries under colonial rule, using slave labour.
time. Plunge pool A deep pool at the bottom of a waterfall. It is
Natural hazard A natural event that puts people, property formed by the hydraulic action of the water and abrasion
and livelihoods at risk. by the more resistant rock.
Natural vegetation The vegetation type that would be found Pollution Contamination of the environment. It can take
in an area if there was no human impact. For example, the many forms, for example air, water, soil, noise and visual.
natural vegetation of the British Isles is oak woodland, Population density The average number of people per square
as that is the species best able to tolerate the temperate kilometre in a country or region.
climate of that part of the world. Population distribution The way that the population is
Negative index In mathematical terms, negative indices are spread out over a given area, from a small region to the
3
powers that have a minus sign, e.g. 2−3 = 1 = 1. Earth as a whole.
2 8 Population explosion The rapid population growth of the
Newly industrialised country (NIC) A nation that has undergone
developing world in the post-1950 period.
rapid and successful industrialisation since the 1960s.
Population policy Encompasses all of the measures taken
Nucleated settlement A settlement in which houses and
by a government aimed at influencing population size,
other buildings are tightly clustered around a central
growth, distribution or composition.
feature such as a church, village green or crossroads.
Population pyramid A bar chart, arranged vertically,
Optimum population The best balance between a population
that shows the distribution of a population by age and
and the resources available to it. This is usually viewed as
gender.
the population giving the highest average living standards
Population structure The composition of a population, the
in a country.
most important elements of which are age and sex (gender).
Organic farming Agriculture that does not use manufactured
Positive index In mathematical terms, a positive index is a
chemicals such as chemical fertilisers, pesticides,
power value that is positive, e.g. 22 = 2 × 2 = 4, or 33 =
insecticides and herbicides.
3 × 3 × 3 = 27.
311

GLOSSARY
Potable water Water that is free from impurities, pollution vapour in the air. The condensation is usually brought
and bacteria, and is thus safe to drink. about by rising and subsequent cooling of air.
Pothole A small hollow in the rock bed of a river. Potholes Rain gauge An instrument used to measure precipitation,
are formed by the erosive action of rocky material carried usually rain. It consists of an open-topped cylinder,
by the river (abrasion), and are commonly found along the inside which there is a close-fitting funnel that directs
river’s upper course, where it tends to flow directly over the rain to a collecting bottle inside a second, inner
solid bedrock. cylinder.
Precipitation Water that falls to the Earth from the Ranching A commercial form of pastoral farming which
atmosphere. It is part of the hydrological cycle. Forms of involves extensive use of large areas of land for grazing
precipitation include rain, snow, sleet, hail, dew and frost. cattle or sheep. Ranches may be very large, especially
Preservation Maintaining a location exactly as it is and not where the soil quality is poor. In the Amazon basin some
allowing development. deforested areas are used for beef cattle ranching.
Prevailing wind The direction from which the wind most Range The distance that people are prepared to travel to
commonly blows in a region. In the British Isles, for obtain a good or service.
example, the prevailing wind is southwesterly, blowing from Range In mathematical terms, this is the difference between
the Atlantic Ocean, and bringing moist and mild conditions. the highest and lowest values. For example, in a set of
Primary product dependent When a country relies on one or data, if the highest value is 8 and the lowest value is 1,
a small number of primary products for most of its export then the range is 8 − 1 = 7.
earnings. Rate of natural change The difference between the birth rate
Primary sector Industries that exploit raw materials from and the death rate. If it is positive it is termed natural
land, water and air. increase. If it is negative it is known as natural decrease.
Pro-natalist policies Policies that promote larger families. Rate of net migration The difference between the rates of
Pro-poor tourism Tourism that results in increased net immigration and emigration.
benefits for poor people. Ratio In mathematical terms, a ratio is a method of
Processes The operations that take place on a farm, such as comparing relative size or proportions.
ploughing and harvesting, or the industrial activities that Rationing A last-resort management strategy when demand
take place in a factory to make the finished product. is massively out of proportion to supply. For example,
Product chain The full sequence of activities needed to turn individuals might only be allowed a very small amount of
raw materials into a finished product. fuel and food per week.
Product stewardship An approach to environmental Re-use Extending the life of a product beyond what was the
protection in which manufacturers, retailers and consumers norm in the past, or putting a product to a new use and
are encouraged or required to assume responsibility for extending its life in this way.
reducing a product’s impact on the environment. Recycling The concentration of used or waste materials, their
Programme food aid Food that is provided directly to the reprocessing, and their subsequent use in place of new
government of a country for sale in local markets. This materials.
usually comes with conditions from the donor country. Refugees People forced to flee their homes due to human
Project food aid Food that is targeted at specific groups of or environmental factors and who cross an international
people as part of longer-term development work. border into another country.
Purchasing power parity Income data that have been Relief food aid Food that is delivered directly to people in
adjusted to take account of differences in the cost of living times of crisis.
between countries. Remittances Money sent by migrants back to their families in
Push and pull factors Push factors are negative conditions at their home communities.
the point of origin that encourage or force people to move. Renewable energy Sources of energy, such as solar and wind
In contrast, pull factors are positive conditions at the power, that are not depleted as they are used.
point of destination that encourage people to migrate. Representative fraction On a map, the representative
Pyroclastic flow Superhot (700°C) flows of ash, pumice (volcanic fraction is expressed as, for example, 1/50,000 — no units
rocks) and steam moving at speeds of over 500 km/hr. are given as they could be cm, m, km etc.
Quaternary sector Industries using high technology to Resource management The control of the exploitation
provide information and expertise. and use of resources in relation to environmental and
Quota Agreement between countries to take only a economic costs.
predetermined amount of a resource. Revetment A form of hard engineering in which the energy
Rainfall A form of precipitation in which drops of water fall of the waves is absorbed by wooden planks or reflected by
to the Earth’s surface from clouds. The drops are formed by concrete structures.
the accumulation of fine droplets that condense from water Ria A drowned V-shaped valley and its tributaries.
312

Glossary
Richter scale An open-ended scale to record the magnitude Social norms The general attitudes of a population to
of earthquakes: the higher the number on the scale the important issues such as family size, contraception,
greater the strength of the earthquake. religion, politics etc.
River cliff A steep slope forming the outer bank of a Soft engineering Any form of coastal (or river) protection
meander. It is formed by the undercutting of the river that involves the use of natural means, e.g. sand dunes,
current, which is at its fastest when it sweeps around the saltmarshes, tree planting and/or beach replenishment.
outside of the meander. Soil The outermost layer of the Earth’s solid surface,
Robotics technology Technology associated with the design, consisting of weathered rock, air, water and decaying
construction and operation of robots in automation. organic matter overlying the bedrock. Soil comprises
Rural depopulation Population decline in a rural area. It is minerals, organic matter (called humus) derived from
usually the most isolated rural areas that are affected. decomposed plants and organisms, living organisms, air
Rural-to-urban migration The movement of significant and water.
numbers of people from the countryside to towns and cities. Soil erosion The wearing away and redistribution of
Rural-urban fringe The boundary area of a town or city, the Earth’s soil. It is caused by the action of water,
where new building is changing land use from rural to wind and ice, and also by unsustainable methods of
urban. It is often a zone of planning conflict. agriculture.
Saltation The bouncing of rock particles along a riverbed. It Solution (or corrosion) The process by which the minerals
is the means by which bedload (material that is too heavy in a rock, notably calcium ions, are dissolved in acid water.
to be carried in suspension) is transported downstream. Solution is one of the processes of erosion.
Sand dune A mound or ridge of wind-drifted sand common on Sparsely populated Describing an area with a low population
coasts and in deserts. In coastal areas, sand is trapped by density.
vegetation, notably sea couch grass and marram grass, to Sphere of influence The specific area served by a settlement
form stable dunes. for a variety of functions such as education, healthcare,
Sea level An average level of the sea, between high water shopping and recreation.
mark and low water mark. Spit A ridge of sand or shingle connected to the land at one
Secondary sector Industries that manufacture primary end and the open sea at the other end. It is formed by the
materials into finished products. interruption of longshore drift due to wave refraction, river
Sector model (Hoyt) A model of urban land use in which the currents, secondary winds and/or changes in the shape of
various land use zones are shaped like wedges radiating the coastline.
from the central business district. Spring line settlement A line of settlements in an area
Shanty town Unplanned, illegal shelters constructed from where water emerges in a series of springs.
cheap or waste materials (such as cardboard, wood Stack An isolated, upstanding pillar of rock that has become
and cloth). Shanty towns are commonly located on the separated from a headland by coastal erosion. It is usually
outskirts of cities in developing countries, or within large formed by the collapse of an arch.
cities on derelict land or near rubbish tips. Standard notation In mathematical terms, this is the number
Shield volcano A gentle, low-angled volcano formed of runny, that we would normally write, e.g. 567.
basaltic lava, e.g. Mauna Loa in Hawaii. The lava is capable Stevenson screen A box designed to house weather-
of flowing long distances before cooling. measuring instruments, such as thermometers. It is kept
Shifting cultivation A farming system in which farmers move off the ground by legs, has louvred sides to encourage the
on from one place to another when the land becomes free passage of air, and is painted white to reflect heat
exhausted. The most common form is slash-and-burn radiation.
agriculture: land is cleared by burning, so that crops can Stump An eroded stack that is exposed only at low tide.
be grown. After a few years soil fertility is reduced and the Subduction zone The area where one tectonic plate slides
land is abandoned. A new area is cleared while the old land beneath another, a process known as subduction. One
recovers its fertility. plate (usually a dense oceanic plate) plunges underneath
Significant figures In mathematical terms, these are the a less dense continental plate. As it sinks, it melts and is
numbers that give some meaning to the measurement/size destroyed, forming magma, which in turn may reach the
of a feature. surface through volcanic activity.
Site The immediate area in which a settlement is located. Subsidy Financial aid supplied by the government to an
Situation The relative location in which a settlement is found. industry for reasons of public welfare.
Slum An area of poor-quality housing. Slums are typically Subsistence farming The most basic form of agriculture,
found in parts of the inner city in developed countries where the produce is consumed entirely or mainly by
and in older parts of cities in developing countries. Slum the family that works the land or tends the livestock.
housing is usually densely populated, in a poor state of If a small surplus is produced it may be sold or traded.
repair, and has inadequate services.
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GLOSSARY
Suburb Outer part of an urban area. Suburbs generally consist Underemployment A situation where people are working
of residential housing and shops of a low order (newsagent, less than they would like to and need to in order to earn a
small supermarket). Often, suburbs represent the most reasonable living.
recent growth of an urban area. Their growth may result in Underpopulation When there are too few people in an area
urban sprawl. to use the resources available effectively.
Supervolcano a volcano with a volcanic explosive index (VEI) Urbanisation The process by which the proportion of a
of 8 or more. population living in or around towns and cities increases
Suspension The movement of fine-grained material, such as through migration and natural increase.
clay and silt, in a river by turbulent flow. Urbanisation of poverty The gradual shift of global
Sustainable development A carefully calculated system of poverty from rural to urban areas with increasing
resource management that ensures that the current level urbanisation.
of exploitation does not compromise the ability of future Urban land use A simplified model of the land use (such as
generations to meet their own needs. industry, housing and commercial activity) that may be
Sustainable tourism Tourism organised in such a way that found in towns and cities.
its level can be sustained in the future without creating Urban renewal An urban area where existing buildings are
irreparable environmental, social and economic damage to either renovated or demolished and rebuilt.
the receiving area. Urban sprawl Outward spread of built-up areas caused by
Sustained pollution Long-term pollution. their expansion. Unchecked urban sprawl may join cities
Swash The movement of material up the beach in the into conurbations.
direction of the prevailing wind. V-shaped valley A river valley with a V-shaped cross-section.
System A situation in which there are recognisable inputs, These valleys are usually found near the source of a river,
processes and outputs. where the steeper gradient means that there is a great
Terrace A levelled section of a hilly cultivated area. deal of abrasion along the stream bed, and there is more
Tertiary sector The part of the economy that provides vertical erosion than lateral (sideways) erosion.
services to businesses and to people. Vent The channel through which volcanic material is ejected.
Thermal expansion An increase in water volume due to Village A small assemblage of houses; smaller than a town
temperature increase. and larger than a hamlet.
Threshold The minimum number of people necessary before a Volcano A cone-shaped mountain formed by material
particular good or service will be provided in an area. (magma, ash and cinders) erupted from below the Earth’s
Tombolo A bar that links an island to the mainland. surface.
Total fertility rate The average number of children a women Voluntary migration When the individual has a free choice
has during her lifetime. about whether to migrate or not.
Tourist-generating countries Countries from which many Waste product A product of a manufacturing industry that
people take holidays abroad. has no value and must be disposed of. Costs are incurred in
Toxic Poisonous. Toxicity is a measure of the degree to which the disposal of waste products.
something is poisonous. Waterfall A cascade of water in a river or stream. It occurs
Traction The movement of large-sized materials in a riverbed when the river flows over a bed of rock that resists erosion.
by rolling. Weaker rocks downstream are worn away, creating a steep,
Transnational corporation (TNC) A firm that owns or vertical drop and a plunge pool into which the water falls.
controls productive operations in more than one country Water scarcity When water supply falls below 1000 m3 per
through foreign direct investment (FDI). person per year — the country faces water scarcity for all
Transpiration The loss of water from a plant by evaporation. or part of that year.
Transport systems The means by which materials, products Watershed A ridge or other line of separation between two
and people are transferred from place to place. river basins or drainage systems.
Tributary A stream or river that joins a larger river. Water stress When water supply in a country is below
Tropical rainforest Dense forest usually found on or near 1700 m3 per person per year.
the equator where the climate is hot and wet. The Water supply The volume of clean (potable) water available
vegetation in tropical rainforests typically includes a for a community or region.
canopy formed by high branches of tall trees providing Wave Circular or elliptical movement of water near the surface
shade for lower layers, an intermediate layer of shorter of the sea.
trees and tree roots, lianas, and a ground cover of Wave-cut platform A gently sloping rock surface found at the
mosses and ferns. base of a coastal cliff. It is covered by water at high tide
Tsunami A large and unusual wave in the water generated by but is exposed at low tide. It is formed by the erosion (by
a submarine earthquake, volcanic eruption or landslide. waves) of a former cliff face.
314

Glossary
Wave refraction The way in which a wave changes shape differs from climate in that the latter is a composite of the
and loses speed as it comes into contact with the sea average weather conditions of a locality or region over a
bed. If refraction is complete, waves break parallel to the long period of time (at least 30 years).
coastline. If refraction is not complete, longshore drift Wet point site A settlement with a reliable supply of water
occurs. in an otherwise dry area.
Weather Day-to-day variation of atmospheric and climatic Xerophyte A plant adapted to live in dry conditions. Common
conditions at any one place over a short period of adaptations include a reduction in leaf size, leaf hairs
time. Such conditions include humidity, precipitation, to trap a layer of moist air, water storage cells, sunken
temperature, cloud cover, visibility and wind, together with stomata and permanently rolled leaves or leaves that roll
extreme phenomena such as storms and blizzards. Weather up in dry weather (as in marram grass).
315

Photo credits
Andrew Davis: p.163
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Paul Guinness: p.7, p.9, p.12, p.15, p.17, p.20, p.22, p.23, p.25, p.29, Bureau of Statistics, © Commonwealth of Australia; p.16 Table 1.7:
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Fotolia; p.69 cr & br Cheong Gy Cheon Museum; p.75 Novarc Images/ Figure 1.60: G. Nagle, Advanced Geography (Oxford University Press,
Alamy Stock Photo; p.89 ANAMARA/Fotolia; p.91 alswart/Fotolia; p.135 2000), copyright © Garrett Nagle 2000, reprinted by permission of
tr & cr Achill Tourist Board, p.136 Luis Marden/National Geographic/ Oxford University Press; p.41 Figure 1.62: G. Nagle, Geography
Getty Images; p.142 l PJF Military Collection/Alamy Stock Photo; p.148 Homework Pack for Key Stage 3 (Heinemann, 2000), reproduced by
Andrey Popov/Fotolia; p.153 r jasonbatterham/Fotolia; p.165 bl Wayne permission of Pearson Education; p.42 Figure 1.65: G. Nagle, ORG
Lynch/All Canada Photos/Corbis; p.165 br Hagit Berkovich/Fotolia; GCSE Geography (Through Diagrams) (Oxford University Press, 1998),
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Bogdan/Fotolia; p.193 Jaguar Land Rover Ltd; p.199 Sergi Reboredo/ University Press; p.44 Figure 1.68: P. Guinness and G. Nagle, AS
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General School Atlas (Juta Gariep); pp.60, 61, 62 Figure 1.86: www.nyc.
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2016 (United Nations/Population Reference Bureau); p.10 Figure 1.14: Surveys/Department for International Development, © Crown
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Central Intelligence Agency; p.12 Figure 1.19: http://en.wikipedia.org/ University Press, 2003), copyright © Garrett Nagle 2003, reprinted by
wiki/ Demographics_of_Russia; p.13 Figure 1.21: G. Nagle and K. permission of Oxford University Press; p.111 Figure 2.30: Van Dijk,
Spencer, Advanced Geography: Revision Handbook (Oxford University M. and SJ van Vuuren, ‘Destratification induced by bubble plumes as a
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Observation/Natural Resources Canada), © Crown copyright; p.118 co.uk; p.205 Figure 3.51: D. Waugh, The New Wider World, 3rd Edition
Figure 2.44b: G. Nagle, ORG GCSE Geography (Through Diagrams) (Nelson Thornes, 2003); p.209 Figure 3.53: (CE Info Systems), © 2008;
(Oxford University Press, 1998), copyright © Garrett Nagle 1998, p.211 Figure 3.56: http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/GCSE/AQA/Tourism/
reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press; p.120 Figure 2.47: Tourism%20growth/Tourism%20Growth.htm; p.213 Figure 3.58: http://
IGN map Provence-Alpes- Cote d’Azure 2013, © IGN France 2012, mkt.unwto.org/webform/contact-tourism-trends-and-
reproduced by permission of Institut National de L’information marketingstrategies-unwto (UN/World Tourism Organization; Tourism
Geographique et Forestiere; p.131 Figure 2.60: G. Nagle, AS & A2 Highlights, 2013 Edition), Figure 3.59: (UN/World Tourism Organization,
Geography for Edexcel B (Oxford University Press, 2003) copyright © UNWTO); p.214 Figure 3.61: (Global Insight: Tourism Satellite
Garrett Nagle 2003, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press; Accounting); p.218 Figure 3.70: GeoFactsheet, 201, reprinted by
p.132 Figure 2.61 G. Nagle, ORG GCSE Geography (Through Diagrams) permission of Curriculum Press, www.curriculum-press.co.uk; p.219
(Oxford University Press, 1998) copyright © Garrett Nagle 1998, Figure 3.71: Jane Dove et.al., OCR AS Geography (Heinemann
reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press, Figure 2.62: Educational, 2008), reproduced by permission of Pearson Education;
Republic of South Africa/Department of Land Affairs/Surveys and p.222 Figure 3.75: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2017, Figure
Mapping, Figure 2.63: G. Nagle, ORG GCSE Geography (Through 3.76: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2017; p.223 Figure 3.77: BP
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2.71: P. Guinness and G. Nagle, AS Geography: Concepts and Cases com; p.226 Figure 3.81: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2017;
(Hodder Murray, 2000); p.138 Figure 2.73: adapted from S. Warn and C. p.232 Figure 3.88: Alternative Water Supply and Management Methods
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p.143 Figure 2.79: www.channelnewsasia.com; p.150 Figure 2.87: G. Development); p.234 Figure 3.90: Alternative Water Supply and
Nagle, Weatherfile GCSE (Nelson Thornes, 2000), copyright © Garrett Management Methods (Government of Alberta/Environment and
Nagle 2000, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press; p.154 Sustainable Resource Development), Figure 3.91: P. Guinness,
Figure 2.94: G. Nagle, Weatherfile GCSE (Nelson Thornes, 2000), Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge
copyright © Garrett Nagle 2000, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted
University Press; p.161 Figure 2.101: G. Nagle, ORG GCSE Geography with permission; p.235 Figure 3.93: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB
(Through Diagrams) (Oxford University Press, 1998), copyright © Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), ©
Garrett Nagle 1998, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press; Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permission; P.
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Population Data Sheet, 2016 (United Nations/Population Reference Edexcel A2 Geography (Philip Allan Updates); p.242 Figure 3.20:
Bureau); p.175 Figure 3.4: http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/hdi/; p.176 (Environmental Protection Agency); p.245 Figure 3.102: ( DEFRA),
Figure 3.7: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and © Crown Copyright; p.248 Figure 3.106: M. Raw, OCR A2 Geography
Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University (Philip Allan Updates, 2009); p.251: Figure 3.110: P. Guinness,
Press 2010, reprinted with permission; p.178 Figure 3.8: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge
Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted
University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permission, Figure 3.111: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB
with permission; p.179 Figure 3.10: http://commons.wikimedia.org/ Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), ©
wiki/ File:Gini_Coefficient_World_CIA_Report_2009-1.png, Figure 3.11: Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permission; p.254
https://journalistsresource.org/studies/international/china/income; p.180 Figure 3.115: www.great-barrierreef.biz/Images/100050.gif; p.256 Figure
Figure 3.12: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and 3.118: J. Hill, W. Woodland, R. Hill, Geography Review, May, 2007; p.260
Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Figure 3.123: Financial Times, 4 February, 2003; p.261 Figure 3.124:
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with permission; p.182 Figure 3.17: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Environmental Systems and Societies for the IB Diploma (Cambridge
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(Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press worldnuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future-Generation/Nuclear-Power-
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p.187 Table 3.8: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Global one-billion-affected/, Figure 3.130: P. Guinness and B. Walpole,
Interactions (Cambridge University Press, 2011), © Cambridge Environmental Systems and Societies for the IB Diploma (Cambridge
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weforum.org/agenda/2017/03/worlds-biggest-economies, Figure 3.30: University Press, 2012), © Cambridge University Press 2012, reprinted
Oxford Economics, Deloitte Services LP economic analysis; p.190 with permission; p.267 Figure 4.2: (Directorate of Overseas Surveys/
Figure 3.31: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Global Department for International Development), © Crown copyright; p.268
Interactions (Cambridge University Press, 2011), © Cambridge Figure 4.4: Tabacco sheet 06, www.tabaccoeditrice.com; p.269 Figure
University Press 2011, reprinted with permission; p.191 Figure 3.32: 4.6: © Crown Copyright; p.270 Figure 4.7: www.ign.fr, reproduced by
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317

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
figure 4.14: www.theAA.com/travel, © KOMPASS-Karten Gmbh; p.278 (Collins Educational, 2001); p.303 Figure 4.52: Wideworld, September
Figure 4.16: (Government of Canada/Canada Centre for Mapping and 2002 (Philip Allan Updates, 2002); p.304 Figure 4.54: David Holmes and
Earth Observation/Natural Resources Canada), © Crown copyright; Sue Warn, Fieldwork Investigations: a self-study guide (Hodder
p.279 Figure 4.17: (Map Publications Centre, Hong Kong/Survey & Education, 2003), Figure 4.54: David Holmes and Sue Warn, Fieldwork
Mapping Office/Lands Department), © 2011; p.282 Figure 4.22: © Investigations: a self-study guide (Hodder Education, 2003).
Crown copyright 2017 OS; p.285 Figure 4.26: Korea Statistical Yearbook
Permission for re-use of all Crown copyright information is granted
2000; p.286 Figure 4.28: B. Lenon and P. Cleves, Fieldwork Techniques
under the terms of the Open Government Licence (OGL).
and Projects in Geography (Collins Educational, 2001); p.288 Figure
4.32: B. Lenon and P. Cleves, Fieldwork Techniques and Projects in Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any
Geography (Collins Educational; p.289 Figure 4.35: Wideworld, have been inadvertently overlooked the Publishers will be pleased to
November 2002 (Philip Allan Updates, 2002); p.297 Figure 4.45: B. make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
Lenon and P. Cleves, Fieldwork Techniques and Projects in Geography
318

Index
A Bangladesh capital-intensive industries 206
floods 122, 125, 126 carbon credits 258
abrasion 113, 117, 131 food production 199–200 carbon dioxide 243, 244, 248, 249
accessibility 41 population 14–15, 16, 30, 31, 32 carbon trading 258
Achill beach 135 settlements 41 Caribbean 70, 96, 97, 102–104, 147
acid deposition 246–248 Barbados 73 carrying capacity 109, 122, 125, 251
acid rain 246, 247, 260 Barber, Benjamin 191 Castries 78
active volcanoes 91 bar charts 286 caves 132
adult literacy 173–174 barographs 152 Central Arizona Project (CAP) 239
afforestation 122 barometers 149, 152 central business district (CBD) 49,
Afghanistan 21 Barra da Tijuca, Brazil 59, 75 50–51, 52
age-specific mortality rate 6 barrier reefs 137, 138, 249, 254 chamber (of volcano) 90
agricultural systems 194–196, 253 bars 133, 134 channelisation 124
agricultural technology 198 bays 130, 132–133 charcoal 223
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency beaches 133, 134, 145 Cheong Gye Cheon River 69
syndrome) 8, 10 Bellandur Lake, India 65 Chernobyl accident 21, 225, 245, 246
air pollution 64, 66, 69, 77, 82, benzene 243, 244, 246 China
242–245, 260 Bhopal accident 77, 245, 246 case studies 80–83, 229, 259–260
air pressure 149, 152, 159 bid rent 48, 49 floods 122
air traffic 245 bimodal patterns 282 globalisation 189
Akosombo Dam, Ghana 131 biodiversity 159 Harbin accident 246
Alaska 99 biofuels 161, 227, 229, 236 inequalities 179
albedo values 110 birth rate pollution 64, 244, 259–260
alternative energy sources 225–229 definition 4 population 4, 14, 17–18, 22–23
altitude 158 population dynamics 4–6, 9, 11–13 Three Gorges Dam 123, 230
Amin, Idi 21 population policy 16–17 urbanisation 70, 71
Amnesty International 24 population structure 30, 31 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 243, 248
anemometers 149, 150, 152, 153 urbanisation 70 choropleth maps 290
aneroid barometers 152 world population increase 3 Christchurch earthquakes 104–105
animals 160, 165 Blikkiesdorp, Cape Town 55 cinders 97
annotated photographs 280–281, Boeing 207 circular (radial) graphs 289
298, 299 boreholes 233 cities
Antarctica 34, 36, 249 Brahmaputra river 122 central business district 50–51
Antigua 96, 134, 135, 138 braided channels 119 industrial areas 55–56
anti-natalist policies 16, 17–18 brain-drain effect 25, 70 residential zones 51
aquifers 112, 233, 236 brands 187, 191 settlement hierarchy 43, 44
Arabat spit 135 Brazil transport routes 56
arable farms 195, 253 deforestation 162 urbanisation 71, 76, 78
arches 132 development gap 177 urban land use 48–50
area sampling 294 inequalities 182–183 clean coal technology 229
Argentina 253 population 23, 36 cliffs 132, 145
arid areas 110 settlements 42, 59, 76 climate 156–167
artesian wells 233 urbanisation 74–75, 79 definition 156
ash 90, 91, 97 breakwaters 144, 145 end-of-theme questions 170
aspect of settlement 40 Brown Agenda 77 equatorial and hot desert climates
assembly industries 206 brownfield sites 66 156–157
assessment vi, 302 Brunei 53, 59 factors affecting 157–159
Aswan Dam 127 building design 100–102 hot deserts 164–167
Atbara river 127, 128 Bulgaria 13 tropical rainforests 159–163
atoll reefs 137, 138 Burgess’s concentric model 49 climate change 26, 236, 250
attrition 113, 131 by-products 205 Cloke’s model of rural change 42
Australia 13, 15–16, 254 clouds 154, 158
Axe, River 115 C cloud seeding 233–234
Cairo 41, 157 coal 221, 222, 229, 247
B coastal management strategies 144,
California 238, 239
backshore 133 Canada 13, 36–37, 41, 197 145–146
backwash 129, 130 Cape Peninsula, South Africa 132, 135 coastline 139
Bangalore 209–210 Cape Town 54–55, 73 coasts 129–148
319
421363_Index_IGCSE_OL_Geo_319-328.indd 319 10/02/18 8:28 AM

INDEX
bars and spits 134–136 evaluation and suggestions for further deprivation 14
beaches 133–134 work 301–302 desalination 77, 233
case studies 140, 143–144, 146, 148 identification of issue, question or desertification 252
coastal development 147 problem 292–293 deserts see hot deserts
coastal flooding 83 making effective conclusions 301 desire-line diagrams 288
coastal hazards and opportunities presentation and recording of results 301destination footprint 217
139–144 crater (of volcano) 90, 91 destructive plate boundaries 94, 95, 96
coastal management 144–146 cross-profiles 114 destructive waves 129, 130
deposition 133–139 cross-sections 270, 271, 303–304 Detroit 67–68
describing coastal scenery 273–274 cruciform settlements 40 development 172–193
end-of-theme questions 169 Cuba 73 definition 172
landscapes of erosion 131–133 cultural diffusion 190, 191 employment structure 184–186
marine processes 129–131 cumulative causation 35, 179, 180 end-of-theme questions 261
tourism 147 Curituba, Brazil 79, 80 global impacts of globalisation 189–191
collision boundaries 94, 95, 96 Cuyahoga River 65 globalisation 186–189
Colorado River 239 cyclones 14, 143–144 indicators 172–176
command words 305 cyclonic rainfall 110 inequalities between countries 176–178
commercial farming 195 inequalities within countries 179–183
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) D measures of national income 172–173
198, 255 daily (diurnal) temperature range 150, 151 production by economic sectors
Common Fisheries Policy 255 dams 113, 232 183–184
communications systems 187 hydroelectric power 225 Tata Group case study 193
community energy 259 longshore drift 131 development gap 173, 177–178, 181
community tourism 220 managing floods 122, 123, 125–128 Dhaka, Bangladesh 14, 15, 71
commuter (dormitory) settlements 44 water supply 232–233 Dharavi slum, Mumbai 66, 73
compass points 266, 267 Danum Valley Conservation Area (DVCA) diffusion 187
composite (cone) volcanoes 90, 91 163 direct hazards 98
compound bar charts 286 data collection 293–300 direction (compass points) 266
compound line graphs 285 death rate direct proportion 283
concentrating solar power (CSP) systems definition 4 disaster aid 125
228, 229 population dynamics 3–6, 7–9, 11–13 discharge (of river) 107, 108, 113
concentric model (Burgess) 49 population policy 17 dispersed settlements 38, 39, 42
cone volcanoes 90, 91 population structure 30, 31 dispersion diagrams 288
confluence 109 urbanisation 70 divergent (constructive) plate boundaries
conservation 218 Death Valley 166–167 94–95, 96
conservation of resources 256, decentralisation 23, 75, 82 dormant volcanoes 91
257–259 decimals 283 dormitory (commuter) settlements 44
conservative plate boundaries 94, 95, 96 deep-focus earthquakes 91 drainage basins 109, 110–113
constructive plate boundaries 94–95, 96 deforestation drought 164
constructive waves 129, 130 definition 122, 251 dry deposition 246, 247
consumer culture 187 Pearl River delta 260 dry point sites 40
contour lines 267, 268, 270, 271 soil erosion 251, 252 Dubai 148
convectional rainfall 110, 156 tropical rainforests 161–163 dust storms 252
convergent (collision) boundaries 94, deltas 119, 120–121
95, 96 demographers 2 E
convergent (destructive) plate boundaries demographic divide 9, 10 earthquakes
94, 95, 96 demographic momentum 3 building design 100–102
Cook, Thomas 212 demographic transition model 5, 6, 30 case studies 104–105, 106
coral 137, 138, 254 densely populated areas 13, 34, 36–37 causes of 96–97
coral reefs 137–138, 139, 148 dependency ratio 10, 25, 32, 33 dealing with 100
core-frame concept 51, 52 depopulation 12, 23 definition 91
corrasion 113 deposition distribution of 92–93
corrosion 113 acid deposition 246–248 end-of-theme questions 168
counterurbanisation 23 beaches 133–134 hazards and impacts 98–99
coursework 292–304 coasts 133–139 intensity scales 91–92
analysis and interpretation 301 coral reefs 137–138 migration 21
assessment vi, 302 definition 107 plate tectonics 93–95
collection, selection and collation of mangroves 139 Earth, structure of 93, 94
data 293–300 rivers 107, 114, 118, 119 economic core region 180, 181, 182
defining the objectives of study 293 sand dunes 136–137
320

index
economic development urbanisation 77, 78 forests 234, 247 see also rainforests
development 172–193 epicentre 91, 99 formal sector 181
end-of-theme questions 261–264 equatorial climate 156 form of settlement 39
energy 221–230 erosion fossil fuels 221, 225
environmental risks 241–260 coasts 130, 131–133, 140 fractions 283
food production 194–204 definition 107 France 18–19, 45
industry 205–210 rivers 107, 113, 114–115 Friends of the Earth 203
overview 171 Ethiopia 128 fringing reefs 137, 138
tourism 211–220 Etna, Mt 100 fuelwood 223–224
water 231–240 European Union 191, 255 Fuji, Mt 98
economic leakages 215 evaporation 110 function of settlement 275
economic sectors 183–184 evapotranspiration (EVT) 109, 110, 111,
economic water scarcity 235 113, 235 G
economies of scale 198, 208 extensive farming 196 gabions 144, 145
ecosystems 160 externalities 243, 244 Gambia 33
ecotourism 217, 220, 256 extinct volcanoes 91 Ganges river 122, 199–200
Ecuador 218 gender ratio 18
edge towns/cities 59 F General Agreement on Trade in Services
education 7, 10, 12, 173–174, 182 famine 17, 201–202 (GATS) 215
Egypt 21, 126–128 farming gentrification 54, 55
Eldfell volcano, Iceland 92 agricultural systems 194–196 geographical investigations 292–304
electricity access 223 natural and human inputs 196–200 analysis and interpretation 301
El Niño/La Niña events 128, 249 favelas 74–75 collection, selection and collation of
emigration 4, 5, 25 Federation for American Immigration data 293–300
emigration rate 5 Reform (FAIR) 28 defining the objectives of study 293
employment 181, 184–186 female literacy 7, 174 evaluation and suggestions for further
energy 221–230 fertility 3, 6–8, 16, 18–19, 30–31 work 301–302
China case study 229–230 fetch 129 identification of issue, question or
end-of-theme questions 263 field capacity 112 problem 292–293
non-renewable and renewable energy field sketches 297–298 making effective conclusions 301
221–224 fieldwork 293 presentation and recording of results 301
nuclear power benefits and fish stocks 255 geographical skills 266–291
disadvantages 224–225 flexible industries 206 coastal landforms 273–274
renewable energy benefits and floodplains 114, 118 cross-sections 270
disadvantages 225–229 flood relief channels 125 describing river landscapes 270–273
energy efficiency 258–259 floods direction 266
energy ladder 223 Bangladesh 14 grid/square references 266
energy mix 221 causes 121 overview 265
enhanced global warming 248–250 definition 114 relief and gradient 267–268
enhanced greenhouse effect 248 managing impact 122–128 rural settlements 274–277
environmental impact statements migration 21 scale 266
148, 255 river hazards and opportunities sketch maps and annotated
environmental risks 241–260 121–122 photographs 280–281
acid deposition 246–248 Shanghai 83 urban settlements 277–279
China’s Pearl River delta 259–260 flow-line diagrams 287 volcanic landscapes 274
end-of-theme questions 264 focus (of earthquake) 91 geothermal energy 227, 228
enhanced global warming 248–250 food aid 202–203 Geysir, Iceland 98
example environments under threat food energy efficiency 204 Gini coefficient 179, 180
253–254 food production 194–204 glaciers 249
globalisation 190 agricultural systems 194–196 global cities 190
Great Barrier Reef 254 case studies 199–200, 201–202 global civil society 191
Niger delta and oil 253 development 183, 184 global economy 186, 189
Pampas of Argentina 253 end-of-theme questions 262 globalisation
pollution 241–246 food shortages 200–204 definition 186
resource conservation 256–259 natural and human inputs 196–200 development 186–189
soil erosion and desertification 250–253 soil degradation 253 global impacts 189–191
sustainable development and soil erosion 253 local impacts 191, 192–193
management 254–256 footloose industries 206 national impacts 191
threat to natural environment forced migration 21, 22, 252 global population 2–3, 22
241–248 foreshore 133 global tourism 211, 212, 213, 217
321

INDEX
global urban uniformity 190 Hong Kong 48, 86 infant mortality rate 7, 10, 11, 30, 31, 174
global warming 248–250 hot deserts infiltration 111, 112, 113
global water crisis 231–234 climate and vegetation 157, 161, informal sector 181
GNP see gross national product 164–167 in-migration 32
Gongju-Yongi, South Korea 76 definition 164 inner city 49, 51, 53, 65, 67
gorges 114, 115, 117 desertification 252 inputs 194, 196–200, 205
gradient 113, 267–268, 270 water 233, 238 insurance 125–126
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam hotspots 90, 93 intensive farming 196
(GERD) 128 housing issues 65, 69, 73–74, 101–102, interception 110
graphical techniques 284–291 126 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
bar charts 286 Hoyt’s sector model 49–50 Change 15
choropleth maps 290 Human Development Index (HDI) 15, 16, internally displaced people 21
dispersion diagrams 288 174, 175–176 internet 187, 191
flow-line diagrams 287 Human Development Report 175 interviews 297
histograms 286 humidity 110, 149, 152 inverse proportion 283
isoline diagrams 289 hurricanes 141, 142–144, 146 involuntary (forced) migration 21, 22
kite diagrams 287 hydraulic action 113, 117, 131 Iraq 21
line graphs 284–285 hydraulic radius 108 irrigation 126, 197, 234, 235, 237
pictograms 284 hydroelectric power (HEP) 221, 222, 225, isobars 152
pie charts 285–286 229, 230, 232 isoline diagrams 289
proportional circles 290 hydrological cycle 109
radial (circular) graphs 289 hygrometer 150 J
ray diagrams 288 hypermarkets 57 Jamaica 46–47, 136, 146, 219–220
scatter graphs 289–290 hypotheses 292, 293 Japan 30, 31, 32, 98
semantic differential profiles 288
triangular graphs 290–291 I K
Great Barrier Reef 137, 138, 249, 254 ice caps 249 Kalahari desert 252
greenfield sites 55, 66, 208 Iceland 98, 227 Kariba Dam, Zimbabwe 232
greenhouse gases 225, 243, 248, 249, immigration 4–5, 13, 16, 25, 28 Kathmandu 106
253, 258 immigration rate 5 Kazakhstan 36
Green Revolution 203, 204 incidental pollution 245 Kenmare, Ireland 86
green villages 40 India Kenya 11–12
grey water 234, 237 air pollution 64 Kick ’em Jenny (volcano) 96
grid references 266 Bangalore high technology 209–210 Kilauea volcano 92
Gross National Income (GNI) 31 Bhopal accident 77, 245, 246 Kilimanjaro 91
gross national product (GNP) 172, 173 earthquakes 102 Kimmeridge Bay 115
gross national product per capita 173 floods 121 Kissimmee River Restoration Project
groundwater 109, 112, 113, 233, 236 food production 199–200, 203 124–125
group bar charts 286 globalisation 189, 193 kite diagrams 287
growth pole 214 population dynamics 4, 14 knick-points 114
groynes 130, 144, 145 population policy 16–17 Korea 41, 76, 87
Gulf Stream 249 urbanisation 71 Kowloon 86
indirect hazards 98 Krakatoa volcano 90, 92, 99
H Indonesia 101, 102, 189
Haiti 21, 101, 102, 104 industrial agglomeration 208 L
hamlets 39, 42, 43, 44 industrial areas 55–56 labour-intensive industries 206
Harbin accident 246 industrial estates 208 lagoons 134
hard engineering 122, 123, 144, 145 industry 205–210 landfill 258
Hawaii 90 air pollution 242 land tenure (ownership) 182, 198
hazards see natural hazards Bangalore high-tech case study land use 48–50, 66
headlands 130 209–210 land use zoning 126
Heathrow airport 245 end-of-theme questions 262 land value 48–49
heavy industry 205, 206 environmental impact statements 255 Latin America 49, 50, 70
HEP see hydroelectric power factors affecting location 207–208 latitude 157
hierarchy of settlements 42, 43–44 industrial agglomeration 208 lava 90, 91, 100
High Aswan Dam 126, 127 industrial systems and types 205–207 leachate pollution 258
high-order goods/services/functions 43 inequality lead 243
high-technology industry 206, 209–210 between countries 176–178 least developed countries (LDCs)
Himalayas 122, 126 within countries 179–183 8, 176, 177
histograms 286 urban growth 65
322

index
levées 114, 119, 122, 125 megacities 71, 72 Nepal 106, 196
Leyte, Philippines 143 megalopolis 37, 43 Netherlands 13
life expectancy Meghna River 121, 122 net migration, rate of 4, 5, 16
demographic transition 6, 30, 31 Mehta, Mukesh 66 new international division of labour (NIDL)
development 174 Mercalli scale 91, 92 188
population dynamics 8, 11, 12 methane 248, 249, 258 newly industrialised countries (NICs) 177,
life expectancy at birth 8, 175 Mexico 27–28, 50, 71, 73 185, 189
light industry 205, 206 Miami Beach 146 New York
light pollution 65, 244, 245 microgeneration 259 globalisation 190
linear settlements 39, 43 migration 20–28 land use 60–63
line graphs 284–285 counterurbanisation 23 population density 37
line sampling 294 definition 20 settlements 40, 41
literacy 7, 173–174 depopulation 23 urbanisation 67, 71
Livingstone Falls 115 end-of-theme questions 84 New Zealand 104–105
load 113 globalisation impacts 190, 192, 193 Niagara Falls 115, 116–117
localisation economies 208 impacts of 24–28 NICs see newly industrialised countries
London 190 internal population movements 22–23 Niger 30, 31, 32
long profiles 114 nature of 20 Niger delta 253, 254
longshore drift 130, 131, 136 population density and distribution 36 Nile delta 126–128
Lorenz curve 65 population dynamics 4, 9, 16 noise pollution 64, 244–245
loss of sovereignty 191 push and pull factors 20 non-renewable energy supplies
loss sharing 125 reasons for 20 221, 222
low-order goods/services/functions 42, 44 trends 22 nuclear energy 221, 222, 224–225, 229
Lozère, France 45 urbanisation 70 nucleated settlements 39
voluntary and involuntary 20–22
M Millennium Development Goals 71 O
magma 90, 91, 93 millionaire cities 73, 80 observations 297–300
Malaysia 14, 39, 40 Mississippi river 125 oil 221, 222, 229, 253
malnutrition 13, 200 mixed farming 195 ‘one-child’ policy 14, 17, 18
managed retreat 144, 145 mode 282 optimum population 13, 17
Manaus, Brazil 156 monsoon rains 199 Ordnance Survey maps 266, 268–270
mangroves 139 Montego Bay, Jamaica 46–47 organic farming 196
mantle 94 Montserrat 91, 92, 98, 102–104 orographic rainfall 110
manufacturing industry 37, 185, 205, 208 mortality 5, 6, 8–9, 10 see also death rate; out-migration 16, 32
maps infant mortality rate out-of-town location 57, 58
population 34, 36 mouth (of river) 119 outputs 194, 205
scale 266, 281 multiple bar charts 286 overfishing 254
world v multiple line graphs 285 overgrazing 251, 252
Marine Parks 219, 220, 254 multiplier effect 215 overland flow 111
marine processes 129–131 overpopulation 13, 14–15
mass media 187 N oxbow lakes 114, 118
mass migration 27 Nairobi 73 ozone 242, 248, 256
mass tourism 191 National Health Service (NHS) 25
mathematical skills 281–291 national income 172–173 P
decimals, fractions, percentages and National Parks 217, 219, 220 package tours 212
ratios 283 natural change, rate of 4, 5, 12 Padi-fields 199
graphical techniques 284–291 natural environment Pakistan 21, 101, 102
map scale 281 coasts 129–148 Palisadoes, Jamaica 130, 136, 146
means, averages and range 282–283 earthquakes and volcanoes 90–106 Pampas, Argentina 253
positive and negative relationships end-of-theme questions 168–170 Paris 41, 42
283–284 overview 89 particulate matter 243
significant figures 283 rivers 107–128 pastoral farming 195, 253
standard notation 283 weather 149–155 peak land value intersection (PLVI) 52
Mauna Loa volcano 90, 92 natural gas 221, 222, 229, 253 Pearl River delta, China 259–260
maximum-minimum thermometer 150 natural greenhouse effect 248 peat bogs 249
mean 282 natural hazards 97, 98–102 Pelée, Mt 96
mean daily temperature 150, 151 natural vegetation 145, 159, 160, 164–167, percentage 283
meanders 114, 118 170 percentage compound bar charts 286
median 282–283 negative index 283 periphery 50, 180, 181, 182
median-line bar graphs 286 negative relationship 283
323

INDEX
permafrost 249 positive relationship 283 refugees 21, 22

Peru 101, 102 potable water 234 relief and gradient 267–268
Philippines 98 potential evapotranspiration (P.EVT) 110, relief food aid 202
photographs, annotated 280–281, 298, 299 111 remittances 25, 26, 28
photovoltaic (PV) systems 228, 229 potholes 114, 115 renewable energy 221, 222, 225–229
physical water scarcity 235 poverty representative fraction 281
pictograms 284 development 178, 180, 181 reservoirs 125, 232–233
pie charts 285–286 natural hazards 98 residential zones 51, 53
pilot surveys 295 population dynamics 10, 11, 15, 33 resource conservation 256–259
Pinatubo, Mt 91, 92, 97, 100 water shortages 236 resource management 254–255
plantations 161 precipitation 109, 110, 197 re-use of resources 256, 257
plastic 256, 257, 258 preservation 218 revetments 145, 146
plate tectonics 92, 93–95, 96 prevailing winds 158, 242 Rhine gorge 115
plunge flow 115 primary data 293 Rhône delta 120–121
plunge pool 117 primary hazards 99 rias 134
point sampling 294 primary product dependent 185 Richter scale 91, 98, 99
pollution primary sector 183, 184, 185 rift valleys 93, 94, 95
air pollution 64, 66, 69, 77, 82, 242–245, processes 194, 205 Rio de Janeiro 65, 74–75
260 product chain 184 risk assessment 98
definition 241 production by economic sectors 183–184 river cliffs 118
environmental impact statements 255 product stewardship 255, 258 rivers 107–128
environmental risks 241–246, 253, 254 programme food aid 202 case studies 116–117, 120–121, 123,
globalisation 192 project food aid 202 124–125, 126–128, 303–304
incidental and sustained pollution risks pro-natalist policies 16, 18–19 changing-channel characteristics
245–246 pro-poor tourism 220 107–109
light pollution 65, 244, 245 proportional circles 290 describing river landscapes 270–273
noise pollution 64, 244–245 Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) 31, 173 drainage basins 109–113
Pearl River delta, China 259, 260 push and pull factors 20 end-of-theme questions 168–169
urbanisation 69, 77, 82 Putrajaya, Malaysia 76 managing impact of floods 122–128
water pollution 65, 69, 77, 82, 236, 244, pyroclastic flows 97 river hazards and opportunities
250 121–122
Popacatapetl 92 Q river processes 113–121
population density quadrat sampling 294 water pollution 244
definition 34 quality of life 172 robotics technology 187
and distribution 34–37 quaternary sector 183, 184, 185 rural depopulation 23
earthquakes 98 questionnaires 296–297 rural settlements 42, 43, 274–277
end-of-theme questions 85 Quichua Indians 218 rural-to-urban migration 6, 14, 22, 32, 70
population dynamics 12, 15 quotas 218, 257 rural-urban fringe 56, 57, 59
residential zones 51
urban change 82 R S
population distribution 34, 35–37, 85 radial (circular) graphs 289 Saffir-Simpson scale 142
population dynamics 2–19 radioactive waste 224 Sahara desert 164, 165, 252
case studies 11–12 rainfall 110, 149, 151, 156, 157, 250 St Helens, Mt 92, 100
causes of change in population size 4–5 rainforests 159–163, 256 St Lucia 95, 147
demographic transition model 5–6 rain gauges 149, 150, 151 saltation 113
end-of-theme questions 84 Rainier, Mt 91 sampling 294–295
natural hazards 97 ranching 195 sand dunes 136, 137, 302–303
overpopulation and underpopulation random sampling 294, 295 sandification 162
13–16 range (goods) 43 Sandy, Hurricane 146
population policy 16–19 range (mathematics) 283 San Vicente Dam Raise Project 233
reasons for contrasting rates of change rate of natural change 4, 5 scale 266
6–10 rate of net migration 4, 5 scatter graphs 283–284, 289–290
recent demographic change 3–4 ratio 283 science parks 206
world population increase 2–3 rationing 257 scoring systems 299–300
population explosion 3 ray diagrams 288 sea level 15, 114, 248–249
population policy 16, 17–19 recording tables 299 seas iv, 158
population pyramids 29, 30, 31, 32 recycling 237, 255, 256, 257 sea walls 140, 144, 145
Population Reference Bureau 3, 4 red-lining 145 secondary data 293
population structure 29, 30–33, 84 reefs 137–139, 145, 148, 249, 254 secondary hazards 99
positive index 283 secondary sector 183, 184, 185
324

index
sector model (Hoyt) 49–50 stacked line graphs 285 end-of-theme questions 262–263
Seine river 41, 42 stacks 132 globalisation 191, 192
seismographs 91 standard notation 283 growth of 211–214
seismometers 100 Stevenson screen 149, 150 management and sustainability
semantic differential profiles (SDPs) 288 stratified sampling 295 217–218
Seoul 48, 63–64, 69, 76, 78 stratospheric ozone depleters 243 tourist-generating countries 213
Serbia 13 stumps 132 toxic pollutants 242, 243
service provision 23, 42, 44, 45, 50, 85 subduction zones 91, 96 traction 113
settlements 38–47 subsidies 204, 257 traffic congestion 66, 69, 77–78
case studies 45, 46–47 subsistence farming 195 transform plate boundaries 94, 95, 96
definition 38 substitution of resources 258 transnational corporations (TNCs) 186,
end-of-theme questions 85 suburbs 50 187, 192
growth and function 40–42 Sudan 36, 127, 128, 201–202 transpiration 110
hierarchy 42–44 sulfur dioxide 82, 243, 246, 247 transport 56, 77–78, 80, 82–83, 140
pattern 38–39 Sumatra 99 transport (river) 113
rural settlements 38 sunshine recorders 149, 153 transport systems 187
Seveso accident 246 supervolcanoes 97 transport zone (river) 107
shallow-focus earthquakes 91 suspension 113 triangular graphs 185, 290–291
Shanghai 80–83 sustainable development 73, 220, 254, tributaries 109, 114
shanty towns 74 255, 256 tropical belt 249–250
shape of settlement 275 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 73 tropical cyclones 143–144
shield volcanoes 90, 91 sustainable tourism 217 tropical rainforests 159, 160–163
shifting cultivation 161, 195, 251 sustained pollution 245 tropical storms 141–144
significant figures 283 swash 129, 130 Trump, Donald 28
Silicon Valley 41, 206 Syria 21 tsunamis 96, 99, 138
simple bar charts 286 systematic sampling 295 Typhoon Haiyan 143–144
simple line graphs 285 systems 194
Singapore 51, 53, 65 U
site of settlement 40, 274, 275 T Uganda 21
situation of settlement 40, 274, 275 Tacloban, Philippines 143 UK see United Kingdom
Six’s thermometer 150 tally charts 300 UN see United Nations
sketch maps 280–281 Tambora volcano 90 UNAIDS 10
slums 66, 71, 73–75, 181 Tata Group 193 underemployment 14
social norms 6 technology 187, 206, 209–210 underpopulation 13, 15–16
soft engineering 122, 124–125, 145 tectonic plates 93–95, 96 unimodal patterns 282
soil erosion 162, 250–253 Teidi volcano 92 United Arab Emirates 148
soil moisture 111–112 temperature 150–151, 156, 157, 158 United Kingdom (UK)
soils 160, 165, 166, 197 terraces 196, 199 floods 121
solar power 228, 229 tertiary sector 183, 184, 185 globalisation 192
solar radiation (insolation) 157, 158 Thailand 189 population dynamics 13
solution 113, 131 Thames, River 123 population structure 30, 31, 32
Sonoran Desert 166 theories 293 residential zones 53
Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat 90, 92, thermal expansion 249 settlements 39, 44
95, 96, 102–104 thermometers 149, 150 United Nations (UN)
Soufrière mud springs, St Lucia 95 Thingvellir, Iceland 95 food production 200, 201, 202, 204
South Africa 39, 41, 54–55, 70 Three Gorges Dam 123, 230 Human Development Index 174, 175
South Asian tsunami 99 Three Mile Island 225 squatter settlements (slums) 71
South Korea 41, 87 threshold population 44 United Nations Environment Programme
South Sudan 201–202 throughfall 110 (UNEP) 204
Spain 23 throughflow 111 United Nations Fund for Population
sparsely populated areas 34 tidal power 228–229 Activities 17
specific heat capacity 158 Toba, Mt 97 United Nations High Commission for
sphere of influence 44 Todaro model 23 Refugees (UNHCR) 22
spits 134, 135, 136 Tokyo 71, 190 United Nations Intergovernmental Panel
spring line settlements 40 tombolos 135, 136 on Climate Change 15
square references 266 total fertility rate 6, 7, 11 United States of America (USA)
squatter settlements (slums) 66, 71, tourism 211–220 case studies 140, 238–240
73–75, 181 benefits and disadvantages 214–216 inequalities 179
Sri Lanka 99 case study 219–220 migration 27–28
coastal hazards and opportunities 140, 147 population density and distribution 36, 37
325

INDEX
settlements 40, 41 distribution of 92–93 waves 129–131, 132, 134, 228–229

water supply 238–240 end-of-theme questions 168 wealth 172, 173
urbanisation 70–83 managing 100 weather 149–155
case studies 74–75, 80–83 plate tectonics 93–95 air pressure, wind speed and direction
coasts 140 predicting 100 152–153
definition 70–71 types 90–91 end-of-theme questions 170
end-of-theme questions 87 volcanic eruptions 98 measuring 149–154
floods 122 volcanic strength 97 rainfall 151
megacities 72 Volta river 131 recording 154–155
natural hazards 97 voluntary migration 21 relative humidity 152
new cities 76 V-shaped valley 114 sunshine hours 153
population dynamics 6, 23 temperature 150–151
squatter settlements (slums) 71, 73–75 W weather stations 149–150
strategies to reduce negative impact Walvis Bay, Namibia 134 wells 233
77–83 waste products 205 wet- and dry-bulb thermometers 150, 152
urbanisation economies 208 waste reduction 257–258 wet deposition 246, 247
urbanisation of poverty 181 wastewater 244 wet point sites 40
urban land use 48, 49–50, 277 water 231–240 wilting point 112
urban renewal 54 end-of-theme questions 264 wind direction 152, 153
urban settlements 48–69 global water crisis 231 wind power 226, 229
case studies 54–55, 59, 60–63, 67–68, variation in water use 234–235 wind rose diagrams 153, 288
69 water management 237–240 winds, and climate 158
end-of-theme questions 86–87 water shortages 235–236 wind speed 152–153
geographical skills 277–279 water supply methods 231–234 wind vanes 149, 150, 152, 153
internal structure of towns and cities waterfalls 114, 115, 116–117 Woodstock, Cape Town 54–55
50–59 water pollution 65, 69, 77, 82, 236, Wookey Hole 115
problems of urban growth 64–66 244, 260 World Bank 15, 24, 174, 203, 260
urban land use 48–50 Water Project 236 World Food Programme (WFP) 143, 201,
urban sprawl 56 water scarcity 13, 235, 236, 237 202
urban uniformity 190 watersheds 109 World Health Organization 9, 33, 66
USA see United States of America water stress 236 world map v
water supply world population 2–3, 22
V definition 231 World Trade Organization 188
vegetation 145, 159, 160, 164–167, 170 floods 125 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) 253
velocity globalisation impacts 192
rivers 107, 108, 113, 118, 119, 304 hot deserts 166 X
waves 129 methods 231–234 xerophytes 164
wind 149, 153 population dynamics 6, 35
vent (of volcano) 90, 91 settlements 40 Y
Vesuvius, Mt 217 urbanisation 75, 77, 79 Yangtze river 123, 230
Victoria Falls 117 USA case study 238–240 Yellowstone magma chamber 97
villages 39, 40, 42, 43, 44 variation in water use 234–235 Yugoslavia 21
volcanic explosive index (VEI) 97 water management 237–240
volcanoes water shortages 235–236 Z
case study 102–104 water table 112, 233 Zambezi river 117
causes of 96–97 wave-cut platform 132 zone in transition 49
definition 90 wave power 228–229
describing volcanic landscapes 274 wave refraction 130, 131, 134
326

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IGCSE® is a registered trademark

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THEME 1 Population and settlement

THEME 2 The natural environment

THEME 3 Economic development

THEME 4 Geographical skills and investigations

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Ocean or sea Area in million km2 Country Area in 1000 km2

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Introduction out of two on each theme. Questions are structured

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How to use this book

Table 1.11 A simple

Fuca Plate Anatolian d

Clear, detailed maps include useful 421363_1.6_IGCSE_OL_Geo_048-069.indd 48 27/12/17 9:02 AM

Fascinating facts are scattered

Case st End-of-theme questions

f Outline the likely human ing When can sell the

for your choices. level of emis to another company s

lvem ent re form cave s city The ort.

ed where relat severe

from the . of sed

the headland s that receive less

k through Cave Coastal

Badaro meet and brea usually defined as

Bagnoi Arid Arid area of rainfall each year. n.

s-les-B 800 ✓ ✓ wave actio ict (CBD)

Altier 900 6 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ direc cles voir of magm nic materials.

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This theme looks at population dynamics, for example

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Neolithic Revolution, this period of economic change

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57.4 million deaths. The bulk of this population 7

Natural World More Less developed

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Table 1.2 shows the ten largest countries in the world

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Rate of net migration: +2/1000

▲ Figure 1.6 Pacifica diagram and calculations Population

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are declining. Examples of natural decrease include 6 Least

» the death rate fell much more steeply

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The factors affecting fertility can be grouped into Increasing prosperity

infant mortality rate for the world as a whole 0

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Factors affecting mortality » poverty

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World Health Activities

In middle-income countries, chronic diseases are the major killers,

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Case study: Population decline in Russia

Russia’s need to work to make ends meet. These circumstances have