Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2014, 23, 127-137, © 2014 West Virginia University

Integrating Event Image, Satisfaction,

and Behavioral Intention: Small-Scale
Marathon Event
Sung Keun (SK) Koo, Kevin K. Byon, and Thomas A. Baker III
Sung Keun (SK) Koo, MS, is a doctoral student of sport management in the Department of Kinesiology at the University of
Georgia. His research interests include event sport marketing.
Kevin K. Byon, PhD, is an associate professor of sport management in the Department of Kinesiology at the University of
Georgia. His research interests include sport marketing and sport consumer behavior.
Thomas A. Baker III, JD, PhD, is an associate professor of sport management in the Department of Kinesiology at the
University of Georgia. His research interests include sport law and terrorism and sport facilities.

Abstract
While mega events substantially contribute to a hosting community’s economy and marketing appeal,
small-scale events might result in more positive effects because they operate within an existing infrastruc­
ture, require a smaller budget, create a more manageable level of crowd congestion, and have high-impact
regional effects on the community. Despite the positive effects and prevalence of small-scale events, few have
examined their conceptual development. The purpose of this study was to investigate the hierarchical rela­
tionship among event image, satisfaction, and behavioral intention (i.e., intention to revisit and recommend
the event to others) in the context of a small-scale m arathon event. A total of 297 valid questionnaires were
collected from participants at the Mercedes-Benz M arathon Event and the Publix M arathon Event, recur­
ring small-scale m arathon events held in southeastern cities in the United States. Results from a confirma­
tory factor analysis of the event image-satisfaction-behavioral intentions model indicated a good fit to the
data. The results of regression analyses demonstrated that event image and satisfaction were positively asso­
ciated with behavioral intention and that satisfaction partially mediated the relationship between event
image and behavioral intention. In addition, the z-value provided by the Sobel test indicated that the indi­
rect effect of event image on behavioral intention through satisfaction was significant. The findings offer
im portant implications for event organizers (i.e., marathon) that can be used to develop marketing strate­
gies that attract participants to small-scale m arathon events.

Introduction small-scale events on the local or regional level

The increasingly competitive marketplace, in which
most major destinations offer first-rate attractions,
accommodations, and service, has created num erous
challenges for marketers. Moreover, the destinations
themselves have faced additional potential crises
caused by climate change and global economic slow­
down (Bujosa & Rossello, 2013; Eugenio-Martin &
Campos-Soria, 2014). However, hosting a sport event
has recently become one of the best ways to differenti­
ate a city or com m unity from competing locations
(Chalip, Green, & Hill, 2003; Chalip & McGuirty,
2004; Jago, Chalip, Brown, Mules, & Ali, 2003). The
sport events come in all shapes and sizes, from the vast
international scale of the Olympic Games to m oderate­
ly-sized events such as a national championship to
(Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2006). Regardless of the size,
hosting a sport event generates valuable benefits, such
as (a) creating destination awareness, (b) improving
destination image, and (c) increasing future inbound
travel (Dimanche, 2003). Moreover, Turco (1998) list­
ed three main benefits to hosting a sport event: (a)
providing local entertainment, (b) enhancing com m u­
nity pride, and (c) stimulating the host com m unity’s
economy. Turco (1998) stated that economic benefit is
the primary reason to host a sport event, for the out­
come of the event is often the decisive factor in future
resource allocation decisions.
One type of large-scale sport event is the mega event
(e.g., the Olympic Games and the FIFA World Cup);
these types of events have been found to generate sig­
nificant economic impact on the various cities and

Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 127

countries involved (Lee & Taylor, 2005). Mega events faction has been incorporated as either a consequence
are defined as short-term events that have long-term of event image (Kaplanidou 8c Vogt, 2007) or an
consequences (Roche, 1994), draw a significant number antecedent of behavioral intention (Kaplanidou 8c
of domestic and international tourists, attract high Gibson, 2010), no empirical work has examined the
media interest on an international scale, and generate mediating role of satisfaction in the relationship
significant amount of money through corporate spon­ between event image and behavioral intention at a
sorships (Lee 8c Taylor, 2005). While mega events sub­ small-scale marathon event. Thus, the main purpose of
stantially contribute to marketing appeal and local this study was to investigate the hierarchical relation­
economic development for a host community, Higham ship among event image, satisfaction, and behavioral
(1999) suggested that a small-scale event (e.g., intention (i.e., intention to revisit and recommend the
marathon and Senior Games) can also yield benefits event to others) in the context of a small-scale
because they operate within an existing infrastructure, marathon event. The specific objectives of the current
require a smaller budget, create a more manageable study were (a) to examine the structural relationships
level of crowd congestion, and have high-impact among event image, satisfaction, and behavioral inten­
regional effects on the community. Marathon running tion and (b) to investigate the mediating effect of satis­
is one type of small-scale sport event that has grown faction on the relationship between event image and
tremendously during the past decade (Ridinger, Funk, behavioral intention. By understanding the relation­
Jordan, 8c Kaplanidou, 2012). Marathon running has ships between behavioral intention and its determi­
grown in popularity since the 1970s, when it was more nants, as well as the mediating effect of satisfaction,
of a spectator sport. Today, however, the sport has researchers can establish a more comprehensive frame­
become a popular leisure activity with benefits for par­ work for identifying the specific aspects that influence
ticipants that include goal achievement, improved behavioral intention at small-scale marathon events.
health, affiliation, and improved self-esteem (Masters, From a marketing perspective, this study is important
Ogles, 8c Jolton, 1993). The positive benefits associated because it provides information to help event organiz­
with marathon running help explain why the sport has ers build a more attractive event image and improve
grown in popularity. According to the Running USA’s marketing strategies to maximize their use of resources
2012 annual marathon report, marathons have played a when hosting a small-scale marathon event (e.g., host­
role in the unprecedented upward trend line of run­ ing races of various distances and linking participants’
ning’s second boom, and 2011 was another year of emotions more closely to the event). In order to aid
growth in U.S. marathons with an estimated record of both scholars and practitioners, the following section
518,000 finishers, a 2.2% increase over 2010. Moreover, provides a more detailed explanation of each variable
the launch of more than 35 new marathon events in and develops the hypotheses and the mediation model.
2010 brought the U.S. total to more than 625 from
approximately 200 in 1985 (Helliker, 2011). The num­ Literature Review
ber of participants and marathon events has increased,
demanding more effective marketing strategies not only Event Image
to meet participants’ needs, but also to maintain the Given that a destination hosts a sport event to attract
popularity of the events themselves. Accordingly, spectators or participants (Flinch 8c Higham, 2001;
marathon running events are a type of small-scale sport Kaplanidou 8c Vogt, 2010), the concept of event image
event that brings positive effects to host communities is similar to the concept of destination image
when effectively conducted and marketed. (Hallmann, Kaplanidou, 8c Breuer, 2010). Regardless
Despite the positive effects and the prevalence of of the size of a sport event, event image depends in
small-scale events, such as marathons, very few studies part on cognitive image (i.e., event organization and
have identified the important determinants of post­ destination characteristics) and affective image (i.e.,
decision behaviors, limiting the development of effec­ emotional and social aspects), both of which con­
tive marketing strategies for small-scale event tribute to a holistic evaluation of the event (Baloglu 8c
organizers. For example, event image has been found to McCleary, 1999). Following Keller’s (1993) theoretical
be an important predictor of post-consumption vari­ framework, Gwinner (1997) defined event image as
ables, such as levels of satisfaction (Kaplanidou 8c Vogt, “the cumulative interpretation of meanings or associa­
2007) and behavioral intention (Kaplanidou 8c Gibson, tions attributed to events by consumers” (p. 147).
2012). In line with previous studies, new investigations Gwinner (1997) proposed a framework of three factors
in this area might reveal new relationships between that might influence an individual’s perception of a
possible antecedents (e.g., event image and satisfaction) particular event: (a) event type (e.g., sports, music con­
that determine post-decision behaviors. Though satis­ cert, and arts festival), (b) event characteristics (e.g.,

128 Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

size, professional status, history, venue, and promo­
tional appearance), and (c) individual factors (e.g.,
meanings associated with the event, strength of mean­
ings, and past history of event).
The type of sport consumer (i.e., spectator or partici­
pant) is another factor that affects the formation of
event image (Hallmann et al., 2010). Participants tend
to link emotions more closely to physical and organiza­
tional aspects, whereas spectators tend to favor the
social and historical aspects of a destination. Based on
this distinction, Kaplanidou and Vogt (2006) defined
event image as “the mental representations active sport
tourism participants have about the organization, envi­
ronment, physical activity, socialization, fulfillment and
emotional involvement with the event” (p. 5). Utilizing
the definition of event image, scholars have suggested
that participants are likely to attach emotional, symbol­
ic, and functional meanings to the sport event itself
(Filo, Funk, O’Brien, Dwyer, 8c Fredline, 2008).
Furthermore, Kaplanidou and Vogt (2007) developed
the sporting event image (SEI) scale to assess perceived
event image. The SEI was constructed as a 41-item
semantic differential scale but was later condensed to
13 items for validity and reliability reasons. The revised
SEI scale consists of 13 items: (a) unfulfilling/fulfilling,
(b) stimulating/unstimulating, (c) poor/excellent, (d)
sad/joyful, (e) healthy/unhealthy, (f) boring/exciting,
(g) gloomy/cheerful, (h) valuable/worthless, (i)
ugly/beautiful, (j) distressing/relaxing, (k) unadventur­
ous/ adventurous, (1) inspiring/uninspiring, and (m)
unsupportive/supportive. One reverse item (i.e., stimu-
lating/unstimulating) was included to avoid a favorable
disposition toward the construct being measured with
statements. After discriminant and convergent validity
testing, the scale was used in the current study not only
to capture the necessary elements of perceived event
image, but also to examine their relationships with sat­
isfaction and behavioral intention at small-scale
marathon events.
Satisfaction
Competitive advantage in a competitive market-orient­
ed industry depends on an ability to deliver high-quali­
ty services or products that satisfy consumers
(Shemwell, Yavas, & Bilgin, 1998). Because satisfaction
is assumed to be the post-evaluative judgment of
recent experience (Kotler, 1997), satisfaction is defined
as pleasure fulfillment through an overall evaluation of
the service or product relative to the consumer’s
expectations (Oliver, 1999, 2010). Accordingly, satis­
faction can be understood as a function of expectation
and experience (Reisinger 8c Turner, 2012). That is, a
consumer might be satisfied when an experience, given
a set of expectations, results in feelings of gratification.
Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 129
On the other hand, when the event results in feelings
of displeasure, the consumer might be dissatisfied.
Satisfaction is an affective orientation toward all kinds
of tangible and intangible products that consumers feel
and experience (Oliver, 1999, 2010).
As satisfaction has been recognized as a crucial req­
uisite in a competitive market-oriented industry,
numerous studies have examined the antecedents and
consequences of satisfaction in various post-consump­
tion processes (e.g., Choi, Tsuji, Hutchinson, 8c
Bouchet, 2011; Koo, Hardin, McClung, lung, Cronin,
Vorhees, 8c Bourdeau, 2009; Pantouvakis 8c
Lymperopoulous, 2008). Previous studies have shown
that satisfaction might vary depending on various fac­
tors, including perceived service quality, consumer
moods, emotions, social interactions, and other experi­
ence-specific subjective factors (Pantouvakis 8c
Lymperopoulous, 2008). More experienced consumers
are also more likely to be satisfied with a service or
product (Kim 8c Lough, 2007). In addition, evaluating
experience has demonstrated that a satisfied consumer
tends to be more committed to the company, service,
or product than a less satisfied consumer (Cho, Lee, 8c
Chon, 2004; Cronin, Brady, 8c Hult, 2000; Kelly 8c
Turley, 2001; Tian-Cole, Crompton, 8c Wilson, 2002).
More specifically, several post-consumption processes,
including brand loyalty (Fornell, 1976), positive word-
of-mouth (Richins, 1983), and repurchase intention
(Oliver, 1980), have been found to be determined by
satisfaction. Considering the role of satisfaction
(Oliver, 1980), the current study measured specific
contextual satisfaction (i.e., I truly enjoyed my visit to
this marathon event) and overall satisfaction (i.e., I am
satisfied with the overall experience) to examine the
relationships among event image, satisfaction, and
behavioral intention as well as the mediating role of
satisfaction.
Behavioral Intention
Behavioral intention is defined as an individual’s ten­
dency to behave according to his or her feelings,
knowledge, or evaluations of previous experiences
(Spears 8c Singh, 2004). It can be categorized as favor­
able or unfavorable (Ladhari, 2009). Zeithaml, Berry,
and Parasuraman (1996) suggested that favorable
behavioral intention is associated with purchasing in
the future, spreading positive word-of-mouth, paying a
premium price, spending more money with the com­
pany, and remaining loyal. On the other hand, unfa­
vorable behavioral intention includes leaving the
company, spending less money with the company,
spreading negative word-of-mouth, and taking legal
action against the product or service provider.
Furthermore, Wilson, Zeithaml, Bitner, and Gremler
(2003) indicated that the economic benefit of favorable
behavioral intention consists of reduced marketing and
administrative costs, the ability to maintain margins
without reducing prices, increased purchases over
time, and reduced cost of attracting new consumers.
In the current study, behavioral intention was posit­
ed as a multidimensional outcome variable consisting
of intention (a) to revisit the sport event in the future
and (b) to spread positive word-of-mouth to prospec­
tive active participants, the two major components of
customer loyalty. Because customer loyalty is crucial to
long-term visibility and sustainability (Chen & Chen,
2010), and the cost of attracting new customers can be
as much as five times greater than the cost of retaining
customers (Reichheld, 1996), maintaining customer
loyalty with a stream of profitability and investigating
possible variables that could influence behavioral
intention are important tasks. Therefore, the current
study investigated event image and satisfaction, which
could influence and interact with the behavioral inten­
tion to revisit a small-scale marathon event and recom­
mend it to prospective participants (Boulding, Kalra,
Staelin, 8c Zeithaml, 1993).
Hypothesis Development
In the past few decades, researchers have studied event
image in terms of their own interests, especially event
choice process and consequent behaviors (Kaplanidou,
2009; Kaplanidou 8c Vogt, 2007; Xing 8c Chalip, 2006).
Previous studies on sport tourism have focused on the
way event image and destination image can work
together to affect behavioral intention (Jago et al.,
2003; Xing 8c Chalip, 2006). For example, Xing and
Chalip (2006) found that destination image influenced
behavioral intention when an event image present in a
destination advertisement matched the activity charac­
teristics of said destination image. Although little
attention has been paid to event image itself and its
consequent variables, previous image-related studies
have confirmed that event image has a positive influ­
ence on levels of satisfaction with a bicycling tour
event (Kaplanidou 8c Vogt, 2007). In addition,
Kaplanidou and Gibson (2012) found that event image
becomes important in the formation of behavioral
intention when youth sport events are viewed as an
acceptable pastime and activity for the family and
friends. Consequently, a more positive event image not
only might show a higher level of event image strength
compared to competing events, but also might corre­
spond to higher levels of satisfaction and behavioral
intention for a small-scale marathon event.
Accordingly, the review of the event image literature
led to the following hypotheses:
130 Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly
HI a: Event image associated with a marathon
event will positively influence satisfaction with
marathon participation.
Hlb: Event image associated with a marathon
event will positively influence behavioral intention
toward marathon participation.
As satisfaction is an overall affective response to a
service or product, numerous studies have explored
the relationship between satisfaction and behavioral
intention (Cho et al., 2004; Cronin et al., 2000; Yoo,
Cho, 8c Chon, 2003). These studies found that satisfac­
tion positively correlated with behavioral intention,
including repurchase intention and positive word-of-
mouth. Similar findings are also identified in the sport
event context (Wakefield 8c Blodgett, 1996; Yoon 8c
Uysal, 2005). For example, Wakefield and Blodgett
(1996) found that satisfaction with the service environ­
ment had a significant effect on behavioral intention to
revisit football and baseball venues. In the same way,
several studies have indicated that satisfaction was a
strong indicator of intention to revisit and to spread
positive word-of-mouth, which are primary indicators
of customer loyalty (Yoon 8c Uysal, 2005; Yoshida 8c
James, 2010). Consequently, satisfied participants are
more likely to return to the same event and share their
positive experience with friends and relatives. Thus,
the findings of previous studies led to the following
hypothesis:
H2: Satisfaction with the marathon participa­
tion will positively influence behavioral intention
toward marathon participation.
Mediating Effect of Satisfaction
Studies have shown that the link between image and
customer loyalty is mediated by evaluative judgments
such as satisfaction (Bloemer, Du Ruyter, 8c Peeters,
1998). Considering this general relationship, Chi and
Qu (2008) established the following sequence: image
-* satisfaction -> behavioral intention. Though satis­
faction has been incorporated as either a consequence
of event image or an antecedent of behavioral inten­
tion (Kaplanidou 8c Vogt, 2007; Kaplanidou 8c Gibson,
2010), no empirical work has examined the mediating
role of satisfaction between event image and behavioral
intention at a small-scale marathon event. While event
image contains cognitive and affective components
that contribute to the holistic evaluation of an event
(Baloglu 8c McCleary, 1999), the mediation model was
tested not only to fill these voids but also to generate
new knowledge about active participants’ perceptions
of a small-scale marathon event. Consistent with the
role of satisfaction as well as the hypothesized relation­
ships, the mediation model depicted that event image
would have a direct effect on behavioral intention and
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics

Variables Category Frequency

Age 36.29
Gender Male 146 (49.2)
Female 150 (50.5)
Ethnicity Caucasian 192 (64.6)
African-American 55 (18.5)
Hispanic 16 (5.4)
Asian 30 (10.1)
Pacific Islander 1 (.3)
Other 2 (.7)
Household Income Less than $25K 29 (9.8)
$25K ~ $50K 53 (17.8)
$50K ~ $75K 105 (35.4)
$75K ~ $100K 61 (20.5)
$100K~ $150K 23 (7.7)
More than $150K 17 (5.7)
Education High School 29 (9.8)
College Degree 205 (69.0)
Graduate School 61 (20.5)

an indirect effect through satisfaction as well. In addi­
tion, this model illustrated that satisfaction would have
a positive effect on behavioral intention.
Method
Participants
As this study attempted to offer im portant implica­
tions that can be used to develop marketing strategies
at a small-scale m arathon event, data were collected
from participants at small-scale m arathon events held
in southeastern cities in the United States: (a) the
Mercedes-Benz M arathon Event in Birmingham, AL,
and (b) the Publix M arathon Event in Atlanta, GA. In
order to measure participant satisfaction specially, our
study included a screening question to distinguish par­
ticipants from spectators at each event. Only respon­
dents who indicated that they had participated in the
m arathon event were included. A convenience sample
was drawn, and the active participants were intercept­
ed to fill in the questionnaire after the event. A total
num ber of 322 questionnaires were collected from the
m arathon events. Twenty-five questionnaires were
eliminated because they were incomplete or incorrectly
filled in. Consequently, 297 valid questionnaires were
accepted for subsequent analyses.
A list of the respondents’ demographics is provided in
Table 1. The demographic profile of the respondents
indicated that the average age was 36. In terms of gen­
der, 49.5% were male and 50.5% were female. Ethnicity
was predominantly Caucasian (64.6%), followed by
African American (18.5%). The majority of respondents
were highly educated; 69.0% held a college degree, and
20.5% held a graduate degree. With regard to annual
income, 35.4% of the respondents earned an annual
income of $50,000-$75,000, followed by $75,000-
$100,000 (20.5%), and $25,000-$50,000 (17.8%).
Instruments
Based on the literature review, a questionnaire was
developed that consisted of four sections: (a) event
image, (b) satisfaction, (c) behavioral intention, and
(d) socio-demographics. The SEI scale, which consists
of 13 five-point semantic differential scale-type items,
was used to measure event image (Kaplanidou 8c Vogt,
2007). Satisfaction was measured using two items
adapted from Oliver (1980). The items were modified
as follows: “I truly enjoyed my visit to this m arathon
event” and “I am satisfied with the overall experience.”
These items were measured on a 5-point Likert scale
ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly
agree”). Behavioral intention was measured using two
items: (a) likelihood of revisiting the event and (b)
willingness to recommend the event to significant oth­
ers (Boulding et al., 1993). These items were measured
on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“strongly dis-

Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 131

Table 2
Descriptive Statistics for Event Image, Satisfaction, and Behavioral Intention

Factor Item M SD Skewness Kurtosis

Event Image
Stimulating/Unstimulating 4.01 .89 -1.13 1.71
Poor/Excellent 4.21 .82 -.76 -.18
Sad/Joyful 4.31 .78 -.69 -.73
H eal thy/Unheal thy 4.41 .86 -1.98 4.68
Gloomy/Cheerful 4.25 .85 -1.02 .73
Distressing/Relaxing 3.98 .93 -.71 .25
Inspiring/Uninspiring 4.01 .91 -.92 .66
Unsupportive/Supportive 4.13 .84 -.78 .40
Satisfaction
I truly enjoyed my visit to this marathon event 4.47 .63 -1.18 2.65
I am satisfied with the overall experience 4.42 .68 -1.01 1.12
Behavioral Intention
I am likely to revisit this marathon event 4.43 .72 -1.19 1.40
I am likely to recommend this marathon event 4.47 .69 -1.25 1.66

agree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”). Socio-demographic
information gathered in the study included age, gen­
der, ethnicity, education, and income level. Following
the development of the questionnaire, panel experts
consisting of sport management and marketing profes­
sors reviewed it for content validity. They were asked
to assess the content relevance, representativeness, and
clarity of the items. They also provided suggestions for
changing words and phrases to increase clarity. Acting
on the feedback derived from the panel experts, minor
wording changes were made.
Data Analysis
Procedures from the Statistical Package for the Social
Science (SPSS 19.0) were used to calculate descriptive
statistics, central tendency (e.g., mean), measures of
variability (e.g., standard deviation), and data normality
(e.g., skewness and kurtosis). A Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (CFA) was conducted on the proposed model
to ensure the measurement model’s psychometric
properties. Various model fit indices were used, includ­
ing standardized root mean square residual (SRMR),
root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA),
Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), and comparative fit index
(CFI). Additionally, convergent validity was assessed in
terms of factor loadings in the measurement model.
Furthermore, discriminant validity was assessed by
comparing squared correlations among the constructs.
Lastly, Cronbach’s alpha, Composite Reliability (CR),
and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) were calculated
to assess inter-item reliability of the three constructs
(Ffair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998).
Upon the testing the measurement model, regression
analyses were employed to examine the impact of
event image and satisfaction on behavioral intention as
well as the impact of event image on satisfaction.
Following Baron and Kenny’s (1986) guidelines, a
series of hierarchical regressions were also conducted
to test the mediating role of satisfaction in the relation­
ship between event image and behavioral intention. A
variable serves as a mediator when it fulfills the follow­
ing conditions: (a) the purported predictor (i.e., event
image) is related to the mediator (i.e., satisfaction) and
the criterion variable (i.e., behavioral intention), (b)
the mediator has a significant unique effect on the cri­
terion, and (c) upon the addition of the mediator to
the model, the magnitude of the predictor on the crite­
rion becomes either insignificant (fully mediating) or
reduced (partially mediating). Finally, the Sobel test
was conducted to examine the significance of the indi­
rect effect (Sobel, 1982).
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Mean scores as well as standard deviations for event
image, satisfaction, and behavioral intention are shown
in Table 2. The mean scores of the event image items
ranged from 3.98 to 4.41 on the 5-point semantic dif­
ferential scale. These scores suggest that most respon­
dents generally held a positive image of the
Mercedes-Benz Marathon Event and the Publix
Marathon Event. The mean scores of the satisfaction
items ranged from 4.42 to 4.47, indicating that most

132 Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

Table 3
Factor Loadings, Cronbach’s Alpha, Composite Reliability, and Average Extracted Variance for Event Image, Satisfaction,
and Behavioral Intention

Factor Item X a CR AVE

Event Image .896 .924 .607

Stimulating/Unstimulating .660
Poor/Excellent .642
Sad/Joyful .873
H ealthy/U nhealthy .874
Gloomy/Cheerful .825
Distressing/Relaxing .815
Inspiring/Uninspiring .817
Unsupportive/Supportive .688
Satisfaction .866 .771 .529
I truly enjoyed my visit to this sport event. .734
I am satisfied with the overall experience. .770
Behavioral Intention .901 .889 .668
I am likely to revisit this marathon event. .874
I am likely to recommend this marathon event. .746

respondents felt a high level of satisfaction with the
two marathon events. The mean scores of the behav­
ioral intention items ranged from 4.43 to 4.47, suggest­
ing that most respondents had positive behavioral
intention toward future event participation.
Psychometric Properties o f the Measurement Model
CFA was conducted on the proposed model to ensure
psychometric properties. The results indicate a good fit
of the hypothesized model to the data (= 586.915; df=
244; SRMR= .053; RMSEA = .069; TLI = .913; & CFI =
.923). In addition, convergent validity was assessed in
terms of factor loadings in the measurement model.
Convergent validity is evidenced when factor loadings
are equal to or greater than .50 (Hair et al„ 1998). As
shown in Table 3, factor loadings for each item ranged
from .64 to .87, indicating that convergent validity was
established. Furthermore, comparison of squared cor­
relations among the constructs was used to measure
discriminate validity, which should be less than .85
(Kline, 2010). The estimated correlations among the
exogenous latent constructs ranged from .51 to .82,
confirming discriminant validity. Lastly, Cronbach’s
alpha, CR, and AVE were calculated to assess the relia­
bility of the three instruments. For items to be reliable,
Cronbach’s alpha and CR should be greater than the
suggested cut-off value of .70, and AVE should be
greater than the recommended cut-off value of .50
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981). As presented in Table 3, the
values for Cronbach’s alpha and CR were above .70,
and the values for AVE were above .50. Therefore, the
Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 133
psychometric properties of the measurement model
were good.
Hypothesis Testing
Regression analyses were conducted to examine the
impact of event image and satisfaction on behavioral
intention as well as the impact of event image on satis­
faction. In detail, hypothesis la predicted that event
image would positively influence satisfaction. The
results indicate that event image had a significant
influence on satisfaction (|3 = .55, p < .05), supporting
hypothesis la. Hypothesis lb posited that event image
would positively influence behavioral intention. The
results also show that the influence of event image on
behavioral intention was significant ((3 = .54, p < .05),
supporting hypothesis lb. Finally, hypothesis 2 pre­
dicted that satisfaction would positively influence
behavioral intention. Satisfaction had a significant
effect on behavioral intention ((3 = .82, p < .05), sup­
porting hypothesis 2. The results of these regression
analyses are presented in Table 4.
Baron and Kenny’s (1986) guidelines were used in
this study for testing the mediating role of satisfaction
in the relationship between event image and behavioral
intention. The first step showed that the influence of
event image on both satisfaction ((3 = .55, p < .05) and
behavioral intention ((3 = .54, p < .05) was significant,
and the second step indicated that satisfaction was sig­
nificantly related to behavioral intention ((3 = .82, p <
.05). The third step revealed that when satisfaction was
controlled, the influence of event image on behavioral
intention was still significant ((3 = .12, p < .05) but that
Table 4
Regression Analyses (N = 297)

Independent Variable df R2 AR2 F P Sig.

Dependent Variable: Behavioral Intention

Event Image 1 .298 .295 125.007 .546 .000***
Satisfaction 1 .680 .679 626.938 .825 .000***
Dependent Variable: Satisfaction
Event Image 1 .313 .311 134.337 .559 .000***

Note. ** * p < .001

Table 5
Sobel Test (N = 297)
Path Z Probability Level

Event Image-►Satisfaction-►Behavioral Intention 2.44 0.014*

Note. * p < .05

the magnitude of the beta coefficient was reduced,
indicating that satisfaction partially mediated the rela­
tionship between event image and behavioral intention
for participants at a small-scale m arathon event (see
Figure 1). In addition, the z-value provided by the
Sobel test was 2.44 (p < .05), indicating that the indi­
rect effect of event image on behavioral intention
through satisfaction was statistically significant.
D iscu ssion
This study focused on investigating the hierarchical
relationship among event image, satisfaction, and
behavioral intention (i.e., intention to revisit and rec­
om mend the event to others) in the context of a small-
scale m arathon event. The results offered support for
the statistically significant relationship between event
image and behavioral intention. That is, participants
with positive and favorable event image were likely to
have positive future behavioral intention toward a
small-scale m arathon event. This finding is consistent
with previous findings that event image has a positive
influence on revisiting and recommending an event
(Kaplanidou & Gibson, 2012). In addition, with refer­
ence to the relationship between satisfaction and
behavioral intention, the regression analysis also indi­
cates that greater satisfaction with the m arathon event
made positive future behavioral intention more likely.
This result is also consistent with previous studies that
recognized satisfaction as a good predictor of behav­
ioral intention (Bigne, Sanchez, & Sanchez, 2001; Chen
& Tsai, 2007). Following Baron and Kenny’s (1986)
guidelines, the current study found that satisfaction
partially mediated the relationship between event
image and behavioral intention at a small-scale
m arathon event. Positive event image related to both
satisfaction and positive future behavioral intention for
participations of the small-scale m arathon events.
Previous studies have indicated that a more positive
image of a destination corresponded to higher levels of
satisfaction, which, in turn, determined behavioral
intention (Chi & Qu, 2008). In line with those find­
ings, the current study provides additional support
through a series of hierarchical regressions. In other
words, event image was found to be a determ inant of
satisfaction and behavioral intention.
Marketing Implications
The findings of this study provide a num ber of insights
and im portant implications for small-scale m arathon
event organizers interested in developing marketing
strategies based on the identification of key elements of
participants’ decision making. First, m arathon event
organizers should consider building a positive event
image and maintaining that image. For example,
m arathon event organizers should provide the partici­
pants with positive experiences that enhance the orga­
nizational, environmental, emotional, social fulfillment,
and physical activity aspects of the event (Kaplanidou &
Vogt, 2006). Event image appears to be a direct
antecedent of satisfaction, as well as a major influence
on behavioral intention, even without the mediation of
satisfaction. This finding supports the position that
m arathon event organizers should develop and pursue
an event image-development agenda by focusing on

134 Volume 23 • Number 3 • 2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly

Figure 1. Result of the Mediating Role of Satisfaction on the Relationship Between Event Image and Behavioral Intention.
event image attributes that influence satisfaction and
behavioral intention. Second, enhancing satisfaction
should be considered a strategic investment for event
organizers. The general view is that if participants are
satisfied, they will have positive behavioral intention
(i.e., engaging in positive word-of-mouth and returning
to the event site) in the future (Kaplanidou & Gibson,
2010). This study also provides empirical evidence sup­
porting the notion that satisfaction directly affects
behavioral intention at a small-scale marathon event.
Furthermore, based on the finding that completing a
marathon race can enhance event satisfaction,
marathon organizers should consider hosting races of
various distances (e.g., 5K and half marathon) to draw
participants with different levels of confidence and
experience so that a greater number of participants will
be able to complete their races. Lastly, as satisfaction
was found to play an important mediating role in the
relationship between event image and behavioral inten­
tion, improving event image with satisfaction could
maximize positive outcomes in terms of participants’
behavioral intention. Therefore, marathon event organ­
izers should develop a strategy for enhancing satisfac­
tion through event image (i.e., linking participants’
emotions more closely to the event).
Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
As with all research investigations, several limitations
should be addressed. First, the data for this study were
collected at only two small-scale marathon events held
in the southeast region of the United States. This nar­
row scope possibly means that the results are not gen-
eralizable to all participants of small-scale marathon
events in other parts of the country or the world.
Additional data collection at small-scale marathon
events in other locations would increase the external
validity of the tested model. A second limitation is that
even though event image explained a good amount of
satisfaction and behavioral intention at a small-scale
Volume 23 • Number 3 *2014 • Sport Marketing Quarterly 135
marathon event, additional images, such as sponsor
image (e.g., Mercedes-Benz and Publix) and destina­
tion image, might give further insight into the out­
come variables. Thus, future research might include
those images to uncover additional relationships with
the outcome variables. Thirdly, although event image
in this study was the only antecedent of satisfaction
and behavioral intention, additional factors, such as
perceived value, could influence and interact with
those variables. Because participants might weigh the
costs against the perceived benefits of their experience
at a small-scale marathon event, re-conceptualizing the
proposed model by including perceived value might
enhance our understanding of how event image and
perceived value interact with satisfaction to influence
behavioral intention (i.e., revisit and word-of-mouth)
in the context of small-scale marathon event. Fourth,
testing the moderating effect of a variable such as fre­
quency of participation (i.e., first-time vs. return par­
ticipants) might also allow researchers and event
organizers to better understand event consumption
behaviors toward small-scale marathon event. Lastly,
future studies could use structural equation modeling
(SEM) to estimate a conceptual model, a useful
method when the constructs are fully latent variables
measured with multiple indicators (Kline, 2010), for
SEM can take into consideration the measurement
error variance associated with the indicators that rep­
resent the latent variables (Kline, 2010).
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