Guidelines for

Noise Control & Vibration

 Reproduced Dec 2003

© MINISTRY OF MANPOWER, SINGAPORE, 2003

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanized, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the copyright holder.

Occupational Health
Department
Ministry Of Manpower
18 Havelock Road #05-01
Singapore 059764
 Contents Page

Preface 1

Fundamentals of Sound and Terminology 2

Legal Requirements on Noise Control 13

Cost Benefit Analysis of Noise Control 15

Noise Exposure Limits and Criteria 17

Priority and Methods of Control 22

Plant Planning 27

Engineering Noise Control Materials 34

Noise Barriers 42

Partition Walls 48

Machine Enclosures 54

Personnel Enclosures 64

Room Absorption 66

Damping 70

Noise Control from Material Handling and Vibrating Surfaces 74

Vibration Control 77

Silencers or Mufflers 91

Active Noise Control 102

 Preface

Noise is one of the prevalent health hazards in industry. Exposure to excessive noise
can cause noise-induced deafness or hearing loss - a disease that may take several
years to develop and cannot be cured.

Fortunately, noise hazard can be controlled. No matter what the noise problems may
be in a particular workplace, methods and measures exist to reduce or control the
hazard. Noise-induced deafness can therefore be prevented and should be
prevented.

The main purpose of the guidelines is to provide technical information on how

industrial noise can be controlled by engineering means such as the use of barriers,
enclosures, partition walls, sound absorbers, damping materials, silencers and
isolators. Modification or substitution of noisy processes or equipment and
application of innovative technology such as active noise control may also be the
solutions to noise control.

The first edition of the Guidelines was published in 1985. The second edition was
produced in 1999. It was used as one of the main sources of reference in the
preparation of the Singapore Standards Code of Practice for Industrial Noise Control.
This latest edition updates and refines the guidelines. New sections are added, these
include legal requirements on noise control, noise sources identification, cost-benefit
of noise control, and specific machinery noise and vibration control. In addition,
many diagrams and photos on noise and vibration control are incorporated to
showcase engineering controls.

The guidelines should help plant engineers, acoustics specialists or service

providers, safety and health professionals, technical personnel and people working in
the industry who have little knowledge of acoustics but who want to develop a
practical approach to controlling noise and vibration problems occurring in the
workplaces.

1
1 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOUND AND TERMINOLOGY

Sound is generated by vibration of surface or by turbulent fluid flow, which

sets the air molecules into motion. It is a wave motion due to air pressure
variations. Sound can propagate in gases, liquids and solids, but it cannot
propagate in a vacuum.

Noise carries the meaning of unwanted sound but the two terms are often
used interchangeably.

Propagation of Noise

When a noise source is placed in an outdoor environment, the sound waves

will propagate from the source and there are no boundaries present to reflect
the sound waves.

However, when it is located within a room or building, the sound waves will be
reflected from the boundaries of the room or building.

The noise levels which a worker can be subjected to, is influenced by three
factors:

(1) The direct field noise from his machinery, or one very near him.

(2) The reflected or reverberant field noise from one or more machines
further away from him.

(3) The combination of the direct field noise of the nearest machine and
reverberant field noise of other machines.

Reflected
sound

Noise
source
Direct sound

Fig 1 Propagation of noise in a room

2
Sound Frequency

The frequency of sound wave is the rate at which the air pressure variations
occur. Frequency is perceived as the pitch of a sound and is expressed in
cycles per second (c/s) or Hertz (Hz).

Even though sound may consists of a single pure tone, in most cases, it
consists of many tones of different frequencies and intensities.

Frequency Band (Octave Band and 1/3 – Octave Band)

In noise and vibration control, the spectrum of the noise and the vibrations are
normally divided into some frequency bands, and each frequency band has an
upper frequency limit, a lower frequency limit and a centre frequency.

An octave band is a frequency bandwidth that has an upper band-edge

frequency equal to twice its lower band-edge frequency. The octave band is
the most common frequency bandwidth used for industrial noise control
measurements.

The standard range of octave bands has the following centre frequencies:
31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500, 1,000, 2,000, 4,000, 8,000 and 16,000 Hz.

The standard range of 1/3 – octave bands has the following centre
frequencies: 31.5, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125, 160, 200, 250, 315, 400, 500,
630, 800, 1,000, 1,250, 1,600, 2,000, 2,500, 3,150, 4,000, 5,000, 6,300,
8,000, 10,000, 12,500 and 16,000 Hz.

Wavelength

The wavelength of a sound wave is the distance the wave travels during one
cycle. Wavelength is related to frequency by:

c
λ= (1)
f

where λ is the wavelength, m

c is the speed of sound, m/s
f is the frequency, Hz

Low frequency sound has a long wavelength whereas high frequency sound
has a short wavelength.

Speed of Sound in Air

The speed of sound in air is the speed at which the sound waves propagate. It
is dependent on temperature and can be calculated by:

3
 c = 20 × 273 + T (2)

where c is the sound speed, m/s

T is the temperature, oC

The speed of sound in air at room temperature (25 oC) is approximately 345
m/s.

Free Field

A free field is a region of space where sound waves can propagate without
any obstruction. In a free field, sound pressure levels attenuate in accordance
with the inverse square law, or with 6 dB attenuation for each doubling of the
distance from a point source.

Near Field

Near field is defined as a region very near a noise source. The near field
usually occurs at a distance less than one wavelength from the vibrating
surface of the source. In this region, the sound pressure levels do not
decrease by 6 dB each time the distance from the source is doubled.

Far Field

Further away from the source, there is a far field in which the source can be
treated as a point source at which the sound pressure levels fall off at a rate
of approximately 6 dB per doubling of distance.

Direct Field

The direct field of a sound source is defined as that part of the sound field,
which has not suffered any reflection from any room surfaces or obstacles.

In the direct field, the sound level is dominated by the sound directly radiated
from the source, and is independent of the room acoustics. Any control of the
sound level must be by the direct reduction of the energy or power of the
source.

Diffused Field

Diffused field is a sound field where the sound energy density is nearly
uniform throughout the sound field.

Reverberant Field

4
The reverberant field is defined as the area where the reflected sound has a
dominant effect on the sound levels. The far field can lead, but not always,
into the reverberant field, which fills the rest of the room space.

The reverberant field is usually uniform within the room except in the region of
the source or near highly absorbing areas.

The sound level in the reverberant field is controlled by the power of the
source, the size of the room, and the amount of sound absorbing material
within the room.

Sound Power Level

The sound power of a source is the amount of acoustic energy being

generated per unit time by the source. The sound power level is defined as:

W
LW = 10 log (3)
WO

where LW is the sound power level, dB

W is the sound power, watts (W)
-12
Wo is the reference sound power of 10 W

It should be noted that LW is a constant for a particular source, and is

independent of the distance or acoustic environment.

Sound Intensity Level

Sound intensity is the amount of sound power passing through a unit surface
area. The sound intensity level is defined as:

I
LI = 10 log (4)
IO

where LI is the sound intensity level, dB

I is the sound intensity, W/m2
Io is the reference sound intensity of 10-12 W/m2

Sound Pressure Level

Sound pressure refers to the root mean square value of the pressure changes
over and below the atmospheric pressure. The sound pressure level is
defined as:

5
 2
 P 
L P = 10 log   = 20 log P (5)
P  P ref
 ref 
where LP is the sound pressure level, dB.
P is the sound pressure, pascals (Pa)
Pref is the reference pressure, 2 x 10-5 Pa

The reference pressure is the pressure of the threshold of hearing. LP is

dependent on the distance from the source, and the absorption characteristics
of the environment

“A” Weighting Sound Pressure Level

The “A” weighting scale is used to correct the direct noise levels to the levels
heard by the ear. This corrected noise level is called dBA and is commonly
used in noise measurement.

To obtain the dBA levels from the octave band data, the correction factors
below must be applied:

Table 1 “A” weighting factors

Octave Band
Centre
Frequency (Hz) 31.5 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K 16K

Correction
Factor -39.5 -26.2 -16.2 -8.7 -3.3 0 +1.2 +1.0 -1.1 -6.6

Addition of Noise Levels

A frequent calculation in noise control engineering involves the addition of

noise levels. The formula for calculating the total or combined effect of two or
more sound pressure levels is:

n Li

LT = 10 log[∑10 ] 10
(6)
i

where LT is the total sound pressure level, dB or dBA

Li is the individual sound pressure level, dB or dBA

Example

Three machines produce noise levels of 86 dB, 84 dB and 89 dB when

operated individually. What is the combined noise level if all the three
machines operate simultaneously?

The combined noise level is:

6
 86 84 89
LT = 10 log[10 10 + 10 10 + 10 10 ]
= 10 log[108.6 + 10 8.4 + 10 8.9 ]
= 91.6 dB

The table below can be used to combine sound levels without using the
formula:

Table 2 Adding sound pressure levels

Difference in noise Amount to be added
level to the higher level
0 3.0
1 2.5
2 2.1
3 1.8
4 1.5
5 1.2
6 1.0
7 0.8
8 0.6
9 0.5
10 0.4

Example

If two independent noises with levels of 83 and 87 dB are produced at the

same time at a given point, the combined noise level will be 87 + 1.5 = 88.5
dB, since the amount to be added to the higher level, for a difference of 4 dB
between the two levels, is 1.5 dB.

Subtraction of Noise Levels

Sometimes it may be necessary to subtract one noise level from another, for
example, when background noise must be subtracted from combined noise to
obtain the sound produced by the machine alone. The method used is similar
to that described in the addition of noise.

Example

The noise level measured at a particular location in a factory with a noisy

machine operating nearby is 92 dBA. When the machine is turned off, the
noise level measured is 88 dBA. What is the level due to the machine alone?

7
Machine noise is:
92 88

LT = 10 log[10 − 10 ] 10 10

= 10 log[109.2 − 108.8 ]
= 89.8 dB

For noise-testing purposes, this procedure should be used only when the total
noise exceeds the background noise by 3 dB or more. If the difference is less
than 3 dB, a valid sound test probably cannot be made.

Combining Octave Band Levels

The above method can also be used to combine individual octave band
readings to obtain the overall noise level.

The appropriate “A” weighting factors (Table 1) are first applied to each
octave band sound level and the A-weighted sound level are then combined
using the above method.

Example

If the following octave band readings are predicted in a design calculation, the
overall noise level can be estimated as follows:

Frequency Sound level “A” weighting A-weighted level

(Hz) (dB) factor (dBA)

31.5 74 -39.5 34.5

63 66 -26.2 39.8
125 71 -16.2 54.8
250 61 - 8.7 52.3
500 60 - 3.3 56.7
1K 75 0 75.0
2K 82 + 1.2 83.2
4K 80 + 1.0 81.0
8K 87 - 1.1 85.9
16K 90 - 6.6 83.4

n Li

LT = 10 log[∑10 ] 10

i
34.5 39.8 54.8 52.3 56.7 75 83.2 81 85.9 83.4
= 10 log[10 10
+ 10 10 + 10 10 + 10 10 + 10 10 + 10 10 + 10 10 + 10 10 + 10 10 + 10 10 ]
= 90 dBA

8
 Directivity Factor

The directivity factor, Q is a measure of the degree to which sound is

concentrated in a certain direction rather than radiated evenly in a full
spherical pattern. It is defined as:

Iθ (7)
Q=
Is

Where Iθ is the sound intensity at some distance from the source and at an
angle θ to a specified axis of a directional noise source
Is is the sound intensity produced at the same distance from a
uniformly radiating sound source of equal sound power

For free field radiation, that is, where there are no reflections of sound, Q = 1.

For hemispherical radiation of sound, such as in areas where the sound

source is on the floor of a room or at ground level in the outdoors, such that ½
spherical radiation exists, Q = 2.

If the sound source is near the intersection of the floor and a wall of a room
such that ¼ spherical radiation exists, Q would be 4.

If the sound source is near the intersection of the floor and two walls such that
1/8 spherical radiation exists, Q would equal 8.

Q=1

Q=8 Q=4

Q=2

Fig 2 Directivity factor of noise source at different locations in a room

Sometimes the sound source itself might have a directional radiation pattern.
If so, this would have to be taken into account in addition to the environmental
radiation pattern discussed above.

Room Constant

The room constant is a measure of the ability of a room to absorb sound.

It can be calculated by the following equation:

9
 _
αS
R= _
(8)
1−α
2
where R is the room constant, m sabins
2
S is the total surface area of the room, m
_
α is the average absorption coefficient of the room surface.
_
α can be calculated as follows:
_
α 1 S1 + α 2 S 2 + .... + α n S n n
α i Si
α= =∑ (9)
S1 + S 2 + .... + S n i =1 S i

2
where Si is the area of each absorbing surface, m
α i is the corresponding absorption coefficient of the surface

Example

Calculate the average absorption coefficient and the room constant, at 1000
Hz of a room 15 m long, 10 m wide and 4 m high; The floor is painted
concrete, the ceiling is smooth finish plaster, and the walls are of wood
panelling.

Surface area Absorption α i Si

2 coefficient, αi
Si (m )

Floor 15x10 0.07 10.5

Ceiling 15x10 0.03 4.5
Side walls (15x4) x 2 0.09 10.8
End walls (10x4) x 2 0.09 7.2
------------ -------
Total: 500 33
======= ====

_
α =
∑α i Si
S
15 * 10 * 0.07 + 15 * 10 * 0.03 + 15 * 4 * 2 * 0.09 + 10 * 4 * 2 * 0.09
=
500
= 0.66
_
α S 0 . 066 × 500
R = =
_
1 − 0 . 066
1−α

= 35 m2 sabins

10
Reverberation Time and Room Absorption

The term “αS” in equation (8) is known as room absorption “A”. Room
absorption is related to the decay rate of reflected sound which is commonly
measured in terms of reverberation time, T60.

T60 = 0.161 V / A (10)

3
where V is the room volume in m .

Reverberation time is defined, as the time required for the average sound
pressure level to decay 60 dB, or in terms of sound pressure, to 1/1000th of its
original value after the sound source has been shut off. In practice,
reverberation time can be measured by noting the time required for an
impulsive sound to decay 60 dB from its original or peak value.

Example
3
The reverberation time in a 12 m x 10 m x 3 m or 360 m room is 1.7 s, the
room absorption is:

A = 0.161 x 360/1.7
= 34 metric sabins

The total surface area of the room is {(12x10) + (12x3) + (10x3)} x 2

2
= 372 m , its average absorption coefficient is:

_
α = 34/372
= 0.09

Relationship between Sound Pressure Level and Sound Power Level

Many industrial noise problems are complicated by the fact that the noise is
confined in a room. Reflections from the wall, floor, ceiling and equipment in
the room change the sound wave characteristics from those for free field
radiation.

The relationship between the sound pressure level and the sound power level
is:
Q 4
LP = LW + 10 log[ + ] (11)
4πr 2
R

where LP is the sound pressure level, dB

LW is the sound power level, dB
Q is the directivity factor of the sound source
2
R is the room constant, m sabins
r is the distance in m from the source to the point where LP is
determined

11
 Fig. 3 can be used as a quick guide to determine if sound absorption
treatment reduces the noise level at a given location.

Figure 3 Relative sound pressure levels versus distance from the source

Example

Suppose a new machine is placed on the floor of a room. The room has a
2
total surface area of 200 m and the average absorption coefficient is 0.2. A
sound power level of the machine is 94 dB. The directivity factor Q = 2, and
2
the room constant R = (0.2 x 200)/(1-0.2) or 50 m sabins. The sound
pressure level is:

Q 4
LW = LP − 10 log[ + ]
4πr 2
R
2 4
94 = Lp − 10 log[ + ]
4π 2 2
50

Lp = 85 dB

12