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Polynomials
Polynomials
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Contents
1Polynomials
o 1.1Polynomial with infinitely many roots
o 1.2Integer values versus integer coefficients
o 1.3Polynomial mimics cosine: interpolation
o 1.4Polynomial mimics cosine: roots
o 1.5Limit of derivatives versus derivative of limit
2Monster functions
o 2.1Continuous monster
Polynomials[edit | edit source]
Polynomial at Wikipedia.
Polynomial with infinitely many roots[edit | edit source]
The zero polynomial every number is a root of P. This is the only polynomial with
infinitely many roots. A non-zero polynomial is of some degree n (n may be 0,1,2,...)
and cannot have more than n roots since, by a well-known theorem of algebra, if (for
pairwise different ), then necessarily for some non-zero polynomial Q of degree
Integer values versus integer coefficients[edit | edit source]
Using the polynomial of degree 5 with roots at the given points 0, 2, 3, 4, 6 and
taking into account that (check it by differentiating the product) we consider the so-
called Lagrange basis polynomial of degree 4 with roots at 2, 3, 4, 6 (but not 0); the
division in the left-hand side is interpreted algebraically as division of polynomials
(that is, finding a polynomial whose product by the denominator is the numerator )
rather than division of functions, thus, the quotient is defined for all x, including 0. Its
value at 0 is 1. Think, why; see the picture; recall that .
Similarly, the second Lagrange basis polynomial takes the values 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 (at 0,
2, 3, 4, 6 respectively). The third one takes the values 0, 0, 1, 0, 0. And so on
(calculate the fourth and fifth). It remains to combine these five Lagrange basis
polynomials with the coefficients equal to the required values of Q:
List of trigonometric
identities#Infinite product
formulae at Wikipedia.
Taylor series#Trigonometric
functions at Wikipedia.
Can we check the equality by
opening the brackets? Let us try. The
constant coefficient: just 1=1. The
coefficient of x2: that is, really?
Yes, the well-known series of
reciprocal squares is instrumental.
Series of reciprocal squares at
Wikipedia.
Such non-rigorous opening of
brackets can be made rigorous as
follows. For every polynomial P, the
constant coefficient is the value
of P at zero, P(0); the coefficient
of x is the value at zero of the
derivative, P '(0); and the coefficient
of x2 is one half of the value at zero of
the second derivative, ½P''(0).
Clearly, and for all (as before, ).
The calculation above shows
that as n tends to infinity. What about
higher derivative, does it converge
to ? It is tedious (if at all possible) to
generalize the above calculation
to k=4,6,...; fortunately, there is a
better approach. Namely, for all
complex numbers z, and
moreover, for every R>0. Using
Cauchy's differentiation formula one
concludes that (as ) for each k, and in
particular,
Cauchy's differentiation
formula at Wikipedia. See
also Derivative of Uniform Limit of
Analytic Functions at Proofwiki.
Limit of derivatives versus
derivative of limit[edit | edit
source]
For we have (think, why)
as Nevertheless, the derivative at
zero does not converge to 0;
rather, it is equal to 1 (for all n)
since, denoting we have
Thus, the limit of the sequence of
functions on the interval is the
zero function, hence the derivative
of the limit is the zero function as
well. However, the limit of the
sequence of derivatives fails to be
zero at least for What happens
for ? Here the limit of derivatives is
zero, since (check it; the
exponential decay of the second
factor outweighs the linear grows
of the first factor). Thus,
It is not always possible to
interchange derivative and
limit.
Note the two equivalent
definition of the function f; one
is piecewise (something for
some x, something else for
other x, ...), but the other is a
single expression for all
these x.
Piecewise at Wikipedia.
The function f is discontinuous
(at 0), and nevertheless it is
the limit of continuous
functions This can happen for
pointwise convergence (that is,
convergence at every point of
the considered domain), since
the speed of convergence can
depend on the point.
Pointwise
convergence at Wikipedia.
Otherwise (when the speed of
convergence does not depend
on the point) convergence is
called uniform; by the uniform
convergence theorem, the
uniform limit of continuous
functions is a continuous
function.
Uniform
convergence#To
continuity at Wikipedia.
It follows that convergence
of (to f) is non-uniform, but
this is a proof by contradiction.
Proof by
contradiction at Wikipedia.
A better understanding may be
gained from a direct proof. The
derivatives fail to converge
uniformly, since fails to be
small (when n is large) for
some x close to 0; for instance,
try
for all and is not zero
(unless ).
In contrast, uniformly
on that is, as since the
maximum is reached
at (check it by solving the
equation ) and And still, it
appears to be impossible
to interchange derivative
and limit. Compare this
case with a well-known
theorem:
If is a sequence of differentiable functions on such
that exists (and is finite) for some and the
sequence converges uniformly on ,
then converges uniformly to a function on ,
and for .
Uniform
convergence#To
differentiability at
Wikipedia.
Uniform convergence
of derivatives is
required; uniform
convergence of
functions is not
enough.
Complex numbers,
helpful in Sect.
"Polynomial mimics
cosine: roots", are
helpless here, since
for we have for all
Monster
functions[edit | edit
source]
Continuous
monster[edit | edit
source]
Everyone knows how to
visualize the behavior
of a continuous function
by a curve on the
coordinate plane. To
this end one samples
enough points on the
graph of the function,
plots them on
the plane and,
connecting these points
by a curve, sketches
the graph. However,
this seemingly
uncontroversial idea is
challenged by some
strange functions,
sometimes called
"continuous monsters".
Often they are sums of
so-called lacunary
trigonometric series
(where the numbers are far apart).
Lacunary
function#Lacuna
ry trigonometric
series at
Wikipedia.
(Also Lacunary
trigonometric
series at EoM.)
The most famous of
these is the
Weierstrass
function
(for appropriate such that ).
Weierstra
ss
function at
Wikipedia.
According to
Jarnicki and
Pflug (Section
3.1), this is (and
the similar
series of sine
functions is ).
Marek
Jarnicki,
Peter
Pflug, Contin
uous
Nowhere
Differentiabl
e Functions:
The
Monsters of
Analysis,
Springer,
2015, 299
pages.
Weierstrass
function
This image
(reproduced her
e by Michael
McLaughlin with
reference to the
above-
mentioned
Wikipedia
article,
and here by Ric
hard
Lipton without
reference) is in
fact a graph of
the
approximation
to the
function
obtained by
connecting
sample points
(which can be
seen by
inspecting
the XML code in
the SVG file). It
looks like a
curve albeit
rather strange
one. The last
two summands
are distorted,
since the step
size exceeds
the
period of and is
close to half the
period
of However, all
terms
with contribute
at most that
is, for all this
difference is
barely visible
unless one
zooms the
image.
So far, so good.
But this monster
is not the worst.
In order to get a
more monstrous
lacunary
trigonometric
series one may
try
frequencies
increasing
faster than or
coefficients
decreasing
slower than or
both.
Let us try the
series
these
coefficients
are
convenient,
since their
sum is (finite
and)
evident:
Accordingly,
(since ),
and for
all (since ).
Partial
sums
Similarly,
and
Accordingly,
partial
sums and
tails
satisfy
and for all
Due to
evident
symmetries
(see the
graphs
of on the
period ) it is
enough to
plot this
function on
Partial
sum zoom 4
Looking
closely at
the graph
of we come
to some
doubt. At
first glance,
it is drawn
with a
thicker pen.
But no;
some
(almost?)
vertical lines
are thin. So,
what do we
see here, a
curve, or
rather, the
area
between two
"parallel"
curves?
and zoom
40
and zoom
400
The graph
of becomes
clearly
visible after
a zoom, but
the doubt
returns,
hardened,
with One
more zoom
only
worsens. We
realize that
the graph
of on looks
too nice. In
particular, it
appears that
the graph
of crosses
the upper
side of the
red box. So,
how to get
closer to the
graph of
Fortunately,
for some
special
values
of the exact
value of is
evident.
First, (see
above),
whence for
all
integers due
to
periodicity:
for
all
Similarly,
since for all
odd
integers (in
particular, ).
And on the
other
hand, for all
Without the
first
summand
we have the
first tail with
the
period
Accordingly,
and for all
integers
And on the
other
hand, for
all Thus,
Special
values and
bounds of
via
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s
g
o
o
d
lu
c
k,
tr
y
t
o
m
a
xi
m
iz
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s
u
c
h
f
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ct
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n
a
s
o
r
t
o
m
in
i
m
iz
e
a
n
d
y
o
u
w
ill
r
e
al
iz
e
,
w
h
y
W
ei
e
r
st
r
a
s
s
p
r
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e
rr
e
d
c
o
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e
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ci
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s
o
f
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f
o
r
m
w
h
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e
is
a
p
o
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v
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o
d
d
in
t
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e
r.
U
s
u
al
n
u
m
e
ri
c
al
o
p
ti
m
iz
a
ti
o
n
m
e
t
h
o
d
s
f
ai
l
b
e
c
a
u
s
e
lo
c
al
e
xt
r
e
m
a
a
r
e
n
u
m
e
r
o
u
s
a
n
d
v
e
r
y
s
h
a
r
p
.
B
y
c
o
n
ti
n
ui
ty
,
a
m
o
n
st
e
r
f
u
n
ct
io
n
is
cl
o
s
e
t
o
it
s
m
a
xi
m
u
m
in
s
o
m
e
n
ei
g
h
b
o
r
h
o
o
d
o
f
it
s
m
a
xi
m
iz
e
r,
b
u
t
t
hi
s
n
ei
g
h
b
o
r
h
o
o
d
is
v
e
r
y
s
m
al
l;
a
r
a
n
d
o
m
p
oi
n
t
h
a
s
v
e
r
y
lit
tl
e
c
h
a
n
c
e
o
f
g
e
tti
n
g
in
t
o
s
u
c
h
n
ei
g
h
b
o
r
h
o
o
d
.
T
h
e
v
a
st
m
aj
o
ri
ty
o
f
v
al
u
e
s
a
r
e
f
a
r
fr
o
m
e
xt
r
e
m
e
.
Incre
asing
rearra
ngem
ent of
sampl
e
points
on
the
graph
of
I
n
o
r
d
e
r
t
o
in
v
e
st
ig
a
t
e
t
h
e
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
o
f
v
al
u
e
s
o
f
t
h
e
t
ai
l
o
n
it
s
p
e
ri
o
d
,
o
n
e
m
a
y
t
o
o
k
t
h
e
v
al
u
e
s
in
t
h
e
fi
r
st
q
u
a
rt
e
r
o
f
t
h
e
p
e
ri
o
d
(
u
s
e
d
a
b
o
v
e
),
t
o
g
e
t
h
e
r
w
it
h
t
h
e
o
p
p
o
si
t
e
n
u
m
b
e
r
s
(t
h
e
s
e
a
r
e
v
al
u
e
s
in
t
h
e
s
e
c
o
n
d
q
u
a
rt
e
r)
,
s
o
rt
t
h
e
li
st
o
f
al
l
t
h
e
s
e
n
u
m
b
e
r
s
in
a
s
c
e
n
di
n
g
o
r
d
e
r,
a
n
d
tr
e
a
t
t
h
e
r
e
s
ul
t
a
s
v
al
u
e
s
o
f
a
n
e
w
f
u
n
ct
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n
a
t
e
q
u
al
ly
s
p
a
c
e
d
p
oi
n
ts
.
H
e
r
e
is
t
h
e
r
e
s
ul
t
pl
o
tt
e
d
,
s
e
e
t
h
e
r
e
d
c
u
r
v
e
.
T
hi
s
is
a
n
u
m
e
ri
c
a
p
p
r
o
xi
m
a
ti
o
n
o
f
t
h
e
s
o
-
c
al
le
d
m
o
n
o
t
o
n
e
(i
n
c
r
e
a
si
n
g
)
r
e
a
rr
a
n
g
e
m
e
n
t
o
f
t
h
e
gi
v
e
n
f
u
n
ct
io
n
.
S
ig
ni
fi
c
a
n
tl
y,
t
h
e
r
e
s
ul
t
is
q
ui
t
e
cl
o
s
e
t
o
t
h
e
f
a
m
o
u
s
n
o
r
m
al
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
,
a
n
d
t
h
e
r
e
d
c
u
r
v
e
is
q
ui
t
e
cl
o
s
e
t
o
t
h
e
c
o
rr
e
s
p
o
n
di
n
g
q
u
a
n
til
e
f
u
n
ct
io
n
in
di
c
a
t
e
d
b
y
t
h
e
bl
a
c
k
p
oi
n
ts
.
N
o
r
m
al
di
st
ri
b
ut
io
n
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.
N
o
r
m
al
di
st
ri
b
ut
io
n
#
Q
u
a
nt
il
e
fu
n
ct
io
n
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.
(
H
e
r
e
)
A
w
o
n
d
e
r:
t
h
e
f
u
n
ct
io
n
is
m
o
n
st
r
o
u
s,
b
u
t
it
s
m
o
n
o
t
o
n
e
r
e
a
rr
a
n
g
e
m
e
n
t
is
ni
c
e
.
W
h
y
s
o
?
T
h
e
gi
v
e
n
f
u
n
ct
io
n
is
t
h
e
s
u
m
o
f
m
a
n
y
s
u
m
m
a
n
d
s
(
o
f
t
h
e
f
o
r
m
);
a
n
d
"
T
h
e
c
e
n
tr
a
l
li
m
it
t
h
e
o
r
e
m
s
t
a
t
e
s
t
h
a
t
u
n
d
e
r
c
e
rt
a
i
n
(f
a
ir
l
y
c
o
m
m
o
n
)
c
o
n
d
it
i
o
n
s
,
t
h
e
s
u
m
o
f
m
a
n
y
r
a
n
d
o
m
v
a
ri
a
b
l
e
s
w
ill
h
a
v
e
a
n
a
p
p
r
o
x
i
m
a
t
e
l
y
n
o
r
m
a
l
d
i
s
tr
i
b
u
ti
o
n
."
N
o
r
m
al
di
st
ri
b
ut
io
n
#
C
e
nt
r
al
li
m
it
th
e
o
r
e
m
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.
C
h
o
o
si
n
g
a
p
oi
n
t
a
t
r
a
n
d
o
m
a
c
c
o
r
di
n
g
t
o
t
h
e
u
ni
f
o
r
m
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
w
e
m
a
y
tr
e
a
t
t
h
e
s
u
m
m
a
n
d
s
a
s
r
a
n
d
o
m
v
a
ri
a
bl
e
s.
H
o
w
e
v
e
r,
o
n
e
o
f
t
h
e
c
o
n
di
ti
o
n
s
is
in
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
e
;
a
n
d
o
u
r
s
u
m
m
a
n
d
s
a
r
e
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t,
m
o
r
e
o
v
e
r,
f
u
n
ct
io
n
al
ly
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t,
si
n
c
e
(
M
o
r
e
g
e
n
e
r
al
ly
,
b
ei
n
g
t
h
e
C
h
e
b
y
s
h
e
v
p
ol
y
n
o
m
ia
l.
)
N
e
v
e
rt
h
el
e
s
s,
p
r
o
b
a
bi
li
st
ic
a
p
p
r
o
a
c
h
t
o
la
c
u
n
a
r
y
tr
ig
o
n
o
m
e
tr
ic
s
e
ri
e
s
e
xi
st
s
a
n
d
b
e
a
r
s
fr
ui
t;
in
p
a
rt
ic
ul
a
r,
a
p
p
e
a
r
a
n
c
e
o
f
n
o
r
m
al
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
in
t
hi
s
c
o
n
t
e
xt
is
a
w
el
l-
k
n
o
w
p
h
e
n
o
m
e
n
o
n
.
C
e
nt
r
al
li
m
it
th
e
o
r
e
m
#
L
a
c
u
n
a
ry
tri
g
o
n
o
m
et
ri
c
s
e
ri
e
s
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.
F
r
e
d
d
y
D
el
b
a
e
n
a
n
d
E
m
m
a
H
o
v
h
a
n
ni
s
y
a
n,
P
r
e
ci
s
e
li
m
it
th
e
o
r
e
m
s
fo
r
la
c
u
n
a
ry
s
e
ri
e
s,
e
-
p
ri
nt
,
2
0
1
8.
B
u
t
cl
e
a
rl
y,
t
h
e
n
o
r
m
al
a
p
p
r
o
xi
m
a
ti
o
n
m
u
st
f
ai
l
s
o
m
e
w
h
e
r
e
,
si
n
c
e
o
u
r
f
u
n
ct
io
n
is
b
o
u
n
d
e
d
(
b
y
),
w
hi
le
a
n
o
r
m
al
r
a
n
d
o
m
v
a
ri
a
bl
e
is
n
o
t.
T
h
e
w
o
r
d
"
c
e
n
tr
al
"
in
t
h
e
n
a
m
e
o
f
t
h
e
c
e
n
tr
al
li
m
it
t
h
e
o
r
e
m
is
in
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
e
d
in
t
w
o
w
a
y
s:
(
1
)
o
f
c
e
n
tr
al
i
m
p
o
rt
a
n
c
e
in
p
r
o
b
a
bi
lit
y
t
h
e
o
r
y;
(
2
)
d
e
s
c
ri
b
e
s
t
h
e
c
e
n
t
e
r
o
f
t
h
e
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
a
s
o
p
p
o
s
e
d
t
o
it
s
t
ai
ls
,
t
h
a
t
is
,
la
r
g
e
d
e
vi
a
ti
o
n
s.
Incre
asing
rearra
ngem
ent
of
zoom
40.
C
e
nt
r
al
li
m
it
th
e
o
r
e
m
#
H
is
to
ry
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.
L
a
r
g
e
d
e
vi
at
io
n
s
th
e
o
ry
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.
I
n
t
h
e
n
o
r
m
al
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
,
d
e
vi
a
ti
o
n
s
a
b
o
v
e
a
p
p
e
a
r
w
it
h
t
h
e
p
r
o
b
a
bi
lit
y
a
c
c
o
r
di
n
gl
y,
f
o
r
t
h
e
in
e
q
u
al
it
y
h
ol
d
s
o
n
in
t
e
r
v
al
s
o
f
t
o
t
al
le
n
g
t
h
a
n
d
a
r
a
n
d
o
m
s
a
m
pl
e
o
f
si
z
e
s
h
o
ul
d
c
o
n
t
ai
n
a
b
o
u
t
s
u
c
h
v
al
u
e
s.
T
hi
s
is
in
di
s
c
e
r
ni
bl
e
o
n
t
h
e
p
r
e
vi
o
u
s
pi
ct
u
r
e
,
b
u
t
cl
e
a
rl
y
vi
si
bl
e
o
n
t
h
e
z
o
o
m
e
d
pi
ct
u
r
e
.
In
cr
e
a
si
n
g
re
ar
ra
n
g
e
m
e
nt
of
lo
g
s
c
al
e.
F
o
r
t
h
e
n
o
r
m
al
p
r
o
b
a
bi
lit
y
is
o
nl
y
a
n
d
is
o
nl
y
in
o
r
d
e
r
t
o
s
e
e
w
h
a
t
h
a
p
p
e
n
s
f
o
r
a
n
d
w
e
n
e
e
d
la
r
g
e
r
s
a
m
pl
e
s
a
n
d
lo
g
a
ri
t
h
m
ic
s
c
al
e
.
T
hi
s
la
st
pi
ct
u
r
e
p
r
e
s
e
n
ts
a
s
a
m
pl
e
o
f
si
z
e
(t
h
a
t
t
o
o
k
a
c
o
m
p
u
t
e
r
s
e
v
e
r
al
h
o
u
r
s
).
W
e
s
e
e
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
is
cl
o
s
e
t
o
n
o
r
m
al
a
t
b
u
t
m
o
v
e
s
a
w
a
y
fr
o
m
n
o
r
m
al
a
t
H
o
p
e
f
ul
ly
,
t
h
e
a
p
p
r
o
xi
m
a
t
e
n
o
r
m
al
it
y
f
ol
lo
w
s
fr
o
m
s
o
m
e
m
o
d
e
r
a
t
e
d
e
vi
a
ti
o
n
s
t
h
e
o
r
y
t
h
a
t
a
p
pl
ie
s
a
t
w
hi
le
t
h
e
d
e
p
a
rt
u
r
e
fr
o
m
n
o
r
m
al
it
y
f
ol
lo
w
s
fr
o
m
s
o
m
e
la
r
g
e
d
e
vi
a
ti
o
n
s
t
h
e
o
r
y
t
h
a
t
a
p
pl
ie
s
a
t
a
n
d
f
u
rt
h
e
r;
b
u
t
f
o
r
n
o
w
,
in
s
pi
t
e
o
f
t
h
e
r
e
c
e
n
t
p
r
o
g
r
e
s
s
in
t
h
e
p
r
o
b
a
bi
li
st
ic
a
p
p
r
o
a
c
h
t
o
la
c
u
n
a
r
y
s
e
ri
e
s,
s
u
c
h
t
h
e
o
ri
e
s
a
r
e
n
o
t
a
v
ai
la
bl
e
,
a
n
d
t
h
e
si
t
u
a
ti
o
n
n
e
a
r
t
h
e
bi
g
r
e
d
q
u
e
st
io
n
m
a
r
k
o
n
t
h
e
pi
ct
u
r
e
r
e
m
ai
n
s
u
n
k
n
o
w
n
.
It
is
n
a
t
u
r
al
t
o
g
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It often happens that we want to evaluate a certain
number [...] so that the direct method is almost
prohibitive [...] we should be very happy to have an
entirely different method [...] giving at least some
useful information to it. And usually this new method
gives (as remarked by Laplace) the better results in
proportion to its being more necessary [...]
N
.
G
.
D
e
B
ru
ij
n,
A
s
y
m
pt
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N
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-
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1
9
5
8.
S
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.
1.
1
"
W
h
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is
a
s
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m
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(p
a
g
e
1)
.
Cate
gory:
B
o
o
k:
E
x
a
m
pl
e
s
a
n
d
c
o
u
nt
e
r
e
x
a
m
pl
e
s
in
m
at
h
e
m
at
ic
s
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