Chapter 4

Design and Operation of Cyclones

Contents

1. Introduction 67
2. Qualitative Description of Fluid and Particle Movements. 70
3. Calculation of Fluid Dynamic Properties. 75
4. Calculation of Separation Efficiency. . . 80
4.1 Mechanism of Particle-Gas Separation. . 80
4.2 Calculation of Separation Efficiency and Dust Emission Rate . 83
4.3 Adaptation of Fractional Separation Efficiency to Special Conditions 85
5. Application of Computer Programs to the Calculation and Design
of Cyclones. . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.1 Definition of the Aims of Calculations. . . . 89
5.2 Structure of Computer Programs . . . . . . 89
5.3 Range of Application of Computer Programs. 91
6. Discussion of the Results Obtained by Computer Programs. 92
6.1 Basic Assumptions . . . . . . 92
6.2 One Cyclone. . . . . . . . . . 93
6.3 Cyclones in Serial Arrangement. . 95
6.4 Cyclones in Parallel Arrangement. 98
6.5 Comparison of Separation Efficiency for Various Arrangements of Cyclones 101
7. Some Remarks on Cyclone Design 103
8. List of Symbols. 104
9. References . . . 106

1. Introduction

A cyclone is an apparatus in which centrifugal forces are made available for

the separation of dust particles from a gas stream. Three main problems arise in
cyclone design.
1. How to make centrifugal forces of sufficient strength available? There is no
other possibility but by rotational movement. If r is the radius of curvature of
the particle trajectory, up the tangential particle velocity, and mp the mass of the
particle, then the centrifugal force Kc is given by:

H. Brauer et al., Air Pollution Control Equipment

© Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg 1981
68 Chapter 4 : Design and Operation of Cyclones

The centrifugal force increases with decreasing radius r. This equation indicates
that the separation efficiency of a small cyclone is better than that of a large
cyclone.
2. How to generate a rotational motion of gas and particles? By tangential
introduction of gas and particles into a cylindrical element.
3. How to withdraw gas and dust particles after separation? By separate
withdrawal at opposite ends of the cyclone, of the gas by pressure force and of
the dust by gravity force.
Fig. 1 schematically describes a cyclone of conventional design. It consists of a
cyclindrical entrance chamber, a conical dust separation or vortex chamber, an
inlet channel, an outlet tube with extension into the cylindrical entrance
chamber, a dust collection chamber, and a conical vortex spoiler which sep-
arates the separation chamber from the collection chamber, thereby preventing
dust re-entrainement into the gas.
Some of the important properties of the cyclone are as follows.
1. In the cyclone, direct dust-gas separation is possible without introducing any
separation agent such as liquid drops. The cyclone is a dry dust separator
that does not generate new pollution problems.
2. The cyclone is designed for a continuous separation process with continuous
withdrawal of gas and dust.
3. The technical attractiveness is at least partially due to its simplicity of design.
There is no technical sophistication.
4. The physical phenomena of gas-dust separation in a cyclone are relatively
well understood. This is a sound basis for a mathematical description of the

L..-- VU"' ~' tube

vat;tex
chamber

dust collection
chamber

Fig. 1. Shape and dimensions of a cyclone

and velocities
 1. Introduction 69

process. Pressure drop and separation efficiency can be fairly well determined
in advance.
5. The particle cut diameter is in the range from 2 to Sllm, with a fair chance to
reduce it still further.
6. If the cut diameter does not meet the requirements, then the cyclone may be
applied as a pre-separator.
7. The cyclone may be used either as a single unit or with many units operated
in parallel.
8. Low cost for investment and for operation.
The photographs in Fig. 2 demonstrate design by various companies and
technical application of cyclones. Fig. 2a depicts a single cyclone. An arrange-
ment of three cyclones operated in parallel is shown in Fig. 2b. The clean gas
tubes from three cyclones are introduced into one collection unit. Typical

Fig. 2. Photographs of cyclones from several companies applied in various technical

plants
70 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

polycylone arrangements are illustrated in Fig. 2c and 2d. The polycyclones

have been integrated into the production plants.
Because of its favorable properties the cyclone has found wide application in
industry and proved its separation efficiency. With air quality regulations
becoming increasingly severe it turned out that the cyclone did not meet all
demands, particularly as a fine dust separator. To a certain extent, this is due to
the fact that design calculations have not been based on available knowledge of
the physical phenomena of the separation process. Making use of all knowledge
available calculations must be carried out by means of a computer, for which a
program must be available. To avoid computer application, the mathematical
procedure is often simplified to such an extent that the obtained results indicate
a rather poor separation efficiency. Thus the technical use of a cyclone had to be
rejected. Application of a computer program to the complete calculation
procedure will help to avoid such misjudgings.
The calculation procedure that will be explained in the following sections is
based on work done over several decades by Barth, Muschelknautz and co-
workers [1-7]. Further important research work has been carried out by Ogawa
and coworkers [8-12]. It has unfortunately not been possible to integrate the
results of this work into the method of calculation based on the work performed
by the first mentioned group of research engineers.
The design calculation consists of two parts: pressure drop and separation
efficiency. Without a computer program one should not expect to be able to
design a cyclone with the highest possible separation efficiency and the lowest
possible pressure drop. Safe application of the program and its further refine-
ment demands for a thorough understanding of as many details as possible of
fluid and particle movement within the cyclone. The physical process must be
thoroughly understood when a computer program is used for its description.
This is the reason why fluid and particle movement in the cyclone will be briefly
described in Section 2.

2. Qualitative Description of Fluid and Particle Movements

The main elements of a cyclone have already been described by Fig. 1. The
cyclone essentially consists of an entrance chamber, separation chamber, dust
collection chamber, and gas outled tube. There are various designs for the inlet
element available. The more important ones are presented in Fig. 3: tangential
inlet, spiral inlet, and axial inlet. The mean gas velocity in the entrance section is
Ve. The clean gas leaves the cyclone through the exit tube having the mean axial
velocity Vi. The cross sectional areas are for the inlet Fe and for the outlet Fi.
The characteristic velocities of the fluid within the cyclone, the trajectory of a
particle from the inlet to the outlet, and the streamlines of the axial flow
component are given in Fig. 4. Within the cyclone a three-dimensional flow is
established, which is characterized by a rotational movement, superposed in the
outer ring space by an axial movement directed toward the dust collection
chamber, and in the inner cylindrical space by an axial movement directed
toward the exit tube. The axial movements in the inner and outer space of the
2. Qualitative Description of Fluid and Particle Movements 71

tv,-
e I

a c

Fig. 3. Various types of inlet of cyclones

particle trajectory

secondary m- -.--++nm.- - m
flow streamlines
of axial flow
particle components
trajectory

inlet
channel
Fig. 4. Fluid and particle movements in a
cyclone

separation chamber are countercurrent. These countercurrent movements are

connected by a radial movement directed toward the cyclone axis.
The dust laden raw gas enters the cyclone through a tangential inlet so that a
rotational movement of the fluid around the exit tube is enforced. In Fig. 4 the
tangential velocity u is qualitatively described over the radial coordinate.
72 Chapter 4 : Design and Operation of Cyclones

Neglecting the non-slip condition at the cyclone wall, the tangential velocity at r
=ra is given by ua. In the direction of the cyclone axis, the velocity u increases
from U a to its maximum value U i at r = r i . With further decreasing radius, the
tangential velocity rises too; at r = 0 the symmetry condition demands u = O. At
the surface of the exit tube with r = r i , the tangential velocity is of course zero.
At the surface of the inner cylindrical element i-i, the tangential velocity U i
changes scarcely. A slight decrease of U i is observed close to the dust collection
chamber and may safely be neglected. Furthermore, the radial fluid velocity Vr
may be assumed to be constant over the height of the cylindrical surface i-i.
Small deviations from the constant value are observed only near the entrance
to the exit tube t - t and the dust collection chamber.
The particles which are transported by the gas streams into the cyclone will
be subjected to the action of the centrifugal, frictional, and other forces typical
of the three-dimensional flow field. The centrifugal force is due to the rotational
movement of the fluid while the frictional force is due to the movement of the
fluid in the radial direction toward the axis of the cyclone. The acceleration u 2/r
caused by the centrifugal force is in many cases 100 or even 10,000 times higher
than the acceleration caused by the attraction of the earth.
Under the influences of the combined action of centrifugal and frictional
forces, all particles move on a spiral-like path as shown in Fig. 5. The larger
particles move along the spiral outwards while the smaller particles move along
the spiral inwards. Outward moving large particles are separated from the gas;
they will collide with the cyclone wall and move toward the dust collection
chamber. Inward moving small particles are not be separated from the gas
stream but carried away by it, leaving the cyclone through the exit tube.
The rotational fluid movement establishes a pressure field that has its maxi-
mum near the cyclone wall and its minimum in the cyclone axis. The pressure
gradient in the radial direction, d pldr, is given by the equation:

dp u2
-=p - .
dr r

Fig. 5. Trajectories of small and large par-

ticles in a horizontal plane of a cyclone
2. Qualitative Description of Fluid and Particle Movements 73

Integration leads to:

The pressure increases with radius r, tangential velocity u, and fluid density p; Cis
a constant of integration. One may safely assume that the pressure Pa at the
cyclone wall may be determined by the above equation, neglecting the zero
velocity condition at the wall. The pressure gradient will force small particles to
follow a secondary fluid motion indicated by arrows in Fig. 4. Above plane t - t
that is above the entrance to the exit tube. small particles will move upwards
along the cyclone wall, then follow the fluid in a radial direction toward the exit
tube where they fall downwards along the tube and reach plane t - t. Here. the
small particles may be picked up again by the fluid that enters the exit tube. The
secondary motion of the fluid in the upper part of the separation chamber will
decrease the collection efficiency of the cyclone. This can be prevented by the
installation of a collar around the gas outlet tube.
In the bottom part of the cyclone, that is the conical element in Fig. 4, the
secondary motion of the fluid supports the motion of the particles toward the
collection chamber.
Furthermore, the secondary motion supports the formation of particle strands
close to the entrance to the cyclone and their movement on spiral- and screw-
like paths down the cyclone wall. Strand formation will be observed especially
at high dust loading of the raw gas.
Important properties of fluid flow in the cyclone may be deduced from Fig. 6
in which the pressure at various cross sections in the cyclone is given on the
basis of experimental evidence available. According to Fig. 1 cross section e - e
is to be found at the entrance of the cyclone, cross section i - i below the exit
tube in the separation chamber, cross section t - t at the entrance of the exit
tube, and cross section m - m at the outlet of the exit tube. For a dimensionless
representation of the pressure in the cyclone giving a maximum of information
on the fluid flow, the overall pressure Llp* and the static pressure LlP~at have
been used. These two quantities are defined as follows:

LI p* = Pstat - Pm, stat

stat- vt/2

p and Pstat are the local pressure values at the considered cross sections, Pm and
Pm, stat are the values at cross section m - m at the outlet of the exit tube, and p
- Pm and Pstat - Pm, stat local pressure differences related to the conditions at the
cyclone outlet. p vt /2 is related to the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow in the
exit tube; p is the fluid density and Vi the mean translational velocity in the exit
tube.
In order to simplify the considerations, the pressure differences Llp* and LlP~at
at the defined cross sections have been connected by straight lines. According to
74 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

e m

e ; m Fig. 6. Pressure in various cross sections

cross sections of a cyclone

Fig. 7. Fluid flow in the outlet tube of a cyclone

Fig. 6 the sharpest decrease in overall pressure L1 p* is observed in the exit tube
between cross sections t - m and the inner cylindrical element between cross sec-
tions i - t. The extremely great pressure drop in the exit tube is due to a very strong
rotational movement superimposed upon the axial fluid movement. This not only
causes the great friction losses at the wall of the exit tube but also the formation
of a low pressure region in the axis of the exit tube. Into this low pressure space,
fluid moves countercurrently to the primary axial movement. The axial flow
field in the exit tube is schematically illustrated in Fig. 7. Because of the very
great pressure drop and its importance for the collection efficiency, the exit tube
is considered to be the most important element of the cyclone. The important
dimensions of the exit tube are the radius r i and the length of protrusion into the
separation chamber, h - hi'
The curve given for the static pressure in Fig. 6 is quite different from that
characterizing the overall pressure, although it reflects the same physical conditions.
The strongest decrease in static pressure is observed between the cross sections i
- t where the most complicated flow field with rotational and countercurrent
axial movement exists. At a first glance, it will surprise that the static pressure
increases along the exit tube. This is due to the fact that the rotational
movement is reduced while the fluid is flowing through the exit tube.
The friction factors (e -i' ( i- m and (z given in Fig. 6 will be discussed in
Section 3.
3. Calculation of Fluid Dynamic Properties 75

3. Calculation of Fluid Dynamic Properties

The dimensions of a cyclone, which are important for design purposes, are given
in Figs. 1 and 3. Ratios of these dimensions are being used for fluid dynamic
calculations. They are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Definitions of dimensionless geometric numbers and calculations of mean veloc-

ities in various cross section of the cyclone

Height ratio of cyclone (1)

Height of vortex space ratio of cyclone (2)

Radius ratio of cyclone (3)

Cross-sectional area ratio (4)

v =-
v Mean velocity at the entrance of cyclone (5)
e Fe

v·=-
v Mean velocity in exit tube of cyclone (6)
, F,

Mean radial velocity in cross section i - i (7)

Mean radial velocity in a cylindrical

(8)
cross section with radius rm

Mean radius of vortex space (9)

Fig. 1 gives the mean velocities in the mentioned cross sections of the cyclone.
For particle separation in the vortex chamber, the tangential velocity u and the
radial velocity vr are of great importance. Equations for the inner and outer
tangential velocity U j and ua are listed in Table 2. The outer tangential velocity
u a is a function of the entrance coefficient IJ.. given for three different designs of
the entrance element (Fig. 3).

For the calculation of the inner tangential velocity U j , the wall friction coef-
ficient Amust be known. The equations used for the calculation of A are listed in
Table 3. Eqs. (20) and (21) may be employed for an approximate calculation of
A as a function of the dust loading ratio Jl. Eqs. (23) and (24) give the wall
friction coefficient in the case of a dust free gas, stream and for a technically
smooth cyclone wall, with k s /r.::;::;:2.6.1O- s .
76 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

Table 2. Calculation of inner and outer tangential velocities U j and ua

For dust loaden gas streams:

uj 1
inner tangential velocity ratio at r=rj (10)
Vj Fe* ve 'h*
*-+A
ra ua

For dust free gas stream:

1
inner tangential velocity ratio at r = rj (11)
Fe* ve 'h*
*-+AG
ra ua

For uju iO <0.2, the following equation applies:

inner tangential velocity at r = r i (12)

When uj is known, the other rotational velocities may be determined:

re 1
u =v-- outer tangential velocity at r=r a (13)
a era IX

mean tangential velocity in vortex chamber (14)

Equations for entrance coefficient IX:

Tangential inlet:

IXT = 1.0 - (0.54 - 0.153/Fe*) Vbfr. (15)

Spiral inlet:
2r*)
IXs= 1 +2.72), ( 1 + vn~e* (16)

Axial inlet with straight swirl vanes:

IXA=O.85 (17)
Axial inlet with bent swirl vanes:
(18)

In Figs. 8 and 9 the wall friction coefficients for a dust free gas stream are plotted
against the Reynolds number. In the first case the gas stream is in a cyclone with a
cylindrical vortex chamber and in the second case in a cyclone containing a conical
vortex chamber. Curves a apply to technically smooth, curves band c to rough
cyclone walls. The roughness parameter ks/ra is the ratio of sand roughness ks to
cyclone radius ra' In Fig. 8 curve a is described by Eq. (23) and in Fig. 9 by Eq.
(24). Experimental data fit fairly well curves a.
3. Calculation of Fluid Dynamic Properties 77

Table 3. Calculation of the friction coefficient

(19)

Approximate solution:
/1<1
Al =";dl+2~) (20)

/1>1
Al=Adl+3~) (21)
Loading ratio /1:
Mp YM
/1 == --;- = .-=:J' (22)
M Vp

Wall friction coefficient for dust free gas stream Ao:

cylindrical vortex chamber:
1.49
Ao =-+0.004 (23)
Re z
conical vortex chamber:

(24)

Reynolds number Re z of cyclone flow:

Re.
(25)

Reynolds number Rei of exit tube flow:

2r i vi P
Re.==-- (26)
, '1

Additional wall friction coefficient in the case of dust strand formation:

(27)

Froude number Fr i :
v·
Fr =--'- (28)
i - y'2r i g

Collection efficiency cp:

(29)
78 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

2
I I II
I
. I . I
,~ cylmdrlcal vortex chamber

b'\. I

"" "\
~ :-- """c
k 5 /rg :6. /0, 3

'" :::-...
~
J-
1. /0, 3
,
a ~~ n ~2.6.1(j5
~ 0

technically smooth
cyclone wall
2

I
, 6 BId
Reynolds number Re z

Fig. 8. Wall friction factor A.G for a cyclone with a cylindrical vortex chamber

"-
1.. I I I
, ~ conical vortex chamber
k$ /ro=6. 10-1
....:'"
'-
2
~~ ..-:; !---
I
/./0,3

>-
0
<:; f-"'"
~~ e--
~
10' 2 I
~ B ---
........ ....... r--..!!

,
.~

or-- r:-.
6
....'- a 0,,2.6.10 5
0

ti technically smooth
~ cyclone wall
2

I
~ 6 B /0'
Reynolds number Rez

Fig. 9. Wall friction factor A.G for a cyclone with a conical vortex chamber

The overall pressure drop Ll Pz for cyclone flow may be considered as a sum of
two parts: LlPe_i and LlPi_m' The pressure drop LlPe_i occurs between cross
sections e - e and i - i while that of Ll Pi _ m occurs between cross sections i - i and
m - m. The cross sections are indicated in Fig. 1.
The pressure drop Ll Pz in the cyclone may be calculated by means of the
equations listed in Table 4.
For cyclones with spiral inlet an additional pressure drop Ll Ps has to be taken
into account. In Fig. 10 the second fraction of the cyclone friction factor (i-m is
plotted against the velocity ratio u/v i and compared with experimental data.
3. Calculation of Fluid Dynamic Properties 79

Table 4. Calculation of pressure drop LI pz in the cyclone

Overall pressure drop:

LI pz= LI Pe-i + LI Pi-m = (zpv~ /2 (30)

LI Pe-i =(Pe + pv;j2) - (Pi + pu;J2) (31)

LI Pi-rn =(Pi + pu;J2) - (Pm + pv~ /2) (32)

cyclone friction factor (33)

first fraction of cyclone friction factor (34)

second fraction of cyclone friction factor (35)

LIps
(s= pv;J2 friction factor of spiral inlet (36)

Cyclones with tangential and axial inlet :

(z=(e-i+C-m (37)
Cyclones with spiral inlet :

(. =(S+ (e- i+C - m (38)

(39)

(40)

1 0.886)2 ( 1)
(s= (F*+r*F* 1-()(2
(41)
e a e S

R• . =7.5.10 2
I
9

6 R~ =2 ./03
, R:. ~ 5 . /0' V
D

0
~

If
..,:,.-

~l>
2
,E
.,gCO
.!,! /0 '
;j
.::: 8 ///
...CO V~
c 6 Fig. 10. Cyclone friction
<:;
~ , .--; V
./
V V factor ( i-m as a function of
L--- the velocity ratio uJv i and
it'" V Rei as a parameter, \7: Re
------
0
2 r- =7.5.10 2, 0: Re=2 . 10 3,0:
/0-1 2 6 8 10 0 2
Re~5. 104
velocity ratio ui Iv,
80 Chapter 4': Design and Operation of Cyclones

4. Calculation of Separation Efficiency

4.1 Mechanism of Particle-Gas Separation
The separation of dust from the carrying gas stream III a cyclone IS accom-
plished in three steps:
1. primary separation,
2. re-entrainment of dust,
3. secondary separation.
Particle movement in these three steps is indicated by particle trajectories in
Fig. 11. Particle 4 moves along an almost straight trajectory and hits the cyclone
wall at point 4a. Dust particle 4 has been separated from the gas. However,
re-entrainment takes place after the collision between particle and wall. Due to
elastic effects, particle 4 is thrown back into the gas stream. This is called re-
entrainment process. The gas picks up the particle that gets under the influence
of centrifugal and friction forces. Thus, secondary separation takes place. The
three steps will be described in more detail.
Primary separation occurs in the entrance chamber of the cyclone. The dust
laden gas enters the cyclone through the tangential inlet. As soon as the gas is
forced into a rotational movement, centrifugal forces start to act on the dust
particles and try to prevent the particles from following the gas stream.
Frictional forces however attempt to keep the particles on the trajectory of the
gas elements. With the centrifugal force K c ' given by:

entrance channel

entrance and
vortex
chamber

J •

~c

Fig. If Particle trajectories indicating primary and secondary separation

4. Calculation of Separation Efficiency 81

and the frictional force K r , given by:

the ratio of these forces is obtained as:

Kc 1 d~pp u
- ---
Kr 18 fl1

In these equations dp is the particle diameter, Pp the particle density, u the gas
velocity, r the radius of curvature, IJ the gas viscosity, and Wr the relative velocity
between gas and particle. For simplicity, it has been assumed that wr=u. This
assumption favors frictional force. However, the ratio Kc/Kr still indicates
predominance of the centrifugal force. The consequence is that almost all
particles will move along an almost straight trajectory and hit the cyclone wall.
Moving along a straight path the particles will be separated from the gas. This
process is called "primary separation".
It may be objected that turbulence will hinder or even prevent primary
separation. The ratio of centrifugal force Kc to turbulent momentum flux K t is
given by:

The centrifugal acceleration, u 2 /r, may be assumed to be 10 4 and pJp to be

10 3 . The fluctuation velocity u' is assumed to be about 5% of the gas velocity u,
which is of the order of 15 to 20 m/s. In this case, the centrifugal force will
dominate the turbulent momentum flux so that the separation process will not
be hindered by turbulence.
According to these considerations, one is lead to assume that the separation
of a solid-gas system in a centrifugal field is a very effective process. But this is
unfortunately not the case. The solid particles will, to a certain extent, hit the
cyclone wall under such conditions that they are reflected from the wall and re-
entrained by the gas stream. Fig. 11 describes the trajectories of 5 particles
before and after collision with the wall. Only particle 1 is not reflected. This
particle hits the wall under a very small angle and slides along the wall without
being reflected into the gas stream. Particle 1 is an example for all those
particles which remain separated from the gas stream. For many technical
conditions, this is the largest fraction of the solid load of the gas. The solid load
is expressed by the loading ratio f-l. If f-lr is the re-entrained load, then f-l- f-lr is
the separated dust load which is due to primary separation. Cyclones may be
designed in such a way that the re-entrained load f-lr is kept very small.
In Fig. 11 particles 2 to 5 collide with the wall under such conditions that they
are reflected and re-entrained by the gas stream. In order to get a better
understanding of the re-entrainment process the trajectories of particles 2 to 5
will be discussed in detail.
82 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

Particles 3 and 5 are very small. After collision with the cyclone wall at points
3 a and 5 a, they are reflected. At the points of collision the particles transfer
some of their energy to the wall. After collision, their velocity and the centrifugal
force are reduced. These particles will therefore get under the strong influence of
the now prevailing frictional forces of the radial gas stream and will be carried
into the exit tube at point 3 band 5 b as indicated in Fig. 11. The centrifugal
forces are too weak to be effective in this case. Secondary separation has not
been successful.
Particles 2 and 4 are assumed to be rather large. They hit the cyclone wall at
points 2a and 4a and are reflected. Because of its size, particle 2 remains under
the influence of the dominating centrifugal force and is separated a second time.
For particle 4 three different trajectories are depicted in Fig. 11. From the
point of collision 4a to point 4 b, the three trajectories are identical. At this
point, turbulent momentum is transferred so that the particle is pushed closer to
the outlet tube. In this region, the frictional forces, due to the high gas velocity
in the radial direction, dominate over the centrifugal forces and carry the
particle into the outlet tube. Because of the action of turbulent momentum, the
secondary separation has not been successful.
The second trajectory, which will be discussed, leads from point 4b to point
4c. In this case, the centrifugal force is dominated by the frictional force directed
in the tangential direction. The particle approaches the cyclone wall asymptoti-
cally, and will therefore not be reflected again. The secondary separation process
has been successful.
The third trajectory to be discussed leads from point 4b to point 4c', and from
there to point 4c". In the first section of the trajectory, from 4b to 4c', the
frictional force in the tangential direction was not strong enough to ensure an
asymptotic approach to the wall. Consequently, collision with the wall and
reflection had to take place. The final asymptotic approach leads to point 4c".
There is a fundamental difference in primary and secondary separation,
although in both cases the centrifugal force is the "separating force". In primary
separation, almost all particles hit the wall and will be separated, independent of
their size. This means that the diameter distribution of the particles separated in
the first step is identical with the distribution of the particles at the cyclone inlet.
Following the re-entrainment process, secondary separation takes place in the
vortex chamber. Separation in a vortex field is a selective process. Large
particles are more easily separated from the fluid than small ones. The sepa-
ration process in a vortex field is described by a fractional separation efficiency
curve. It is not yet possible to determine a fractional efficiency curve by theory.
The fractional efficiency curve therefore has to be determined by experiments.
Fig. 12 gives some examples for fractional separation efficiency curves which
have been established by Muschelknautz. Curve a is related to a cyclone with
axial inlet, and curves band c to cyclones with tangential inlet. Table 5 lists the
data of the cyclones tested. For practical applications, Muschelknautz suggests
curve c when the cyclone has a tangential inlet.
Calculations based on curves band c reveal that the shape of the cyclone has
a relatively small effect on the separation efficiency in the range of medium and
high values of the loading ratio /1. This is the reason why Muschelknautz
4. Calculation of Separation Efficiency 83

v- ~ ~
1.0 I-
c:
.~ ch
"0... 0.8

§~
1I)s; 0.6 / 0 V
/'
a

-:0...
01.)
§c: 0.'
If V
~ 1/
.~:~
.......
0 ....
0.2
V
.... OJ
/
o ~

o 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

particle diameter fatia dpldp J

Fig. 12. Fractional separation efficiency ({JF versus particle diameter ratio dJ dp • j for three
types of cyclones (for details see Table 5)

Table 5. Data of cyclones tested for which the fractional separation

efficiency curves are given in Fig. 12

Curve a b c

1
Shape of

W \17
cyclone

Inlet Axial Tangential Tangential

h*=h/rj 15.0 13.0 10.0
hi =h;/rj 10.0 10.0 7.5
r:=ra/rj 2.0 3.0 4.0
F:=Fe/Fj 2.70 0.90 0.44
b/ra 0.40 0.27 0.19

suggests the application of curve c for cyclones with tangential inlet and of curve
a for cyclones with axial inlet.
The steeper the gradient of the fractional separation efficiency at If>F=O.5, the
more effective is the cyclone. According to Fig. 12 the separation efficiency of a
cyclone with tangential inlet is much better than that of a cyclone with axial
inlet.
When the loading ratio J1 is greater than the re-entrainment load J1" primary
and secondary separation are effective. After non-selective primary separation in
the entrance chamber, the particles are subjected to the selective secondary
separation process in the vortex field.

4.2 Calculation of Separation Efficiency and Dust Emission Rate

The separation efficiency If> of a cyclone is defined by Eg. (42) in Table 6. The
mass flow rate of particles at the entrance of the cyclone is Mp. and at the exit of
the cyclone Mpm. A balance between particle and fluid flow rate is demonstrated
84 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

Table 6. Calculation of separation efficiency, particle emission and oversize distribution

curve

separation efficiency (42)

For fJ75,fJr (43)

(44)

efficiency of primary separation (45)

n

qJs= ICd RqJF)k efficiency of secondary separation (46)

k= 1

Re-entrained dust load

0075 A [~-g-]
. w sk u!/rm
(47)

Fractional separation efficiency qJF according to curves given in Fig. 12:

Curve a: qJF, a =
9.90
[ 1.04 + e1.60d p /d p ,i
]-1 (48)

Curve b: (49)

2.55(dp /d p .l· 2
Curve c: (50)
1 + 2.55(dp /d p .l· 2

Equilibrium particle diameter:

d.=
P.'
V 18
u;(pp-p)
vr r·"
," (51)

Settling velocity of equilibrium particle:

g
Ws.i=Vr~/ (52)
Ui ri
Particle emission rate:
Mpm = VMpe(l- qJ) (53)

Loading ratio at cyclone outlet:

Mprn VMprn
fJrn=-M = Vp- (54)

Oversize distribution curve of dust in emitted fluid:

I-m
(LlR)k=(LlR)e-1
't'F,k (55)
-qJ
4. Calculation of Separation Efficiency 85

Fig. 13. Ba lance of particle mas over a

cyclone

Fig. 14. Determination of the efficiency of

particle separation in the vortex of a
cyclone

in Fig. 13; V is the volumetric flow rate of the fluid and Mpe and Mpm are the
masses of particles per unit volume of the fluid at cyclone entrance and cyclone
outlet. The separation efficiency of a cyclone is the sum of the efficiencies of
primary separation, ipp, and of secondary separation, ips' Separation in the
vortex field is determined by the fractional separation efficiency curve. The
procedure for the calculation of ips is explained in Fig. 14.
In Table 6 all equations necessary for the calculation of collection efficiency,
particle emission rate, and particle size distribution curve are listed.
According to Eq. (47) the re-entrainment load flr is a function of the mean
settling velocity wsk of a particle collective, which again depends on the settling
velocity Ws of a single particle. Equations for the calculation of ws, k are listed in
Table 7.
Eq. (60) is described by the curve given in Fig. 15, and Eq. (61) by curve a given
in Fig. 16.

4.3 Adaptation of Fractional Separation Efficiency to Special Conditions

In the preceding sections two fractional collection efficiency curves have been
pointed out to be of special importance. Curve b in Fig. 10 is related to a
cyclone with tangential inlet while curve a is related to a cyclone with axial inlet.
For these two curves, Eqs. (49) and (48) have been developed. According to these
86 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

Table 7. Settling velocities of single particles and mean settling velocities of particle
collectives

(56)

Stokes range
Res:O:;: 1:
24
(=- Stokes friction factor (57)
Res
(pp - p)gd; settling velocity of single
(58)
Ws 18'1 particles in the Stokes region

Re == w,dpp definition of Reynolds' number (59)

s '1

Laminar flow range

0:0:;: Res:O:;: 3 . 10 5 :
24 3.73 4.83·1O-3Re~/2 049
(= Re~+ Re~/2 1+ 3 .10 6 Re;/2 + . (60)
O:O:;:-A~~3-:-io9~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
Ar2
Ws* [ 1.51.10-5 Ar5/3 ]3/2
(61)
324+23.1 ArO. 54 1+7.07.10 7 Ar +0.3675 Ar

(62)

(63)

Mean settling velocity of a particle collective:

n

wsk = L (,1 R Ws.m)k (64)

k~ 1

equations, the fractional separation efficiency depends strongly on the design of

the inlet to the cyclone. Other parameters, however, are assumed to be less
important.
Practical experience has proved that conditions may occur under which
special parameters, related to the type of cyclone and to the dust, exercise an
influence on the fractional separation efficiency. The influence of further param-
eters may be taken into account by an equation that will be discussed.
Fig. 17 shows several curves for the fractional separation efficiency. They
differ primarily by the gradient at <PF = 0.5 and dp/d p, i = 1. A steep gradient is
clear indication of a high separation efficiency. The gradient may be altered by
means of the parameter s.
4. Calculation of Separation Efficiency 87

o theoretical - numerical data

~
• experimental data
2
~
.~
:;
10

,...
"-" 6
....
o
t 2
.,(? /
.,~

c:: 10
.~
t
6
-I "
:s
l

2 ["I.1a
100
" :-. a
b c
6

2
I •
··f .,-
10' /
-
/0 :;:; ' 6 10 -/2 l 6 /0 0:; ' 6 10 /:; ' 6 10 2 2 l 6 10 3 :; l 6 10':; l 6 /0 5:; '6 10 6

Reynolds number Res =-2..2

v
I'( ·d

Fig. 15. Friction factor of solid spherical particles: 0 = theoretical-numerical data,

• = experimental data

10
P
/
~
. . "'c
10'
/'

IOJ V
.
,"
Ki
~
V
~
"
c:

Id

~... /CI /
1Il'
by I

W
,(/
V ~ ~ d ~ d d III IrJO
Archimedes number Ar. t9dJ)IV1feple)-1
Fig. 16. Settling velocity number for solid spherical particles

A further possibility to influence the shape of the fractional separation

efficiency curve is by variation of the value of the particle diameter ratio
(d p /d p.Jo.5 for which <PF=0.5. In Fig. 17 it is assumed that (dp/dp,Jo.s=l, but
(dp /d p .Jo.5 may, for instance, be varied to 0.5 or 1.5. Such a manipulation of the
88 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

1.0
<::
:30
...0
~
"' S} 0.5 0.5
o t;-
<::<::
..g.~
~~
.......
.... '"
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
p article diameter ratio dp/dpJ

Fig. 17. Various types of fractional separation efficiency curves

fractional collection efficiency curve may be of advantage when, for example, the
cyclone collects more particles in the small size range as expected.
An equation for <PF that is of rather general importance has been developed
by Spilger [13]:

[ 1 d JS
<PF
4s~ (65)
1+ [ - 1 - dp JS'
X O. 5 d p . i

In this equation XO. 5 has been introduced for the sake of abbreviation:
x o. 5 =(d p /d p)o.5' The gradient at X O. 5 is given by:

(X O. S)5
d<pF I (66)
d(dp/d p ) Xo 5
1+(_1 )5
X O. 5

With s 21.5 the curves will assume the shape of an s. The curves presented in
Fig. 17 have been calculated by means of Eq. (65) for various values of s,
assuming xo.s = 1.

5. Application of Computer Programs to the Calculation and

Design of Cyclones

Design calculations for cyclones are only possible by means of computer

programs. Programs discussed in this chapter have been developed and tested
by Spilger [13].
5. Application of Computer Programs to the Calculation and Design of Cyclones 89

5.1 Definition of the Aims of Calculations

The equations described in the preceding chapters may be applied to the
solution of two different types of problems which are of equal practical impor-
tance:
a) Calculation of the pressure drop and separation efficiency at given dimensions
of the cyclone.
b) Calculation of cyclone dimensions and separation efficiency at given pressure
drop.
These problems may be solved for single cyclones and poly cyclones. In both
cases, the solution is obtained by iterative methods. The following quantities
must be known.
Operation parameters: Mass flow rate of fluid and particles
Properties of fluid and particles: Density p and viscosity IJ of fluid. Density Pp of
particles and mean density Pps of strand of particles
Type of cyclone: Shape and geometric ratios according to Eqs. (1) to (4); number
of cyclones
Particle size distribution: oversize distribution curve R as given in Fig. 14
Type of problem: For problem (a), radius r i of the cyclone outlet tube must be
assumed. For problem (b) the pressure drop must be assumed.

5.2 Structure of Computer Programs

Considering the aims of cyclone calculations there will always arise two
different problems:
a) Calculation of fluid dynamic properties of a cyclone,
b) calculation of collection efficiency of a cyclone.
The two calculation procedures are included in two primary moduli of the
computer program. They are subdivided into smaller moduli according to
defined physical phenomena and processes.
The results obtained from the calculation of fluid dynamic properties are the
following, depending on the aims:
a) velocities in various cross sections of the cyclone and pressure drop or
b) dimensions of the cyclone and velocities in various cross sections.
When, as in the first case, the dimensions of the cyclone are given, the fluid
dynamic calculations may be carried out in three steps:
a(i) Calculation of inlet coefficient,
a(ii) calculation of velocities in cyclone,
a(iii) calculation of pressure drop L1 pz.
For each step, a special module has been prepared as shown in Fig. 18. In
order to determine the entrance coefficient and the velocities in the cyclone, the
90 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

wall friction
factor A
Reynolds'
numbers Rei ,Rez

cyclone friction
factor ~z

re-entrainment
load J1.,

mean settling
velocity wsk

Fig. 18. Modular computer program for cyclones, when dimensions of cyclones are given

waif friction
factor A

cyclone friction
factor ~z

re-entrainment
load J1.r

mean settling
velocity wsk

Fig. 19. Modular computer program for cyclones at given pressure drop

wall friction factor Ie must be known. A special module for the calculation of ), is
available. Furthermore, a special module for the cyclone friction factor (z has
been prepared in order to calculate the pressure drop Ll Pz in the cyclone.
When, as in the second case, the pressure drop Ll pz is given, the fluid dynamic
calculations may again be carried out in three steps:
b(i) Calculation of inlet coefficient,
b(ii) calculation of velocities in cyclone,
b(iii) calculation of dimensions of cyclone.
For each of these steps a special module is available as shown in Fig. 19. Sub-
moduli have been prepared for the calculation of wall friction factor A, cyclone
friction factor (v and Reynolds' number Rei for fluid flow in the outlet tube of
the cyclone.
5. Application of Computer Programs to the Calculation and Design of Cyclones 91

For both cases considered, the calculation of the separation efficiency follows
the same procedure. The structure of this part of the computer program is also
indicated in Figs. 18 and 19.

5.3 Range of Application of Computer Programs

A thorough analysis of the computer program revealed that the range of its
safe application is primarily described by Eq. (47) which relates to the re-
entrainment load J1 r • This is the reason why the range of application of this
equation for J1 r will be explained.
The re-entrainment load J1 r depends on 10 dimensionless numbers; three of
these are of primary and 7 of secondary importance. It has been found that only
those of primary importance need to be taken into account when the range of
application is investigated. The numbers of secondary importance will be given
fixed values:

h* ==h/rj = 11.0
r: == r,!r j = 2.0
F:==Fe/Fj =1.1
b/ra =0.57
qJ == 1. - ~pm/Mpe = depending on the three primary numbers
J1 == Mp/M = 100
p/pps 0.0002.

Fig. 20. Space of application of

the equation for re-entrainment
load J1r
92 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

Fig. 21. Explanation for the

application of Fig. 20

The primary dimensionless numbers are the following:

2ri ViP
Re·= - - Reynolds' number of fluid flow in outlet tube
1 '1
8r3 gp2
Ga= 12 Galileo's number of fluid flow in outlet tube
'1
ratio of mean velocity in cyclone outlet tube
and mean settling velocity of particle collective

Fig. 20 gives the space of the safe application of Eq. (47) for the re-entrainment
load Pr. This equation may be used when point P, given by coordinates Rei' Ga,
and vJ wsk , lies within the space exhibited in Fig. 20. The location of point P and
its determination is explained in detail in Fig. 21. Point pi is the limiting value of
P; pi is located within the surface of the space of application.

6. Discussion of the Results Obtained by Computer Programs

The results discussed in this chapter have been worked out by Spilger [13].

6.1 Basic Assumptions

Two types of cyclones, illustrated in Fig. 22, have been selected as examples
for which fluid dynamic and separation efficiency calculations have been carried
out. Both types have a tangential inlet. Type A is a rather slender cyclone with a
6. Discussion of the Results Obtained by Computer Programs 93

~
I

I I
I
,, I
I
I
'I
type A B
fA 3 4
hlry 23.5 11
h;lr; 20 7.5
~/F; 0.9 0.44
bl& 0.27 0.17
aR 0.76 0.89 Fig. 22. Characteristic dimensions for two types
of cyclones

1.0
Il::
~
~
.~ 0.8
;; \
£ 0.6
~
'" 0.'
\
.~ ~
~_ O. 2 I'--.
o l -I--
r-- t-- Fig. 23. Particle distribution
00 2 6 8 10 12 l' 16 18
curve used as a basis for cyclone
particle diameter dp [J.Lm] computations

low cyclone friction coefficient, C~ 18. Type B is a strongly conical cyclone, C

being almost twice as high as that for type A.
Whenever necessary, the pressure drop was assumed to be Llpz=2,474N/m 2
= 252 mm water. The particle distribution is given by the oversize distribution
curve displayed in Fig. 23. According to this curve, all calculations are based on
a very fine dust to be separated from the gas. 50 % of the dust has a diameter
larger than 5 11m. The density of the particles was assumed to be Pp = 2,700 kg/m 3
and the density of the particle strands to be pp s=910 kg/m 3 • The gas was
assumed to be air. The loading ratio at the entrance of the cyclone was varied in
the limits of fle= 10- 3 and fle= 10; in special cases, the highest value was fle
= 10 2 .

6.2 One Cyclone

In Figs. 24 and 25 the separation efficiency cp and pressure drop Ll pz for
cyclones of type A and B are plotted versus the mean velocity Vi in the outlet
tube. The radius of the outlet tube is assumed for both cyclones as r i =0.075 m
so that the size of the cyclones has been predetermined. The calculations have
been carried out for four values of the loading ratio fle at the inlet of the
cyclones: l1e=lO°, 10- 1 , 10- 2 , and 10- 3 .
94 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

9-

'"
~ a6 ~~~~~~
.~

.
.!:!
::::

J.le ~
Q lOa ''""
b 10-1 '"
600 ..
~
c 10-2
d 10-3

8 10 12 I~ 16 18
mean velocity in cyclone outlet tube vi [m/51

Fig. 24. Separation efficiency <p and pressure drop Ll pz for cyclone type A as a function of
mean velocity Vi in cyclone outlet

With increasing mean velocity Vi in the outlet tube, <p and L1 Pz rise. The
calculations could not be carried out in the very low velocity region because this
region is outside of the tested range of application of the equations. The
conventional range of the velocity Vi is from about 6 m/s to 14 m/ s. For a mean
value of Vi = 10 m/s the following results have been obtained:

Curve fle <p Llpz[N/m 2 ]

Type A Type B Type A Type B

a 10° 98.5 99.5 680 2,740

b 10 - 1 96.7 99.0 830 3,000
c 10 - 2 82.5 96.0 1,070 3,000
d 10- 3 79.0 87.5 1,120 3,000

With type B cyclone, the higher separation efficiency is obtained, but the
pressure drop is higher by a factor of at least 4.
Curves a and b represent cases in which primary and secondary separation
are effective. In the case of curve c, there are two branches c 1 and c 2 , with c 1
being due to secondary and with branch c 2 being due to primary and secondary
separation. The inclusion of primary separation improves the separation ef-
ficiency quite remarkably. According to Eq. (47), the re-entrainment load flr falls
with increasing gas velocity. This means that with rising gas velocity there will
always be a value of the velocity beyond which primary separation will become
6. Discussion of the Results Obtained by Computer Programs 95

1.0 3000

d
0.8 2400
So r-,

~ 'P
'"~
.~ 0.6 180cF.
.!:! ~
::::., ';j
Q.

.~ 0.4 1200~
'0'-
0
curve
a
Jle
10°
.
~
Q. LI)

ll: 0.2 b 10-1 600 ~

C 10-1 Q.

d 10-3
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0
mean velocity in cyclone oullet tube vi [m/s1
Fig. 25. Separation efficiency q; and pressure drop Ll Pz for cyclone type B as a function of
mean velocity Vi in cyclone outlet

Curve J.l c
a 10 0
b 10 - 1
C 10 - 2
d 10 - 3

effective. This situation is described by curve c. For curve d, however, the re-
entrained dust load f.1 r cannot be reduced such that primary separation becomes
effective within the range of gas velocity investigated.
The superiority of cyclone type B over type A with respect to separation is
impressively demonstrated by the plot of particle mass flow rate hlp at the
cyclone outlet versus particle diameter d p (Fig. 26). The total mass flow rate of
dust emitted from cyclone A is about 4.5 times larger than that emitted from
cyclone B. However, the pressure drop in cyclone B is with Ll pz > 3,OOON/m2
much higher than that in cyclone A with Llpz=930 N/m2. These calculations
prove that both types of cyclone may be effectively used for the separation of
dust with a diameter well below 5 11m.

6.3 Cyclones in Serial Arrangement

When cyclones are arranged in series. the overall pressure drop Ll Pz is
appropriately subdivided. In this arrangement, the outlet of the preceding
cyclone is connected with the inlet of the following cyclone. In this cyclone, only
a fraction of those particles can be collected that have not been collected in the
preceding cyclone.
 96 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

14
curve 1: inlet of cyclones A
and B
12
curve2: outlet of cyclone A
?
"
~10
curve 3: outlet of cyclone B
r j =0.075 m
.::t:.o. V; = 10 m/s
8 p.. = 10-1
~
0
'-
~ 6
!!
....
''0"" 4
E
2
~
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 U " 16 18 20
particle diameter dp {p.m]

Fig. 26. Particle mass flow rate hlp as a function of particle diameter d p

Curve 1: inlet of cyclones A and B

Curve 2: outlet of cyclone A
Curve 3: outlet of cyclone B

rj = 0.075 m
Vj =10 mls
Jl. e = 10 - 1

TO-I
8
6 2
~
/' 1/
E
e-
j--> V
k"
.,<:
II -~
~
2
r-
10-z
V V
V
!!
v 8 i--"
~ 6
~
I--'
i;; /
!! 2 V
....0
/O-J
-;; 8
., 6
V
/ 3 cyclones arranged in series
cyclone type A
V
~
<;
curve 1: LIp,! : LlPtZ : Llp,J =1 : I : I
.~ 2
2: =I : 2 :3
~ /
10-' 3: =3 : 2 : 1
8
'"0
% 6
.: V
10101 pressure drop : IL1pz =2.74 N/nf

!!
2 / gas flow rale : V=2.5 · /OJ ro1lh

/0-5
10-' 2 4 6 8 10-J 2 .: 6 8 1([2 2 4 6 8 /0-1 2 4 6 8 100 2 .: 6 8 10! 2 4 6 8 10 2
loading ratio at inlet of first cyclone f.l.

Fig. 27. Loading ratio at cyclone outlet Jl m versus loading ratio at cyclone inlet Jle for
cyclones in serial arrangement for various pressure ratios
6. Discussion of the Results Obtained by Computer Programs 97

Fig. 27 illustrates the effect of pressure drop subdivision on particle separation

for a system of three cyclones arranged in series. The loading ratio 11m at the
outlet of the third and last cyclone is plotted against the loading ratio l1e at the
inlet of the first cyclone. The pressure drop subdivision is as follows:

Curve 1,' All three cyclones have the same pressure drop. Consequently the size
of all three cyclones is the same.

LI Pzl: LI Pz2: LI Pz3 = 1: 1: 1

Curve 2,' The pressure drop for each cyclone increases. Consequently the size of
the cyclones decreases.

Curve 3,' The pressure drop for each cyclone decreases. Consequently the size
of the cyclones increases.

Total pressure drop: ILlpz=2,474N/m 2

Gas flow rate: V = 2.5· 10 3 m3 /h

The curves presented in Fig. 27 show two distinct branches. In the first
branch, the loading ratio 11m at the outlet is a linear function of the loading ratio
l1e at the inlet. The pressure drop subdivision has no influence on the separation
efficiency in the first branch where collection is due to the action of centrifugal
forces in the vortex only, i.e. when only secondary separation occurs.
In the second branch of the curves, collection of particles is supported by
primary separation. The loading ratio 11m at the outlet of the third cyclone
becomes a rather weak function of the loading ratio l1e' This is of course a great
advantage for the operation of cyclones. The most effective particle separation is
achieved in case 3 for which the pressure drop decreases and the cyclone size
increases.
This was a very surprising result since it had been anticipated, that the most
effective separation would be obtained for case 2 for which the pressure drop
increases with rising number of cyclones. It had been assumed that cyclones
might be considered as sieves that should be arranged such that a sieve with
higher mesh number follows a sieve with smaller mesh number. This assumption
has been proved now to be incorrect when primary and secondary separation
occur.
Fig. 28 describes the loading ratio 11m at the outlet of the last cyclone as a
function of the loading ratio l1e at the inlet of the first cyclone. Five cases have
been considered:
 98 Chapter 4 : Design and Operation of Cyclones

Pressure drop subdivision

1. one cyclone
2. two cyclones in series 2:1
3. three cyclones in series 3:2: 1
4. four cyclones in series 4:3:2 : I
5. five cyclones in series 5:4:3 :2:1
Total pressure drop : ILl Pz= 2,474 N/m2
Gas flow rate: \1=2.5.10 3 m/h

/0"
8
6
~ V
J
"2 ~v
2
~ 10' z L /'~
~ 8
u

~
6
" ;...-" '1"'" 5
2
r-
..... /0·3 ~
o 8 cyclones arranged in ser ies
"
A
6
.~ kf' cyclone Iype A

lL' curve I : one cyclone

2 : Apz, : Apzz= 2 : 1
3: Apz ,: Apzz: Apz3 =3 : 2 : 1
/J ,, : Apz , :Apzz :APz3 : Llpz' =" :3 :2:1
~ 5 : Apz, :Llpzz :APzJ :APz, :APz5 =5 :" :3 : 2: 1

V lotal pressure drop : LApz = 2"7" Nl m z

gas flow rate : V= 2.5 ·loJ mJlh
10' 5
10" 2 " 6 8 10.3 2 "6 8 10-2 2 "6 8 1rr 2 "6 8 let 2 "6 8 la'
loading ratio 01 inlel of first cyclone It.

Fig. 28. Loading ratio at cyclone outlet J.l m versus loading ratio at cyclone inlet J.l e for
cyclones in serial arrangement for varying number of cyclones

The chosen pressure drop subdivision is the most favorable one, as has been
established in the preceding example.
In the first branch of the curves, one cyclone is just as effective as a series of
five cyclones. In the second branch of the curves, the increased effectiveness of
separation is due to the influence of primary separation. When more than three
cyclones are arranged in series, the separation result becomes independent of the
loading ratio Pe .

6.4 Cyclones in Parallel Arrangement

According to Eq. (51), the equilibrium diameter d p • i becomes smaller with
decreasing exit tube radius rio Thus small cyclones are advantageously used and,
6. Discussion of the Results Obtained by Computer Programs 99

, >lin
5·10
r-- r-;r.l. V=2.vr
n cyclones in parallel arrangement
?
. I. 5"V
• ,/

cyclone type 8 / ~ ~~·fnj1 / V

pressure drop Llpz = 24 N Nlr02
II I.n,5 ~ 'F 3 / V
//
- v. 2.5·\~1
n'!9~ /" V
'0 2 k:I
'/
- ~~ ~Vv ~. l

~ /0,3 ld ~v o ~
~"·~5·\.9/ /
:; 8
o 6
;;
//. '//.
0 '/
--- ~~\
o
n'~
,0 ./
".5'
-
~

·3 2 ~ ~ /' ~~
~
10" ~ ~v ~
!~ h '/ /
'/j '/jV;
~ ~
2
o~ ~~
10,5 ld ~ / ~
10,5 2 ~ 681cr' 2 ~ 6810-3 2 ~ 6810,2 2 ~ 6810-1 2 '6810° 2 '681d
loading ratio at inlet of cyclone p.

Fig. 29. Loading ratio at cyclone outlet f.1 m over loading ratio at cyclone inlet f.1e for
cyclones in parallel arrangement

if necessary, arranged in parallel because of large gas flow rates. Type B cyclone
has been selected for the calculation of dust separation.
The separation efficiency of a parallel arrangement of cyclones is clearly
demonstrated by the curves in Fig. 29 in which the loading ratio at the cyclone
exit f.1 m is plotted against J1 e at the cyclone entrance. In the first branch of the
curves, which demonstrates a linear relationship between J1 m and J1 e • only
secondary separation in the vortex takes place. In the second branch of the
curves, secondary separation is effectively supported by primary separation. For
J1 e = 10- 1, the following results have been obtained:

n (f.1m)n (f.1m)n/(f.1m)n ~ I

1 5.0.10- 2 1.0
5 7.5.10- 3 0.15
10 4.0 . 10 - 3 0.08
50 1.1 . 10- 3 0.022
100 6.0.10 - 4 0.012
500 2.2.10 - 4 0.0044

In Figure 30 the loading ratio decrease factor (J1m)n/(J1m)n ~ 1 is plotted against

the number of cyclones. For example, the loading ratio obtained by arranging
100 cyclones in parallel is only 0.012 compared with that for a single cyclone.
100 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

'" "
"
"" '"
"'

Fig. 30. Loading ratio decrease factor

versus number n of cyclones in parallel
number n of cyclones in parallel arrangement
arrangement

1.0

0.9
J
n=500

I n=5(j
V!5~1
V =5UG
'i ~./ V /
/ V/
.-
,/

/
V
/
-
/
V

V
.......
1--'-

0.8 n =20 V= L25 ·/O J

n =IO V=2.5 · /O J / / /
0.7 ~ V = 5 · /OJ

Q.
0.6 I-n =2
I 1 II I / /
/
V = 1.25'10'
~ II
c:: I.
.!! 0.5 n = I J= 2.J.JO' {mJ/h]
.~
.....
.,
....
0.':
c:: n cyclones in paralle l arrangement
~
e 0.3 cyclone type B

., drop . 4pz =2':U N/m z

C>
Cl pressure
0.2
'"
0.1

o
/0-' 2 .: 6810-3 2 .: 6810"' 2 .: 6810-1 2 .: 6810° 2 .: 6810'
loading ratio at inlet of cyclone fJ..

Fig. 31. Separation efficiency cp for cyclones in parallel arrangement

Fig. 31 exhibits the separation efficiency curves as a function of the loading

ratio /le' The type of cyclone selected for this investigation is the conical one, i.e.
type B. The separation efficiency q> markedly increases with rising number n
of cyclones with parallel arrangement.
In Fig. 32 the diameter d a and height h of a cyclone are plotted against
the volumetric gas flow rate V at constant pressure drop, Ll Pz = 2,474 [N/m2] , and
6. Discussion of the Results Obtained by Computer Programs 101

./ ./

V V
v::: V-- type B

~!
./ . /r'\ h
d

1/
./
/"
V
./

~ 10"
/
.~ 6
~ ~
J
~ 2
Apl= 2~7~ Nl m 2
Pe =0.1
10-2
10' 2 .: 6 10 2 2 ~ 6 10 3 2 .: 6 /O ~ 2 ~ 6 10 5
volumetric flow rate per cyclone Ii {m 3/ h}

Fig. 32. Dimensions of cyclones versus volumetric flow rate per cyclone

loading ratio at the entrance of the cyclone, Ile = 0.1 . The dimensions are
proportional to the square root of flow rate V. For a volumetric flow rate of V
= 2,500 m 3 /h, the chief dimensions of a cyclone are: d a = 1.3 em] and h = 1.7 em].

6.5 Comparison of Separation Efficiency for Various Arrangements

of Cyclones
For comparison, the loading ratio 11m at the cyclone outlet is plotted versus
the loading ratio Ile at the cyclone entrance for three cases (Fig. 33). Case l: for
one cyclone; case 2: for three cyclones in series; case 3: for three cyclones in
parallel. The cyclones used for this comparison are of type B. The assumed
pressure drop is Llpz=2,474[N/m 2 ], and the flow rate of the gas is V=2,500
[m 3 /h].
The most effective system is the arrangement of three cyclones in parallel. A
rather poor performance is delivered by the arrangement in series. At Ile = 10- 1,
the loading ratio at the cyclone outlet 11m for parallel arrangement is only about
23 % of 11m for the arrangement in series. This proves the superiority of the
parallel arrangement. Surprisingly, the efficiency of one cyclone of type B is even
higher than that of three cyclones in series.
The size of the cyclones arranged in series is greater than that of one cyclone.
Each of the cyclones arranged in series has to be operated at a much lower
pressure drop than one cyclone, but at the same gas flow rate. A lower pressure
drop can only be achieved by reducing the velocity, i.e. by increasing the size of
the cyclones. On the other hand, for cyclones arranged in parallel, the pressure
drop is the same as that for one cyclone although the gas flow rate is reduced to
a fraction given by lin. The size of these cyclones is therefore much smaller than
that for a single cyclone.
102 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

10'
8
6

d'
"
2 1/
2 V ~

-
~ 1fT
~ 8 2\
./
u 6
~
.....
" /
")
I----'"
v
./

o 2
I---
~ 10-3 1/ ~r-r
:; 8 3
o 6
/ / cyclone type 8
<; "
~ 2 ~ curve 1 : one cyclone
"... 10', Vl/ 2 : 3 cyclones in series
.S' 86
b
~
3 : 3 cyclones in par allel
o I. ~ V pressure drop L/pz = 21.71. Nlm2
~
2 ~ gas flow ra te Ii = 2500 m3fh
1fT5
1(J' 2 I. 68 10.3 2 I. 6 810-22 I. 68 10-1 2 I. 6 810° 2 I. 6810'
loading ra t io at inlet of cy clone P.

Fig. 33. Comparison of separation efficiency of one cyclone with cyclones in serial and in
parallel arrangement

u r-----------------------------.-------,
cyclone type A
pressure drop L}pz = 21.71. Nlm 2
gas flow rate Ii =2.5"0 3 m 31h
dust loading ratio Po = /0-'

curve 1: at inlet of cyclone

2: at outlet of one cyclone
3: at outlet of last cyclone
(3 cyclones in serial arrangemt.)
I.: at outlet of cyclone
(3 cyclones in p arallel arrangetrent)

2 I. 6 8 10 12 U 16 20
particle diameter dp [p m]

Fig. 34. Particle distribution curves under various conditions

The particle size distribution given by the oversize distribution curve is

plotted in Fig. 34 for the three cases discussed in connection with Fig. 33. Curv e
1 gives the distribution curve for the dust entering the cyclone. curves 2. 3 and 4
describe the particle size distribution at the exit of the cyclone systems. The
most favorable system is again the parallel arrangement of cyclones.
7. Some Remarks on Cyclone Design 103

7. Some Remarks on Cyclone Design

In many cases, the performance of cyclones is either much higher or poorer
than expected. In most cases, a higher performance is due to a calculation
procedure that does not take into account all physical phenomena of the
separation process. Primary separation, for example, is often neglected. In this
case, the dimensions of the cyclone are too large. Far more important, is the
case in which performance does not meet the expectations. This is in most cases
due to a faulty design so that unexpected movements of the fluid and the
particles, detrimental to the performance, occur in the cyclone.
Particularly important in the design of single and polycyclones is an effective
separation of the vortex chamber from the dust collection chamber by a vortex
spoiler as shown in Fig. 1. The dust separated from the gas should move freely
from the vortex to the collection chamber. For the gas, however, the collection
chamber should be sealed off from the vortex chamber as hermetically as
possible. This ideal situation can never be accomplished. The design of a cyclone
is a compromise. But it should always be possible to design a separation element
that prevents the vortex from penetrating the dust collection chamber. If
penetration occurred the dust would be redispersed and carried back into the
vortex chamber, and from there into the outlet tube of the cyclone. The proper
design of the connection between vortex and dust collection chamber is in-
dicated in Fig. 35.
The danger of dust redispersion is of particular importance for poly cyclones
when they are connected to a joint dust collection chamber. The larger the size of
the dust collection chamber, the greater the danger of redispersion.
The number of cyclones in parallel arrangement depends on the size of the
cyclones. For big cyclones with a height between 2 to 6 meters, the number n
will be restricted to about 6 to 12. In this case, the distribution of the raw gas
poses no serious problems. In the case of very small cyclones, a great number of
cyclones can be arranged in parallel. In this case, the distribution of the raw gas
may become a very serious problem.

du = 1.2 -I.~ d,.

d v =1.2 du

Fig. 35. Dimensions of cyclones

104 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

clean gas
ou tiel iiil 1 ·1 ·1 " ~ ~ 1
'\' \ ' 1/ \ I II \ 11/\ \ LLI
II
aw gas
\ j\ I /\ I /\ ! ~ ~ . ~ 1\ ' l\ ilJ.~ Ldrnlet
. I 17
I

I I I ,
I
I I I
I I I,
[
I
I
I I I I

I
,
II I i
I, [

~.
I I I [
'------I d usl
d isposa/

Fig. 36. Arrangement of

polycyclones

Fig. 36 gives a view on a poly cyclone which consists of 40 small cyclones with
axial inlet. The long tubes that connect the cyclones with the belt, which carries
away the dust, prevent dust redispersion and gas by-pass. An absolutely uniform
distribution of the gas on all cyclones is not possible. Maldistribution of the gas
will diminish dust separation. This must be taken into account when the number
of cyclones is determined.

8. List of Symbols

a em] Width of entrance channel

b em] Height of entrance channel
bL em] Width of axial entrance channel
de em] Diameter of entrance tube
dp em] Particle diameter
d pm em] Mean diameter of a fraction of particles
dp,; em] Particle diameter at equilibrium conditions
Fe [m 2 ] Cross section of inlet channel
F; [m 2 ] Cross section of outlet tube
g [m/ s 2 ] Gravitational constant
h em] Height of cyclone
h; em] Height of vortex chamber
hL em] Height of vanes in axial inlet
Mp [kg] Mass of particles
Mpe [kg/m3] Mass of particles per m 3 of gas entering the cyclone
Mpm [kg/m3] Mass of particles per m 3 of gas leaving the cyclone
MpR [kg] Mass of residue of particles
8. List of Symbols 105

M [kgjs] Mass flow rate of fluid

Mp [kgjs] Mass flow rate of particles
Pges [Njm 2 ] Local total pressure
Pm.ges [Njm 2 ] Total pressure at outlet of exit tube
Pstat [Njm 2 ] Local static pressure
Pm, stat [Njm 2 ] Static pressure at outlet of exit tube
ra em] Radius of cyclone
re em] Radius of inlet axis
ri em] Radius of outlet tube
rm em] Mean radius of vortex chamber
Ua [mjs] Outer tangential velocity
Ui [mjs] Inner tangential velocity
urn [mjs] Mean tangential velocity
Ve [mjs] Mean velocity in entrance channel
Vi [mjs] Mean velocity in outlet tube
Vr [mjs] Mean radial velocity in cross section i - i
Vrm [mjs] Mean radial velocity at rm
V [m3js] Volumetric flow rate of fluid
Ws [mjs] Settling velocity of particle
LiPe_j [Njm 2 ] Pressure drop between cross sections e - i
LlPi_m [Njm 2 ] Pressure drop between cross sections i - m
Lipz [Njm 2 ] Total pressure drop in the cyclone
IJ [kgjms] Dynamic viscosity of fluid
P [kgjm 3] Density of fluid
Pp [kgjm 3] Density of particle
Pps [kgjm 3] Density of strand of particles

Ar Archimedes' number defined by Eq. (62)

Fe* Area ratio defined by Eq. (4)
Fr j Froude's number defined by Eq. (28)
h* Height ratio defined by Eq. (1)
h; Height ratio defined by Eq. (2)
nL Number of vanes in axial inlet
R Residue ratio
r: Radius ratio defined by Eq. (3)
Rei Reynolds' number of flow in exit tube defined by Eq. (26)
Res Reynolds' number of particle defined by Eq. (59)
Re z Reynolds' number of flow in cyclone defined by Eq. (25)
w; Dimensionless settling velocity defined by Eq. (63)

(X Entrance coefficient defined by Eq. (13)

(XA Entrance coefficient for axial inlet
(XT Entrance coefficient for tangential inlet
(xs Entrance coefficient for spiral inlet
Llp* Dimensionless local total pressure
Li P~at Dimensionless local static pressure
, Friction factor for spherical particles
106 Chapter 4: Design and Operation of Cyclones

'e-i Friction factor defined by Eq. (34)

'''zsi-m Friction factor defined by Eq. (35)

Friction factor of cyclone defined by Eq. (33)
Friction of spiral inlet defined by Eq. (36)
A Wall friction factor
AG Wall friction factor of dust free flow
Ap Additional wall friction factor in the case of strand formation
11 Loading ratio defined by Eq. (22)
11 Re-entrainment load
l1e Loading ratio at inlet of cyclone
11m Loading ratio at outlet of cyclone
({) Separation efficiency defined by Eq. (42)
({)F Fractional separation efficiency
({)p Efficiency due to primary separation
({)s Efficiency due to secondary separation

9. References
[lJ E. Muschelknautz: Chem.-Ing.-Techn. 44. 63 (1972). - [2J E. Muschelknautz,
N. Rink: Zyklonabscheider. Handb. Fortbildungslehrgang "Mehrphasenstromungen".
VDI-Bildungswerk (1975). - [3J E. Muschelknautz: Hochschulkurs II. Mechanische
Verfahrenstechnik, Verfahrenstechnik 6 (1972) 6 (1972) 3, pp. I/IV ; 5, pp. l/V ; 9, pp. I/IV ; 10, pp.
I/IV; 12, pp. I/IV and 8 (1974) 1. pp. I/IV. - [4J E. Muschelknautz. K. Brun-
ner: Chem.-Ing.-Techn. 39. 531 (1967). - [5J W. Barth: Brennstoff-Wiirme-Kraft 8.
1 (1956). - [6J E. Muschelknautz, W. Krambrock: Chem.-Ing.-Techn. 42, 247 (1970). -
[7J W. Barth, L. Leineweber: Staub-Reinhaltung Luft 24, 41 (1964). - [8J A. Ogawa: 1.
College Eng., Nikon Univ., Series A, 19 157 (1978). - [9] T. Hikichi, A. Ogawa: ibid. 19,
167 (1978). - [1OJ Y. Fuzita, A. Ogawa: ibid. 19, 185 (1978). - [l1J Y. Fujita, A.
Ogawa: ibid. 20, 79 (1979). - [12J T. Hikichi, A. Ogawa: ibid. 20, 155 (1979). - [13J R.
Spilger: Methodik zur Uberflihrung wissenschaftlicher lnformationen aus dem Gebiet
der Verfahrenstechnik in problemorientierte Rechenprogramme, Dissertation, Techn.
Univers. Berlin, 1978.