Ijerph 19 07787 v2

International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
Identification of the Mechanical Failure Factors with Potential
Influencing Road Accidents in Ecuador
Juan Pablo Montero-Salgado 1,2, * , Jose Muñoz-Sanz 1 , Blanca Arenas-Ramírez 3 and Cristina Alén-Cordero 4
1 Machine Engineering Division, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales (ETSII-UPM),

Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), 28006 Madrid, Spain; joseluis.munozs@upm.es
2 Transportation Engineering Research Group, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Cuenca 010105, Ecuador
3 University Institute for Automobile Research Francisco Aparicio Izquierdo (INSIA-UPM),
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), 28006 Madrid, Spain; blanca.arenas@upm.es
4 Escuela Politécnica Superior, Universidad de Alcalá (UAH), 28871 Alcala de Henares, Spain;
cristina.alen@uah.es
* Correspondence: jp.montero@alumnos.upm.es or jmontero@ups.edu.ec
Abstract: Road traffic accidents result in injury or even death of passengers. One potential cause of
these accidents is mechanical failures due to a lack of vehicle maintenance. In the quest to identify
these mechanical failures, this paper aims to set up the procedure to identify the mechanical failures
that contribute to traffic accidents in cities located in developing countries, including the city of
Cuenca-Ecuador. For present research, a database provided by the entity responsible for the Vehicle
Technical Inspection, the Empresa Pública Municipal de Movilidad, Tránsito y Transporte and for the
ones responsible of managing traffic accident data, Oficina de Investigación de Accidentes de Tránsito
and Sección de Investigación de Accidentes de Tránsito was used. The vehicle subcategories M1
and M3 (bus type) and N1, so named according to Ecuadorian technical standards, were considered
the most relevant regarding accident rates. The database was analysed with descriptive statistics, a
Citation: Montero-Salgado, J.P.; Pareto chart and time series with the quadratic trend. From this analysis, the most significant failures
Muñoz-Sanz, J.; Arenas-Ramírez, B.; found in the VTI in all three subcategories were the alignment of the driver headlight, both horizontal
Alén-Cordero, C. Identification of the and vertical, braking imbalance on the 2nd axle, insufficient tire tread and parking brake effectiveness.
Mechanical Failure Factors with All these failures showed a decreasing trend over time and in the forecast at a maximum of two
Potential Influencing Road Accidents to three years. The most relevant causes of road accidents recorded during the period 2009–2018
in Ecuador. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public related to mechanical failures were the braking system (65.5%) and the steering system (17.2%) for
Health 2022, 19, 7787. https:// subcategory M1.
doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137787
Academic Editor: Paul B. Tchounwou Keywords: Vehicle Technical Inspection; road safety; road crashes; mechanical failures; maintenance
Received: 24 May 2022

Accepted: 22 June 2022
Published: 24 June 2022
1. Introduction
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral One of the initiatives that succeed in reducing road crashes and injuries are the United
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
Nations legal instruments developed with the support of United Nations Regional Commis-
published maps and institutional affil-
sions and used by many countries as a guide for the development and implementation of
iations.
traffic regulations, the manufacturing of safer vehicles, the reduction of risk collision in ve-
hicles transporting dangerous goods and, to ensure that only vehicles with the appropriate
maintenance are on roads. In addition, the effort of the World Health Organization (WHO),
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
which encourages nations to implement activities within the program known as “Safer
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. traffic road users,” which suggests the activity of “to establish and monitor the compliance
This article is an open access article of transport, health and work safety laws and the standards and rules for the safe operation of
distributed under the terms and commercial freight and transport vehicles, road passenger transport services and the rest of the
conditions of the Creative Commons public and private vehicle fleet, to reduce the injuries caused by accidents” [1], confirming the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// need of ensuring that only vehicles with the adequate maintenance may travel.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Ecuador, as well as other nations that implement WHO activities, has laws and
4.0/). standards that regulate Land Transport, Traffic and Road Safety, where it was established
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7787. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137787 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7787 2 of 27
that “Owners of motor vehicles are obliged to have them checked in technical and mechanical
revisions at vehicle inspection and control centres, authorised in accordance with the regulations
issued by the National Traffic Agency” [2].
By Resolution No 006-CNC-2012, dated 26 April 2012, published in the Official Record
Supplement No 712 dated 29 May 2012, the National Competence Council transferred
the competence to plan, regulate and control traffic, land transport and road safety to
the municipal decentralised autonomous governments of the country, providing them
with all the competences over-involved processes, to improve mobility in their respective
territorial areas.
The Vehicle Technical Inspection (VTI) was established in the city of Cuenca the
29 August 2005 by the Illustrious Cantonal Council of Cuenca through the “Ordinance
that Rules the Establishment of the Vehicle Technical Inspection System of Cuenca and the
Competence Delegation to CUENCAIRE”. The aim was to check the proper operation of
vehicles, the level of pollutant gas emissions, the level of noise and the suitability when it
was the case. Thus, a healthy environment is safeguarded at the same time as the ratio of
accidents due to mechanical failure in vehicles [3]. CUENCAIRE Corporation implemented
the VTI mandatory system in 2008 [4].
The Cantonal Council of Cuenca, on the 30 October 2012, issued the Ordinance where
the Decentralised Autonomous Government of the city of Cuenca ratifies the delegation of
traffic regulation and control, transport and road safety to the Empresa Pública Municipal de
Movilidad, Tránsito y Transporte (EMOV EP). Cuenca has two VTI centres (Mayancela and
Capulispamba), operated by the Danton Consortium, where citizens, prior to the vehicle
registration, must attend and approve the VTI [5]. This inspection establishes several
control stages, such as visual inspection and the measurement of certain mechatronic
factors. Moreover, vehicle pollutant emissions are controlled.
According to the above, the need to assure that only properly maintained vehicles
can circulate is confirmed. Thus, in Ecuador and, therefore, in the city of Cuenca, it is
mandatory that the owners of motor vehicles are obliged to carry out the technical vehicle
inspection, with the aim of reducing the proportion of traffic accidents due to this cause.
The high percentage of deceased or victims with injuries caused by traffic accidents
has enormous consequences for communities all over the world. Consequently, this issue
requires to be analysed at worldwide, national and local levels.
The problem is getting worse worldwide. The number of deaths caused by road
crashes reached 1.35 million in 2016, which implies that 3700 people die on the world’s
roads every day. Injuries caused by road crashes are the eighth leading cause of death for
all age groups and it is currently the leading cause of death for children and young people
aged 5–29 years. World leaders committed to halving the number of deaths due to road
crashes by 2020. But little progress has been made towards this goal. Therefore, there is a
need to scale up evidence-based interventions and investments [6].
Most recent available data (2016) in the Region of the Americas, where the city of
Cuenca-Ecuador is located, show that death caused by traffic accidents was the second
leading cause of mortality in young adults aged 15–29 years. Injuries by road traffic caused
the death of around 154,997 people, meaning 11% of the worldwide deaths. It should
be highlighted that between 2013 and 2016, in four middle-income countries (Argentina,
Ecuador, Paraguay and Venezuela), there was no change recorded in the deaths caused by
road traffic, with Ecuador’s mortality rate caused by road traffic as the eighth highest in
the Region of the Americas, being far above the regional mortality rate, that is of 15.6 per
100,000 inhabitants [7].
Road transport is the main and key means for the development of the countries,
enabling the mobility of the majority of people. Private vehicles and public transport
are the means with the highest share of road mobility. Private vehicles have the highest
representation in the countries’ vehicle fleet and as vehicles involved in road crashes. The
risk of dying in a road crash as private vehicle or bus passengers is 10 times higher [8].
According to the Ecuadorian technical standard NTE INEN 2656, private vehicles are
classified as subcategories M1 and N1 and buses as subcategory M3 bus type (ISO 3833
terms and definitions). According to the statistics provided in [9], in 2018, 70% of the
vehicle fleet in Ecuador was formed by M1 (47.70%), N1 (20.68%) and M3 bus types (1.16%).
On the other hand, a total of 25,530 road crashes were recorded in Ecuador in 2018,
with 19,850 injured and 2151 deceased, being 74% of them the driver of the vehicle. It
should be noted that 59% of the accidents corresponded to private cars and buses. That
same year, in the province of Azuay, where the city of Cuenca is placed, the number of road
crashes was 1528, with a total of 1357 injured and 102 deceased. In 24.13% of accidents,
the probable cause recorded, named as driving inattentive to traffic conditions (mobile
phone, video screens, food, make-up or any other distracting factor), meanwhile the one
known as mechanical failure in the systems and/or tyres (braking system, electronic or
mechanical steering) was 0.82% [10]. Unfortunately, there is no available information on
accident causes neither by province nor by vehicle type.
The authors [11] conclude that in the period 2014–2019, there was a 31.12% decrease
in the number of road crashes in Ecuador, while the number of deaths increased by 1.8%.
These data distance Ecuador from achieving the Sustainable Development Goals 2020
target of 3.6 and require adopting measures for the prevention of road crashes and their
consequences to comply with the new decade regarding road safety until 2030.
Most regions and countries in the world have “agreed” to work together to achieve
the goal of reducing road deaths and one of the pillars is safe vehicles. In countries of
the Region of Americas, fleet renewal, as well as the maintenance of vehicles, has to be
observed by the administration as one of the most important factors for safety.
Attending the percentage of traffic accidents related to the cause named as mechanical
failure in systems and/or tyres (braking system, electronic or mechanical steering), regarding the
percentage of injures (average of 0.53%) and deceases (average of 0.65%), for the latest
available data (January 2019–December 2019) from the Agencia Nacional de Tránsito del
Ecuador (ANT), it can be observed that, although the percentages are not high, they remain
over time with a remnant value, except for the month of August where no data is recorded,
possibly due to a management problem. In addition to this, according to [9], from 2013 to
2018, the vehicle fleet showed an average annual growth in the subcategories M1 of 6.66%,
M3 bus type of 24.54% and N1 of 6.77%.
Vehicle safety inspections have not been widely studied as a tool, even though they
can help both to reduce fatal crashes and keep roads safe, as they require vehicle owners to
keep their vehicles in good operating condition [12].
Under the statement “Talking about safety in the Mechanics and Machinery industrial
sector not only means health and safety at work but also maintaining safety in domestic
and leisure activities” [13], some questions are raised and answered, being one of them
“What are the most frequent failure modes and non-compliances that can be found on
the current reality?”. Under this perspective, the objective of this research is to set up the
procedure to identify the mechanical failures that contribute to traffic accidents and try to
give an answer to this question in cities located in developing countries, in the context of
the vehicle fleet in the city of Cuenca-Ecuador. This requirement proposes to establish an
analysis of the information provided by the entities responsible for the VTI and those in
charge of managing road crash information in the city of Cuenca-Ecuador, in addition to the
fact that the latter do not have organised data, so there is a work of collecting information
from paper files and digital files.
In this article, an analysis of the data recorded in the VTI Centers and road crashes
of M1 (vehicles), M3 (buses) and N1 (pickups and vans) vehicles subcategories is done
because they are over-represented in road crashes rates in 2018, according to the ANT.
Noting the information provided by the entities responsible for the VTI and those
in charge of managing road accident information will enable this paper to provide an
insight into the most typical mechanical failures that occur in accidents or that could cause
them and, in the future, to establish possible links between the importance of vehicle
maintenance, the prevention of road crashes and the improvement of road safety.
2. Literature Review
In [12], vehicle registration data of Pennsylvania in the United States are combined
with two large samples of state safety inspection results, which monitor the safety of vehicle
components because, as with any part subjected to stress or wear, maintenance is necessary
for proper operation. Vehicle safety in terms of maintenance is identified by analysing
the failure rate trends over time. It is concluded that, despite the fact that technological
improvements introduced in recent years make vehicles appear safer, the failure rate found
on vehicles in VTI does not trend to zero in the near future.
Many countries see the Vehicle Technical Inspection as a possible control tool to
decrease traffic accidents caused by mechanical failures. However, ref. [14] obtained results
that indicate that the VTI does not have a significant impact on the technical condition of
the vehicles with a certain age of operation nor in a significant increase in the interventions
performed in the vehicle repair industry, suggesting that the inspection does not improve
the mechanical condition of vehicles. In this study, the results suggest that periodic vehicle
inspection is a poor instrument to achieve the objectives set out at the political and social
levels. In addition, ref. [15] concludes that vehicle safety inspections do not represent an
efficient use of the funds and do not seem to have a significant mitigating effect on the role
of vehicle failures in road crashes. Despite this, VTI should not be ruled out as a solution, as
sector conditions and the legislation regulating vehicle traffic in each country are different.
The authors [16] concluded that there is a relationship between the vehicle’s technical
condition and road crash risk. This work underlines the need to ensure a certain level
of reliability in terms of vehicle technical condition through operation and maintenance
systems and a stricter regulation as many countries already do, including environmental
safety monitoring, by requiring good vehicle fleet condition with appropriate maintenance.
In study [17], the relationship between vehicle mechanical failures and road crashes in
developing countries is addressed. They conclude that the use of non-original parts and
poor quality supervision during and after repairs could cause road crashes. This work
highlights the importance of reliability and monitoring of the correct vehicle maintenance
to increase road safety in some countries.
The hypothesis that vehicle fleet good condition decreases road crashes is also sup-
ported by the work of [18], which underlines the important role of periodic vehicle in-
spection in the future probability of collisions. It also recommends that authorised heavy
vehicle inspection centres provide driving safety instructions, training and even specific
evaluations to their drivers.
Studies in developed and developing countries have shown that one of the main causes
of road crashes are mechanical failures in vehicles [19–21], therefore accidents that could be
prevented by the extension and implementation of VTIs, with mandatory regulation where
it does not yet exist.
In Cameroon, one of the main causes of fatal collisions was mechanical failure (28%),
two-thirds of which were tyre problems [22]. It is worth highlighting that this cause of
crashes can be prevented through appropriate interventions by the entities in charge of con-
trolling the attendance of vehicles in VTI centres and thus contributing to the improvement
of road safety.
In [23], implement statistical significance tests to investigate the effectiveness of VTIs
on road safety matters in the United States. The results indicate that the States with
inspections record a lower number of monthly vehicle crash claims than the States without
inspections, which indicates a positive effect on road safety.
In the study by [24], a systematic review was performed to determine the effect of
VTIs on road crashes and injuries and experiences with fewer or non-periodic inspections
were compared. The authors suggest that periodic inspection is associated with a slight
decrease in road crashes and they outline the need to conduct further studies that provide
conclusive scientific evidence.
Traffic accident analysis in a community aims to be able to implement measures to
decrease its consequences. Ref. [25] introduce a systematic review and meta-analysis of
studies estimating the relationship between the number of accidents involving motorised
vehicles and cyclists or pedestrians and the motorised vehicle, cyclist and pedestrian traffic
volume, demonstrating the efforts to determine different interactions between variables
that could be the cause of traffic accidents.
As aforementioned, means of transport are of great importance, as they have con-
tributed to the economic development of countries and have made the movement of goods
and people possible, enabling social integration. Therefore, studies about accidents in
means of transport have been developed, such as the one by [26], who contemplates that
safety can be defined as an acceptable state of risk taken by society.
According to the data provided by the institutions in charge of road safety, sometimes
these are not properly organised, or in other cases, they are scattered in paper and digital
files, which is why [27] states that “the methodology of data preparation from the records
of the VTI centres, allows establishing a suitable database for its use in mobility analysis”.
Access to reliable and systematic data sources is an unavoidable condition to move forward
in the knowledge of mobility, fleet condition and road safety in regions and countries such
as Ecuador.
Moreover, the use of statistical tools on a structured, systematic and high-quality
database allows the analysis of the behaviour of the variables of interest, such as the one
carried out by [28,29], which uses variables such as age, gender, type of road crashes and
driver offences, including vehicle compliance with VTI. An understanding and analysis
of the factors involved in road crashes can help road policy decision-making and the
development of preventive measures, as well as raising drivers’ awareness of the need to
comply with the VTI.
Considering the study of [30], older vehicles and vehicles with defects represent a not
negligible volume of vehicles running in deficient conditions, which deserves the attention
of political decision-makers. The results obtained support the need to establish control
tools to limit the operation of these vehicles.
In [27], a sample of the data recorded in the VTIs is used and it is established that in
the case of private cars, vehicle age is the most important factor in mobility.
On this premise, ref. [31] provides data regarding the average age in years of the
vehicle fleet in Ecuador from 2012 to October 2021, showing an increase in the age of the
vehicle fleet from 13.26 years in 2012 to 16.2 years in 2018. Although there seems to be some
vehicle turnover from 2018 onwards, as in 2021, the average age is 15.9, this change is very
short. According to [32], insurance companies in Ecuador consider that a car older than
12 years is already old, and, therefore, they do not insure it, or it is charged with higher
premiums. Considering the average age of 15.9 years and the fact that these vehicles still
operate on the roads, the age of the vehicle fleet in Ecuador is a factor that highlights the
need for strict and sustained control of the performance of the VTIs.
3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Data Collection for the Research
The official source of statistical information in Ecuador is the Instituto Nacional
de Estadística y Censos (INEC), which publishes its results annually, but the data are
unreliable [11]. For this reason, the authors turned to the entities in charge of Vehicle
Technical Inspection and governmental entities in charge of investigating traffic accidents
in the city of Cuenca, with which the academy has agreements to consolidate the relevant
information for this research.
The data regarding Vehicle Technical Inspection (VTI) records were provided by the
EMOV EP. The information corresponds to the period 2008–2018. It includes all items
considered in the VTI process, omitting data such as vehicle plate number or chassis
number for data protection. Figure 1 shows the process used for data collection. However,
it is noted that the entity does not have up-to-date data due to the COVID 19 pandemic
and the slow vaccination process in Ecuador.
The data regarding Vehicle Technical Inspection (VTI) records were provided by the
EMOV EP. The information corresponds to the period 2008–2018. It includes all items con-
sidered in the VTI process, omitting data such as vehicle plate number or chassis number
for data protection. Figure 1 shows the process used for data collection. However, it is
noted that the entity does not have up-to-date data due to the COVID 19 pandemic and
the slow vaccination process in Ecuador.
Start
Request information
about VTI records in
the canton Cuenca in
Ecuador
Reception and
application process
by EMOV EP
Data delivery by
EMOV EP, in the
form of a digital file
Review of the
information received
Is the
NO information
provided is
correct?
YES
Obtaining VTI
history data, required
for analysis.
End
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Process
Process for
for VTI
VTI records
records data
data collection.
collection.
Road crash data required

required forfor this
this paper
paper were
were provided
provided by by government
government entities
entities in
in
charge of researches
charge researches of of this type of accidents in the city of Cuenca-Ecuador, which are
are the
Oficina
Oficina de
deInvestigación
Investigacióndede Accidentes
Accidentes de deTránsito (OIAT)
Tránsito and and
(OIAT) the Sección de Investigación
the Sección de Investi-
de Accidentes
gación de Tránsito
de Accidentes (SIAT). (SIAT).
de Tránsito Two databases were obtained.
Two databases One byOne
were obtained. meansby of photo-
means of
graphic support
photographic of the of
support technical expertexpert
the technical reports recorded
reports in the in
recorded entities and the
the entities andother from
the other
afrom
digital file with
a digital the information
file with the informationof allofthe
all Azuay
the Azuayprovince, where
province, thethe
where citycity
of Cuenca
of Cuenca is
placed. Both databases correspond to the period 2009–2018 and the process
is placed. Both databases correspond to the period 2009–2018 and the process used to ob- used to obtain
the
taindata
the is represented
data in Figure
is represented 2. Because
in Figure of the pandemic
2. Because situation,
of the pandemic there arethere
situation, no updated
are no
data available and some issues will have to be addressed as the data homogenisation
because of the so peculiar characteristics of the year 2020.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x 7 of 29

updated data available and some issues will have to be addressed as the data homogeni-
sation because of the so peculiar characteristics of the year 2020.
Start
Request information
on traffic accidents
registered with the
OIAT and SIAT
entities
Reception and
Receipt and application
processing of
process by the OIAT
application by the
SIAT
Delivery of data by the

OIAT in the form of a Data delivery by the
physical and digital SIAT, in the form of
documentation file. physical file
Review of
information received
Is the
NO information
provided
is correct?
YES
Obtaining road
accidents data,
required for analysis.
End
Figure
Figure2.2.The
Theprocess
processto
toobtain
obtainthe
thedata
dataregarding
regardingroad
roadcrashes.
crashes.
3.2.Database
3.2. DatabaseCreation
CreationRequired
Requiredforforthe
theResearch
Research
For the database creation regarding
For the database creation regarding mechanical mechanical andand electrical
electrical failures
failures ofVTI
of the the rec-
VTI
records,
ords, the the
firstfirst
stepstep is discriminate
is to to discriminatethethe data
data that
that is is
notnot
ofofinterest,
interest,such
suchasasgas
gasemission
emission
values, noise level values, chassis condition observations, bodywork, paint,
values, noise level values, chassis condition observations, bodywork, paint, plates, safety plates, safety
accessories, glass, vehicle interior and exhaust system
accessories, glass, vehicle interior and exhaust system parts. parts.
Then, the categories of vehicles that are out of the scope of the research are discrim-
inated and the remaining vehicles are given the corresponding subcategories: M1, M3
and N1.
From the remaining information, only the values that show the defect rating are
selected, focusing on those which do not fulfil the rating thresholds based on the specific
Then, the categories of vehicles that are out of the scope of the research are discrimi-
nated and the remaining vehicles are given the corresponding subcategories: M1, M3 and
N1.
From the remaining information, only the values that show the defect rating are se-
lected, focusing on those which do not fulfil the rating thresholds based on the specific
standards that
standards that regulate
regulate the
the component
component to to be
be evaluated,
evaluated, used
used by
by the
the EMOV
EMOV EPEPin
inthe
theVTI.
VTI.
This process
This process has
has been
been repeated
repeated year
year to
to year
year of
of VTI
VTI since
since 2008
2008 until
until obtaining
obtaining the
the database
database
under study.
under study. This
This process
process can
can be
be observed
observed inin Figure
Figure 3.
3.
Start
Discriminating the
digital document data
not corresponding to
observations or
values of mechanical
and electrical systems
Choose the vehicle

data from the
subcategories of
interest for the
analysis
Selection of data
presenting the defect
rating, according to
the rating thresholds
used by the EMOV
EP in the VTI.
Obtaining a database
of information on
mechanical and
electrical failures of
vehicle technical
review records
End
Figure 3. Process
Process for
for the
the database
database creation
creation of
of the
the mechanical
mechanical and
and electrical
electrical failures
failures from
from the
the VTI
VTI
records.
records.
The methodology used used toto generate

generatethe thetraffic
trafficaccident
accidentdatabase
databaseisisbased
based ononthe collec-
the col-
tion of information
lection of information through field field
through research. In its subsequent
research. processing,
In its subsequent the information
processing, is
the infor-
classified
mation is and segregated,
classified obtaining the
and segregated, requiredthe
obtaining database.
requiredIn database.
the case ofInthe
thephysical
case offiles,
the
first of all,
physical photographs
files, first of all,of the existingof
photographs technical expert
the existing reports expert
technical existing at the existing
reports OIAT and at
SIAT
the facilities
OIAT and are
SIATtaken. The photographs
facilities are taken. The arephotographs
then classified according
are to the subcategories
then classified according to
of the vehicles of interest for the research. Subsequently, the variables required for the
creation of the database are chosen. Finally, the necessary information is extracted from the
photographs related to these variables. In the case of digital data files, the first step is to
propose the necessary variables for the database that will be analysed later. These variables
are the same raised in the analysis of the physical files. Then, the sites or places that do
the subcategories of the vehicles of interest for the research. Subsequently, the variables
required for the creation of the database are chosen. Finally, the necessary information is
extracted from the photographs related to these variables. In the case of digital data files,
the first step is to propose the necessary variables for the database that will be analysed
later. These variables are the same raised in the analysis of the physical files. Then, the
sites or places that do not belong to the city of Cuenca are discriminated against. Subse-
not belong
quently, to the
data fromcity
theofvehicles
Cuencabelonging
are discriminated against. Subsequently,
to the subcategories of interest isdata from the
extracted for
vehicles
the study.belonging to the
Finally, the subcategories
traffic of interest
accident database is extracted
is obtained. for the study.
The process is shownFinally, the
in Figure
traffic
4. accident database is obtained. The process is shown in Figure 4.
Start
Digital
The file to be
document
processed is physical or
electronic
document file?
Physical
document
Receive the
Take photographs of previously reviewed
expert technical digital document file
reports provided by from OIAT.
OIAT and SIAT
Set the variables

Classify the required to create the
photographic database
archives according to
the vehicles of the
subcategories of
interest for the Discriminating in the
analysis. document places that
are not of interest to
create the database
Set the variables

required to create the
database Classify traffic
accidents, according
to the vehicles of the
subcategories of
Extract the required interest for the
information for the analysis.
established variables
Obtaining database of
information about
traffic accidents.
End
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Process
Process for
for the
the traffic
trafficaccident
accidentdatabase
databasecreation.
creation.
3.3.
3.3. Statistical
Statistical Procedures
Procedures
Once
Once the OIAT,
the OIAT,SIAT
SIATandandEMOV
EMOVEP EPdatabases
databasesare
arestructured,
structured,the
the statistical
statistical analysis
analysis
is
is carried out to establish the most relevant mechanical and electrical defects in
carried out to establish the most relevant mechanical and electrical defects in the
the VTI
VTI
records and the causes of traffic accidents. Several statistical procedures are implemented.
records and the causes of traffic accidents. Several statistical procedures are implemented.
3.3.1. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is a fundamental part of data analysis and provides the basis for
the comparison, being part of the good practices for the collection of relevant information
and for the process of researching causes and influencing factors. An overview of the
corresponding data is obtained, either by means of the mode (the value or category of the
variable that is most often repeated or has a higher frequency) or by histograms (graphical
representation of a frequency table indicating the number of cases occurring in each value
of the variable) [33].
The implementation of descriptive statistics and its tools is used in the transport
field, for example, in the paper by [34] to explore the effect of public transport strikes
on traffic conditions, to study the impacts of average speed and travel time on traffic
flow, etc. The study by [35] examines the health-related behaviours of e-scooter users,
using descriptive statistics of the variables (age, gender and area of residence) and chi-
square analysis to determine the relationships between the variables and the equivalence
of proportions. Furthermore, ref. [36] implement descriptive statistics to determine the
characteristics of road crashes with autonomous vehicles in terms of the accident location,
weather conditions, way of driving, vehicle movement before the road crash occurred,
speed, type of collision, crash severity and location of vehicle damage.
In this research, the analysis allows one to determine which are the most frequently
occurring mechanical and electrical defects in the VTI records and the histogram allows
one to visualise the frequency of the different causes of accidents recorded for each type of
vehicle selected.
3.3.2. Pareto Chart

The Pareto chart is an important tool given its capacity to help to focus attention on
the area(s) of interest. It is useful for separating the few significant factors from the many
trivial ones, identifying the most important sources of problems helping to prioritise and
assign resources [37].
In the transport area, the Pareto chart is used by the authors [38] to establish the
most influential factors in the analysis of energy absorbers considered as a solution to
minimise the consequences of road crashes on passengers and improve automobile safety.
In the paper of [39], the Pareto chart is used for the microscopic simulation of traffic to
investigate traffic efficiency and road safety. Authors in [40] implemented the Pareto chart
to identify the causes of failure modes in the tyre braking system in vehicles of a commercial
vehicle company.
In this research, the Pareto chart enables identifying the most relevant failures of the
vehicles in selected subcategories which cover 80% of the total failures found in the VTI
process and the mechanical failures which cause traffic accidents. Since the database of the
VTI uses very long names for each failure, an alphanumeric coding for the Pareto chart was
proposed. The full table is included in Appendix A.
3.3.3. Time Series

Time series analysis deals with statistical methods for analysing and modelling an
ordered sequence of observations, which is usually over time (equally spaced time intervals).
This allows the understanding and modelling of the data generation system and the forecast
of future values. By means of the graphic representation of data in chronological order, it
is possible to determine if there is a trend or a pattern, adjusting data to a certain curve
type [41].
Time series are useful for analysing several issues in the transport area, as in the paper
by [42], where the characteristics of fatal road crashes in a developing country are explored
and accident predictions are also obtained. In [43], time series is used to explain and predict
the relationship between the temporary variation of Safety Performance Functions (SPFs).
SPFs are widely used by state and local authorities to predict crashes. In [44], a method
of speed prediction of the moving vehicle at high speed with autoregressive integrated
moving average (ARIMA) models is proposed.
This work uses time series analysis with the quadratic trend, this being the one that
best fits with the most representative failures recorded in the VTI. It should be highlighted
that the R2 metric was used to determine the proper fitting of each of the established
models. This allowed us to determine and predict the behaviour of each of the failures
over time.
4. Results
4.1. Mechanical and Electrical Conditions of Vehicles for Subcategories M1, M3 and N1, of the City
of Cuenca-Ecuador from 2008 to 2018
VTI data for the period 2008–2018 obtained in the research by applying the mode
in each of the subcategories N1, M1 and M3 bus type indicate as a result that the most
significant defects are: horizontal alignment of the driver headlight, vertical alignment of
the driver headlight, braking imbalance on the 2nd axle, insufficient tyre tread and parking
brake effectiveness, results that are shown in Table 1. These results are the key parameters
for the models discussed in Section 4.2.
Table 1. Mode results.
FAILURE NUMBER OF VEHICLES

Horizontal alignment of the driver headlight 55,305
Vertical alignment of the driver headlight 62,001
Braking imbalance on the 2nd axle 23,653
Insufficient tyre tread 28,674
Parking brake effectiveness 39,065
By implementing the Pareto chart analysis to each subcategory, it is obtained that,

for M1 vehicles (Figure 5), the most representative failure is the vertical alignment of the
driver headlight (19.4%), followed by horizontal alignment of the driver headlight (17.4%).
Both failures were located on the driver headlight with a cumulative percentage of 36.8%.
It is also observed that 11.7% of the vehicles fail in parking brake effectiveness and 8.5%
have insufficient tyre tread. Likewise, and in decreasing order, it is obtained that 8.1%
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,fail
19, xin braking effectiveness, 7.1% have braking imbalance on the 2nd axle, 4.1%12failof in
29
the alignment of the 1st toe-in axle, and, finally, 3.1% of the failures are due to braking
imbalance on the 1st axle.
260000
240000 100%
220000
Number of vehicles with failure
200000 79.4
76.3
72.2
80% Cumulative Frequency
180000
160000 65.1
140000 57 60%
120000 48.5
100000 36.8 40%

80000
60000 19.4
20%
40000
20000
0 0%
09 08 02 02 01 03 07 02 01 08 05 01 04 05 05 06 11 03 06 09
FC FC EFE ILN EF F2E 1EC F1E RCF FLF S2E DD S1E I1E IRD PPD NF D1E FNF PNF
V H D A D N N D TD D SR A L LR SR F L
A A
Failure type E E
Figure 5. Representative failures in VTI for subcategory M1.
120000
100%
100000
th failure
78.6 80.3
80%
ency
74.9 76.8
72.2
80000 69.4
180000
Cumulative Freque
Number of vehicles wit
160000 65.1
140000 57 60%
120000 48.5
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7787
100000 12 of 27
36.8 40%
80000
60000 19.4
For vehicles of subcategory N1, Figure 6 shows that the failure with 20% the highest
40000 value is the vertical alignment of the driver headlight (13.5%), followed by the
percentage
horizontal
20000 alignment of the driver headlight (11.8%). Both failures located in the driver
headlight give a cumulative percentage of 25.3%. There is also parking brake effectiveness
0 0%
(9.9%), insufficient tyre tread (7.2%), left wheel suspension effectiveness on the 1st axle
(6.3%), braking 9 8 2
0 imbalance 2 1 3
0 0 0 0 on0 the0 2nd7 2 1
0 axle 8 5 1 4
0 0 right
0 0 (5.5%), 5
0 0 wheel 5 6 1 3
0 0 suspension 6 9
1 0 0 0 effectiveness on
FC FC EFE ILN EF F2E 1EC F1E RCF FLF S2E DD S1E I1E IRD PPD NF D1E FNF PNF
V
the 1st axle, H R
A Ainadequate fitting
D A of D spring
N N DeyeTDbushings
D SR A and
E
L braking
L SR F effectiveness
L (around
4% each), and suspension imbalance Failure
on thetype E
1st axle, braking imbalance on the 1st axle and
suspension imbalance on the 2nd axle (all of them with 3%), being the remaining failures
Figure 5. Representative failures in VTI for subcategory M1.
around 2%.
120000
100%
100000
78.6 80.3
80%
Cumulative Frequency
74.9 76.8
72.2
80000 69.4
66
62.3
58.6
54.2
60%
60000 48.7
42.4
35.2 40%
40000
25.3
20000 13.5 20%
0 0%
09 08 02 02 05 03 03 04 01 04 02 05 07 01 01 08 01 01 04 I03
FC FC EFE ILN I1E F2E D1E OB EF S1E F1E S2E 1EC BD NA FLF RD RCF EAP AR
V H R D R IB D D D A JD RN N HB N M
A A ES ES A Failure type BG
Figure 6. VTI representative failures for subcategory N1.
Figure 7 shows the results for the subcategory M3 bus type. For For this
this subcategory,
subcategory, the
most representative failures are suspension effectiveness on the right wheel of the the 1st
1st axle,
axle,
suspension effectiveness
effectivenessononthe
theright
rightwheel
wheelofof
thethe
2nd2ndaxle, suspension
axle, suspension effectiveness on the
effectiveness on
left wheel of the 1st axle, suspension effectiveness on the left wheel of the 2nd
the left wheel of the 1st axle, suspension effectiveness on the left wheel of the 2nd axle, axle, each
one with
each one awith
percentage of around
a percentage 10.5%.10.5%.
of around Braking effectiveness
Braking (7.7%),(7.7%),
effectiveness verticalvertical
alignment of
align-
the driver headlight (6.5%), horizontal alignment of the driver headlight (4.9%),
ment of the driver headlight (6.5%), horizontal alignment of the driver headlight (4.9%), braking
imbalance on the 2nd axle, inadequate fitting of spring eye bushings and braking imbalance
on the 1st axle (around 4%). Finally, the following with almost 3% are: sets or wear in the
steering bars and in the steering box.
Establishing in a clear way the most frequent failures and non-conformities that can be
found when performing a Vehicle Technical Inspection provides as a consequence security
to the citizens in general regarding vehicle traffic, in accordance to what [45] indicates in
the statement “This involves verifying compliance with the essential health and safety requirements
related to the design and construction of machinery and, to test the machine accordingly to the
related harmonised standards”.
braking imbalance on the 2nd axle, inadequate fitting of spring eye bushings and braking
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,imbalance
19, 7787 on the 1st axle (around 4%). Finally, the following with almost 3% are: sets
13 of or
27
wear in the steering bars and in the steering box.
16000
100%
14000

79.5
80%
Cumulative Frequency
76.3
12000 72.8
69.3
65.5
10000 61.3
56.4 60%
8000 49.9
42.2
6000 40%
31.6
4000 21.1
20%
2000 10.5
0 0%
06 05 04 03 01 09 08 03 04 02 01 02 01 05 08 01 08 11 01 I02
I2E I1E 2E 1E EF FC FC F2E OB F1E BD ILN RD IRD FLF NA DE NF CF RS
R R RD RD V H
A A D AIB D JD B E R R
H A N RN L L N T
ES ES ES ES Failure type
Figure 7. VTI representative failures for subcategory M3 bus type.
4.2. The Most Representative

Establishing in a clear Mechanical
way the most andfrequent
Electricalfailures
Failure Trend for Subcategories M1,
and non-conformities thatM3can
and N1 Vehicles in the City of Cuenca, Ecuador from 2008 to 2018
be found when performing a Vehicle Technical Inspection provides as a consequence se-
curityOnce
to thesetcitizens
up the in most representative
general failurestraffic,
regarding vehicle withininthe different subcategories,
accordance to what [45] indi- an
analysis of the most common ones is performed, with the aim of extrapolating
cates in the statement “This involves verifying compliance with the essential health and safety vehicle
conditions from
requirements thetosubcategories
related the design andunder study. of machinery and, to test the machine accord-
construction
ingly to the related harmonised standards”. the time series method with quadratic trend was
For the development of this analysis,
used, forecasting the behaviour of the most recurrent failures in the database for each of the
years studied,
4.2. The being the horizontal
Most Representative alignment
Mechanical of the driver
and Electrical Failureheadlight, vertical alignment
Trend for Subcategories M1, M3 of
the driver headlight, braking imbalance on the 2nd
and N1 Vehicles in the City of Cuenca, Ecuador from 2008 to 2018 axle, insufficient tyre tread and parking
brake effectiveness. It should be noted that a good fit of each of the models to the data was
Oncewith
obtained set up theabove
an R2 most 0.8,
representative failures forecasts.
generating reliable within the different subcategories, an
analysis of the most common ones is performed,
The time series forecast with the quadratic trend with
forthe
thisaim of extrapolating
analysis was performed vehicle
at a
conditions from the subcategories under study.
maximum of either two or three years, as the projections showed negative values.
For the development of this analysis, the time series method with quadratic trend
was used, forecasting
4.2.1. Horizontal the behaviour
Alignment of theHeadlight
of the Driver most recurrent
Failurefailures
Trendin the database for each
of theFigure
years 8astudied,
showsbeing the horizontal
the behaviour of thealignment of the
failure named asdriver headlight,
horizontal alignmentvertical
of the align-
driver
ment
headlight (AHFC08) in the period 2008–2018 (blue line). From the set of values,tyre
of the driver headlight, braking imbalance on the 2nd axle, insufficient tread
there are
and parking brake effectiveness. It should be noted that a good fit of
three visible data (red dots) that are outliers due to the fact that in the years 2008 and each of the models
to thethere
2009, data was
was lowobtained with
vehicle an R2 above
attendance VTI.0.8, generating
Particularly in reliable
2011, theforecasts.
Ecuadorian Technical
The time series forecast with the quadratic
Standard 1155 was applied, which established the requirements trend for this analysis was performed
for devices to maintainator a
maximum of either
improve visibility intwo
motoror three years,
vehicles, as the projections
to review more strictlyshowed negative
the alignment ofvalues.
the headlights
in the ITV in the city of Cuenca. This standard came into force nationally in 2012, so users
4.2.1. Horizontal
to avoid penaltiesAlignment
before thisofnew
the Driver Headlight
regulation Failure
performed Trend maintenance to the
preventive
headlights
Figureof 8athe vehicle.
shows For these reasons,
the behaviour thesenamed
of the failure valuesashave been discriminated
horizontal alignment of thefor the
driver
curve fitting
headlight determined
(AHFC08) in thein Figure2008–2018
period 8b by the(blue
time series with athe
line). From quadratic trend (red
set of values, thereline)
are
and the
three three-year
visible forecast
data (red dots)(red
that dots).
are outliers due to the fact that in the years 2008 and 2009,
thereInwas
2018,
lowthere wereattendance
vehicle 39,904 vehicles
VTI. with this defect,
Particularly but itthe
in 2011, is estimated
Ecuadorianthat by 2021
Technical
there will be 25,168.73 vehicles with this defect, that is, a percentage decrease of 36.92%.
users to avoid penalties before this new regulation performed preventive maintenance to
the headlights of the vehicle. For these reasons, these values have been discriminated for
the curve fitting determined in Figure 8b by the time series with a quadratic trend (red
line) and the three-year forecast (red dots).
In 2018, there were 39,904 vehicles with this defect, but it is estimated that by 2021
there will be 25,168.73 vehicles with this defect, that is, a percentage decrease of 36.92%.
Data behaviour
Outlier value Real value
60000
60000 Predicted value
Fit line
Number of vehicles of failure AHFC08
Number of vehicles of failure AHFC08

50000
50000
40000 40000
30000 30000
20000 20000
10000
10000
0
0
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Year
Year
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure8.8.Failure trend
Failure named
trend as horizontal
named alignment
as horizontal of the
alignment of driver headlight
the driver (AHFC08).
headlight (a): behav-
(AHFC08). (a): be-
iour of the failure AHFC08 (blue line); (b): the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and the
haviour of the failure AHFC08 (blue line); (b): the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and
forecast (red dots).
the forecast (red dots).
4.2.2.
4.2.2.Vertical
VerticalAlignment
AlignmentofofthetheDriver
DriverHeadlight
HeadlightFailure
FailureTrend
Trend
Figure
Figure 9a shows the behaviour of the failure namedvertical
9a shows the behaviour of the failure named verticalalignment
alignmentofofthethedriver
driver
headlight
headlight(AVFC09)
(AVFC09)ininthetheperiod
period2008–2018
2008–2018(blue
(blueline).
line).Again,
Again,thethesamesamethree
threeoutliers
outliers(red
(red
dots),
dots),which
whichwere
werealready
alreadyseen
seenin in
Section
Section4.2.1, areare
4.2.1, visible. As the
visible. As twothe twotypestypes
of failure are
of failure
related to thetosame
are related part (headlight),
the same they have
part (headlight), theynothavebeen
notconsidered
been considered for the curve
for thefitting
curve
determined in Figure
fitting determined in9b by the
Figure 9btime series
by the timewith a quadratic
series trend (red
with a quadratic line)
trend and
(red theand
line) three-
the
year forecastforecast
three-year (red dots).
(red dots).
InIn2018,
2018,there
therewere
were43,777
43,777vehicles
vehicleswith
withthis
thisdefect,
defect,but
butititwas
wasestimated
estimatedthatthatbyby2021
2021
therewill
there willhave
havebeen
been19,972.58
19,972.58 vehicles
vehicles with
with this
this defect,
defect, thatthat
is, ais,percentage
a percentage decrease
decrease of
of 54.37%.
54.37%.
Data behaviour
Predicted value
60000 Fit line
Number of vehicles of failure AVFC09
60000
Number of vehicles of failure AVFC09
50000
50000
40000 40000
30000 30000
20000 20000
10000
10000
0
0
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Year
Year
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure9.9.Failure
Failuretrend
trendnamed
namedasasvertical
verticalalignment
alignmentofofthe
thedriver
driverheadlight
headlight(AVFC09).
(AVFC09).(a):
(a):behaviour
behaviour
ofofthe failure (blue line); (b): the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and the forecast (red
the failure (blue line); (b): the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and the forecast (red dots).
dots).
4.2.3. Braking Imbalance on the 2nd Axle Failure Trend
4.2.3. Braking
Figure 10aImbalance
shows on thethe 2nd Axlecorresponding
behaviour Failure Trend to the failure named as a braking
Figureon10a
imbalance theshows the
2nd axle behaviour
(DF2E03) corresponding
in the to the(blue
period 2008–2018 failure named
line). Fromas a set
the braking im-
of values
balance on the
obtained, 2ndare
there axletwo
(DF2E03) in(red
outliers the period 2008–2018
dots) due (blue
to the low line). From
number the setperforming
of vehicles of values
obtained, there are two outliers (red dots) due to the low number of vehicles performing
the VTI in the years 2008 and 2009. These data are not considered for the curve fitting
determined in Figure 10b by the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and the three-
year forecast (red dots).
It is shown that in 2018, there were 15,143 vehicles with this failure, but it is estimated
of the failure (blue line); (b): the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and the forecast (red
dots).
4.2.3. Braking Imbalance on the 2nd Axle Failure Trend

Figure 10a shows the behaviour corresponding to the failure named as a braking im-
balance on the 2nd axle (DF2E03) in the period 2008–2018 (blue line). From the set of values 15 of 27
obtained, there are two outliers (red dots) due to the low number of vehicles performing
the VTI in the years 2008 and 2009. These data are not considered for the curve fitting
determined
the VTI in in theFigure
years10b byand
2008 the time
2009.series
Thesewith
dataa quadratic trend (red for
are not considered line)the
and the three-
curve fitting
year forecast (red
determined dots). 10b by the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and the
in Figure
It is shown
three-year that (red
forecast in 2018, there were 15,143 vehicles with this failure, but it is estimated
dots).
that byIt 2021 therethat
is shown willinbe 5655there
2018, vehicles
werewith this
15,143 defect,with
vehicles that this
is, afailure,
percentage
but itdecrease of
is estimated
62.65%.
that by 2021 there will be 5655 vehicles with this defect, that is, a percentage decrease
of 62.65%.
Data behaviour
25000 Fit line
Number of vehicles of failure DF2E03
Number of vehicles of failure DF2E03

20000
20000
15000 15000
10000 10000
5000
5000
0
0
08 09 10 1 1 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 1 8 1 9 20 21 22
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Year
Year
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,(a)

19, x (b) 16 of 29
Figure
Figure10.
10.Failure
Failuretrend
trendisisnamed
namedas as aa braking
braking imbalance on the
imbalance on the 2nd
2ndaxle
axle(DF2A03).
(DF2A03).(a):
(a):Behaviour
Behaviourof
ofthe
thefailure
failure(blue
(blue line); (b): the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and the forecast (red
line); (b): the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and the forecast (red dots).
4.2.4. Insufficient Tyre Tread Failure Trend
dots).
4.2.4. Insufficient
Figure Tyre Tread
11a represents the Failure Trend
behaviour corresponding to the failure named as insufficient
Figure
tyre tread 11a represents
(ILN02) the behaviour
in the period 2008–2018corresponding to the
(blue line), while failure
Figure named
11b insufficient
showsasthe fitting
tyre tread
curve (ILN02) by
determined in the
the period 2008–2018
time series with a(blue line), trend
quadratic while (red
Figure 11band
line) shows the fitting
the two-year
curve determined
forecast (red dots). by the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and the two-year
forecast (red dots).that in 2018 there were 14,451 vehicles with this defect. And it is esti-
It is observed
mated thatobserved
It is by 2020 thethat in 2018
number ofthere were
vehicles 14,451
with vehicles
this defect withbe
would this defect.
4785, And
that is, it is
a per-
estimated that by 2020
centage decrease of 66.88%. the number of vehicles with this defect would be 4785, that is, a
percentage decrease of 66.88%.
Data behaviour
Real value
Predicted value
30000
30000 Fit line
Number of vehicles of failure ILN02
Number of vehicles of failure ILN02
25000 25000
20000 20000
15000 15000
10000 10000
5000
5000
0
0
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Year
Year
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure11.11.Failure
Failuretrend
trendnamed
namedasasinsufficient
insufficienttyre
tyretread
tread(ILN02).
(ILN02).(a):
(a):Behaviour
Behaviourofofthe
thefailure
failure(blue
(blue
4.2.5. Parking Brake Effectiveness Failure Trend

Figure 12a shows the behaviour corresponding to the failure named as parking brake
effectiveness (EFE02) in the period 2008–2018 (blue line), while Figure 12b shows the fitting
curve determined by the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and the two-year
It is noted that in 2018, there were 14,594 vehicles with this failure. It is estimated that
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
08 009 010 011 012 013 014 015 016 017 018 019 020 021 022 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
20 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Year
Year
(a) (b)
Figure
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 11. Failure trend named as insufficient tyre tread (ILN02). (a): Behaviour of the failure 16
19, 7787 (blue
of 27

Figure 12a shows the behaviour corresponding to the failure named as parking brake
Figure(EFE02)
effectiveness 12a shows theperiod
in the behaviour corresponding
2008–2018 (blue line),towhile
the failure
Figurenamed as parking
12b shows brake
the fitting
effectiveness (EFE02) in the period 2008–2018 (blue line), while Figure 12b shows the fitting
It is noted that in 2018, there were 14,594 vehicles with this failure. It is estimated that
It is noted that in 2018, there were 14,594 vehicles with this failure. It is estimated
by 2020, the number of vehicles with this defect would be 421, that is, a decreased per-
that by 2020, the number of vehicles with this defect would be 421, that is, a decreased
centage of 97.11%.
percentage of 97.11%.
Data behaviour
Real value
40000
Fit line
Number of vehicles of failure EFE02
35000
Number of vehicles of failure EFE02

35000
30000
30000
25000 25000
20000 20000
15000 15000
10000 10000
5000
5000
0
0
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Year
Year
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Failure trend named as parking break effectiveness (EFE02). (a): Behaviour of the failure
(blue line); (b): the time series with a quadratic trend (red line) and the forecast (red dots).
4.3. Vehicle Traffic Accidents for Subcategories M1, M3 and N1, of the City of Cuenca, Ecuador
from 2009 to 2018
During the research, the number of accidents per year in the city of Cuenca of each of
the subcategories under study was obtained in the offices of the SIAT and OIAT entities.
In this compilation, there is a ceding of the management responsibilities in the handling
of information between both entities in 2013. Figure 13 shows the number of accidents
for subcategory M1, highlighting 2010 as the year with the highest number of accidents
recorded by the SIAT entity, while 2013 showed the highest number of accidents recorded
by the OIAT entity. In Figure 14, it can be observed that there is no record of traffic accidents
for 2009 in the subcategory M3 bus type. Moreover, it can be seen that 2010 is the year with
the highest number of accidents recorded by the SIAT entity, while for the OIAT entity, that
year was 2013. Finally, Figure 15 focuses on subcategory N1. It can be seen that there is no
record of traffic accidents for 2009, highlighting 2010 as the year with the highest number
of accidents recorded by the SIAT entity, being 2015 for the OIAT. In all three cases, there is
a decreasing trend in the number of records until 2018. Traffic accidents prior to 2009 could
not be collected because the entities did not have records before this year.
4.4. Traffic Accident Causes of Vehicles for Subcategories M1, M3 and N1, of the City of
Cuenca-Ecuador from 2009 to 2018
The research enabled us to establish the causes of traffic accidents in each of the
subcategories under study. Figures 16–18 shows the number of accidents and their causes
for subcategories M1, M3 bus type and N1, respectively.
year with the highest number of accidents recorded by the SIAT entity, while for the OIAT
entity, that year was 2013. Finally, Figure 15 focuses on subcategory N1. It can be seen that
there is no record of traffic accidents for 2009, highlighting 2010 as the year with the high-
est number of accidents recorded by the SIAT entity, being 2015 for the OIAT. In all three
cases, there is a decreasing trend in the number of records until 2018. Traffic accidents
prior to 2009 could not be collected because the entities did not have records before this 17 of 27
year.
Number of accidents recorded by SIAT

197 Number of accidents recorded by OIAT
200
179
Number of traffic accidents

153
150
128
111
105
100
67
50 43
37
25 29 26
16
0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x Year 18 of 29

Figure
Figure13.13. Number
Number of traffic
of traffic accidents
accidents perfor
per year year for subcategory
subcategory M1. M1.

25
20
17
15
15
11
10 9
8
5 4
3
1 1 1 1
0
0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Year
Figure
Figure 14.14. Number
Number of traffic
of traffic accidents
accidents perfor
per year year for subcategory
subcategory M3 bus type.
M3 bus type.
120
108
80
62 64
60
50
40
27 28
20 16 16 14 17
10 13
4
0
0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Year
Figure 15.15.
Figure Number of traffic
Number accidents
of traffic per year
accidents perfor subcategory
year N1.
for subcategory N1.
4.4. Traffic Accident Causes of Vehicles for Subcategories M1, M3 and N1, of the City of Cuenca-
Ecuador from 2009 to 2018
The research enabled us to establish the causes of traffic accidents in each of the sub-
categories under study. Figures 16–18 shows the number of accidents and their causes for
as stated
as stated by
by [47]:
[47]: “the
“the proportion
proportion of of crashes
crashes in in which
which vehicle
vehicle defects
defects play
play aa role
role is
is also
also not
not
easy to
easy to estimate
estimate and
and will
will be
be underestimated
underestimated by by aa significant
significant degree
degree inin official
official crash
crash statis-
statis-
tics as police attending a crash do not normally have the time, training
tics as police attending a crash do not normally have the time, training or motivation to or motivation to
examine a vehicle in-depth.” The stated fits with what was found in
examine a vehicle in-depth.” The stated fits with what was found in Ecuador at the time Ecuador at the time
of19,an
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,of an accident, so
7787
accident, so there
there is
is the
the possibility
possibility that
that the
the cause
cause typified
typified as
as driving
driving inattentive
inattentive to
18 ofto27
traffic conditions in some road crashes may not be
traffic conditions in some road crashes may not be the correct one.the correct one.
Driving under
Driving under the
the influence
influence of of alcohol
alcohol
Environmental and
Environmental and // or
or atmospheric
atmospheric conditions
conditions
2018
2018 36
36 11 Mechanical failure
Mechanical failure in
in the
the systems
systems and
and // or
or tyres
tyres
2017
2017 24
24 22 Pedestrian crossing the road without respecting
Pedestrian crossing the road without respecting the the existing
existing signage
signage
Driving inattentive to traffic conditions
Driving inattentive to traffic conditions
2016
2016 58
58 112211 55
2015
2015 110
110 55 99 77 33
2014
Year
2014 112 33 55 33 13
Year
112 13
2013
2013 138
138 55 11 11
11 16
16
2012
2012 165
165 55 11 88
2011
2011 146
146 22 55
2010
2010 188
188 66 111111
2009
2009 16
16
00 20
20 40
40 60
60 80
80 100
100 120
120 140
140 160
160 180
180 200
200
Number of
Number of traffic
traffic accidents
accidents
Figure 16.
Figure16.
Figure Traffic accident causes
Traffic accident
16.Traffic accident causes per
causes per year
per year for
year for subcategory
for subcategory M1.
subcategory M1.
M1.
Fortuitous event
Fortuitous event or
or force
force majeure
majeure
Driving aa vehicle
Driving vehicle exceeding
exceeding the the maximum
maximum speedspeed limits
limits
Mechanical failure in the systems and / or
Mechanical failure in the systems and / or tyres tyres
2018 11
2018 Pedestrian crossing
Pedestrian crossing the
the road
road without
without respecting
respecting the
the existing
existing signage
signage
Driving inattentive
Driving inattentive to
to traffic
traffic conditions
conditions
2017 11 11
2017
2016
2016 44 11
2015
2015 15
15 22 11 22
2014
2014 77 11 11
Year
Year
2013
2013 99
2012
2012 12
12 33
2011
2011 99 22
2010
2010 22
22 11 11 11
2009 00
2009
00 55 10
10 15
15 20
20 25
25
Number of
Number of traffic
traffic accidents
accidents
Figure 17.
Figure17.
Figure Traffic accident causes
Traffic accident
17.Traffic accident causes per
causes per year
per year for
year for subcategory
for subcategory M3
subcategory M3 bus
M3 bus type.
bus type.
type.
It can be noticed that the most representative cause of accidents in the three subcate-
gories is a distraction at the steering wheel (driving inattentive to traffic conditions due
to the use of mobile phones, video screens, food, make-up or any other distracting factor).
While the cause described as a mechanical failure in the systems and/or tyres (braking
system, electronic or mechanical steering) appears in six of the ten years analysed for

subcategory M1, for the M3 bus type, there was only one accident in 2015. For N1 one, this
cause appears only in three of the ten years analysed.
Bad road conditions and / or configuration. (Lighting and design)

Fortuitous event or force majeure
Driving a vehicle exceeding the maximum speed limits
2018 9 121 Driving under the influence of alcohol
Environmental and / or atmospheric conditions
2017 15 11 Mechanical failure in the systems and / or tyres
Pedestrian crossing the road without respecting the existing signage
2016 16 11 Driving inattentive to traffic conditions
2015 53 2 11 3 5 1
2014 28 13 4 2
Year
2013 30 3 2 5 12
2012 60 31
2011 56 2 2 11
2010 95 11 5 2 31
2009 0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105
Figure18.
Figure Trafficaccident
18.Traffic accidentcauses
causesper
peryear
yearfor
forsubcategory
subcategoryN1.
N1.
Considering data behaviour, it is worth mentioning what [46] says: “The fact that
When analysing the Pareto chart, the 29 accidents registered in 2009–2018 for subcat-
vehicle defects contribute to the occurrence of a crash, in some cases it is undeniable” and,
egory M1 caused by mechanical failure, going in deep into the official accident report, it
as stated by [47]: “the proportion of crashes in which vehicle defects play a role is also
can be observed that the most relevant causes are braking system failure (65.5%) and steer-
not easy to estimate and will be underestimated by a significant degree in official crash
ing system failure (17.3%), as shown in Figure 19. For subcategory M3 bus type, only one
statistics as police attending a crash do not normally have the time, training or motivation
accident was registered due to mechanical gearbox failure in 2015. While for subcategory
to examine a vehicle in-depth.” The stated fits with what was found in Ecuador at the time
N1, which has four accidents due to mechanical failure (one in 2010, two in 2013 and one
of an accident, so there is the possibility that the cause typified as driving inattentive to
more in 2015), the causes described in the official report were respectively, electrical sys-
traffic conditions in some road crashes may not be the correct one.
tem failure (2010), braking system failure (both in 2013) and driving a vehicle in poor con-
When analysing the Pareto chart, the 29 accidents registered in 2009–2018 for subcate-
dition (in 2015), this last conclusion being highly vague.
gory M1 caused by mechanical failure, going in deep into the official accident report, it can
be observed that the most relevant causes are braking system failure (65.5%) and steering
system failure (17.3%), as shown in Figure 19. For subcategory M3 bus type, only one
accident was registered due to mechanical gearbox failure in 2015. While for subcategory
N1, which has four accidents due to mechanical failure (one in 2010, two in 2013 and one
more in 2015), the causes described in the official report were respectively, electrical system
failure (2010), braking system failure (both in 2013) and driving a vehicle in poor condition
(in 2015), this last conclusion being highly vague.
Int. J.J. Environ.
Int. Environ. Res.
Res. Public
Public Health
Health 2022,
2022, 19,
19, 7787
x 21 of
20 of 27
29
100
30 100%
96.6
93.1
89.7
82.8
25
Number of traffic accidents 80%
65.5
Cumulative Frecuency
20
60%
15
40%
10
20%
5
0 0%
re
re
re
re
re
re
ilu
ilu
ilu
ilu
ilu
ilu
fa
fa
fa
fa
fa
fa
m
m
m
m
m
m
ste
te
ste
ste
te
ste
ys
ys
sy
sy
sy
sy
es
ls
n
n
g
ca
ak
sio
o
rin
io
lsi
tri
iss
Br
ee
en
u
ec
sm
op
St
sp
El
Pr
Su
an
Tr
Figure19.
Figure 19. Traffic
Trafficaccident
accidentcauses
causesrecorded
recordedfor
forsubcategory
subcategoryM1.
M1.
5.
5. Discussion
Discussion
In
In each
each of
of the
the time
time series
series with
with quadratic
quadratic trend
trend analyses
analyses performed,
performed, aa decrease
decrease inin the
the
occurrence of such failure is shown for future screenings. What is obtained in
occurrence of such failure is shown for future screenings. What is obtained in these anal- these analyses
is related
yses to technical
is related vehicle
to technical inspections,
vehicle as [46]
inspections, asstates: “Periodic
[46] states: inspection
“Periodic regimes
inspection can
regimes
be seen as a way of fleet quality control. An important question with any
can be seen as a way of fleet quality control. An important question with any quality con- quality control
system is the ability of the system to detect and repair failures reliably”.
trol system is the ability of the system to detect and repair failures reliably”.
This decrease may answer the question stated at the beginning of this research regard-
This decrease may answer the question stated at the beginning of this research re-
ing the ability of the revision system to detect and subsequently proceed to correct the
garding the ability of the revision system to detect and subsequently proceed to correct
failure. Adding to this is the importance of appropriate maintenance to prevent failures
the failure. Adding to this is the importance of appropriate maintenance to prevent fail-
that could even be the cause of a traffic accident.
ures that could even be the cause of a traffic accident.
When the situation in Norway was evaluated, ref. [48] established that a considerable
When the situation in Norway was evaluated, [48] established that a considerable
decrease in the number of failures detected was obtained, indicating that the inspection
decrease in the number of failures detected was obtained, indicating that the inspection
schedule, together with the repairs associated with such inspection, decreased the occur-
schedule, together with the repairs associated with such inspection, decreased the occur-
rence of vehicle failures, something that is also seen in the trend analyses performed for the
rence of vehicle failures, something that is also seen in the trend analyses performed for
city of Cuenca-Ecuador.
the city of Cuenca-Ecuador.
Ref. [23] recommends that: “The states should maintain a vehicle safety inspection
Ref. [23]
programme recommends
to reduce that: “The
crash outcomes states
from the should
numbermaintain
of vehiclesa vehicle safetyorinspection
with existing potential
programme Despite
conditions”. to reduce thecrash outcomes
fact that fromresearch
the above the number of vehicles
regarding with
the effect ofexisting or poten-
safety inspection
programmes on crash outcomes is inconclusive, this recommendation, together with the

results obtained in the current study, confirm that it should be adopted for Ecuador.
Moreover, it is added that technical vehicle inspections can identify unsafe vehicles
and enable vehicle owners to perform repairs or remove these from traffic use. Without
mandatory inspections, unsafe vehicles could continue running freely on the road [49],
reaffirming the need for VTI in the city of Cuenca and in the country.
However, vehicle user behaviour is crucial regarding its maintenance, as it must fulfil
certain minimum maintenance standards to be able to run on the roads. Therefore, it
is essential to encourage citizen participation in VTI by means of the law and with its
respective sanctions. In this context, ref. [28] conclude by pointing out that: “Vehicle
mechanical conditions can play a determining role in road driving safety, which is why
periodic Vehicle Technical Inspections are mandatory in many countries. However, the
high number of drivers penalised for non-compliance with these standards is surprisingly
high and there is not much evidence about what type(s) of reason(s) can explain this
worrying scenario”.
Ref. [50] states that the technical condition of all vehicles deteriorates over time in one
way or another. Moreover, it sets up that the evaluation results scope of vehicle technical
suitability for road traffic in certain conditions depends mainly on the country-specific
characteristics, approach and standards establishment in each region. It also mentions as
additional influential parameters the specific conditions of the location where the VTI is
implemented and the age of the vehicle, as has been considered in the case of the city of
Cuenca-Ecuador, based on average age information provided by [31].
As shown in Section 4.2, the mechanical failures detected in the Vehicle Technical
Inspection (VTI), which can be the cause of a traffic accident, have a decreasing trend in
all analysed subcategories. However, taking into account the average age of the vehicle
fleet running in Ecuador, it would seem hardly recommendable to eliminate the VTI
performance requirement if the objective given by [50] is to be achieved, eliminating the
possibility of having vehicles that are technically unroadworthy, which could represent a
risk for the users.
Based on the present research, further studies should be carried out in the future to
establish a clear correlation between VTI and traffic accidents, taking into account other soft
computing techniques, as in [51], that use neural networks to predict the risk of collision
on expressways or as in [52,53] that use these techniques to determine the effect of certain
parameters of interest on the impact on the environment, being a powerful methodology
and applicable in different areas.
6. Conclusions
Besides the Vehicle Technical Inspection research, the analysis performed regarding
the data from the period 2008–2018 shows that the most common failures occurring in all
vehicle subcategories are: horizontal and vertical alignment of the driver headlight (30%),
braking imbalance on the 2nd axle (10%), insufficient tyre tread (6%) and parking brake
effectiveness (7%), indicating the possibility of traffic accident occurrence if the user does
not take the appropriate maintenance measures.
According to the analysis using the Pareto chart, subcategories M1 and N1 coincide in
the fact that the failure with the highest percentage value is driver headlight alignment,
being 36.8% for subcategory M1 and 25.3% for subcategory N1. Both subcategories have
similar characteristics regarding the use, weight and size, being obtained in many cases
by the same type of user. Considering this circumstance, the high rate of this failure is
due to the fact that in Ecuador, being a developing country, users carry out headlight
alignment in the automotive electrical service centres instead of taking it to a technical
service of the vehicle brand to lower maintenance costs. These centres usually do not have
the appropriate instrumentation and the calibration of measuring equipment is carried out
empirically by persons who are not familiar with the head-light fitting standards.
In the case of subcategory M3 bus type, according to the Pareto chart analysis, the
most representative failure is the effectiveness of the suspension on the four wheels of the
vehicle, each one of them with a percentage of 10.5%. This failure related to the vehicle
suspension system wear is due to the type of roads where they usually run. Most recent
available data (2019) establishes that the condition of the road surface of the provincial
road network of Azuay, where the city of Cuenca is located, is mostly in fair condition
with 3394.04 km (67.14%), followed by good condition with 934.48 km (18.56%) and finally
poor condition with 722.98 km (14.30%) [54]. The historic centre of the city of Cuenca has
roads with irregular surfaces, cobblestones and roads around the city, considered of the
second category (ballast or land roads), which do not have constant maintenance of the
road surface, resulting in an irregular surface.
As an evident result of the time series analysis with the quadratic trend, it is obtained
that each of the most representative failures in the three subcategories under study tends to
decrease in the short term. Therefore, by 2021, both the horizontal and vertical alignment of
the driver headlamp will decrease by 36.92 and 54.37%, respectively. Both failures belong to
the same part (the driver headlight) and have a trend curve with the same behaviour, having
disregarded the data for years 2008, 2009 and 2011 due to the reasons explained, such as
the low number of vehicles in the VTI or the existence of errors in the data collection by the
operator of the measurement equipment, possible failure in the measurement equipment
or even a traceability problem in the equipment calibration. In the case of failure due to
braking imbalance on the 2nd axle, a decrease of 62.65% is estimated for 2021, having
disregarded the data for 2008 and 2009 due to the low number of vehicles attending the
VTI. The three failures mentioned show identical behaviour in their trend curves.
However, for failures due to insufficient tyre tread and parking brake effectiveness,
the quadratic trend model indicates that they will have decreased in 2020 by 66.88% and
97.11%, respectively. In both cases, negative values are obtained when calculating an
estimate for the year 2021 as the fitting curve shows a very accentuated decreasing gradient.
This fact is due to the fact that checking the condition of the tyres as well as the effectiveness
of the parking brake are defects that are easily checked and repaired by the user of the
vehicle before the VTI to avoid a possible sanction for not complying with the approval
requirements. So that this defect is not seen in the VTI, leading to the conclusion about the
effectiveness of the VTI in the detection and reduction of this type of failure.
The number of traffic accidents that occurred in the city of Cuenca was obtained
in the research through physical and digital files placed in the offices of the SIAT and
OIAT entities. In this collection, there was a transition of competences in the information
management between both entities in 2013, which may have caused a certain loss of data.
However, the information collected establishes a model of traffic accident behaviour in the
three subcategories M1, M3 bus type and N1, showing in all cases a decreasing trend in the
number of records in the analysed period 2009–2018.
As the result of the accident research, it was established that the most representative
cause in the three analysed subcategories is a distraction at the steering wheel (due to the
use of mobile phones, video screens, food, make-up or any other distracting factor). While
for subcategory M1, the traffic accidents resulting from the cause described as mechanical
failure in the systems and/or tyres (braking system, electronic or mechanical steering)
come out in six of the ten years analysed, in subcategory M3 bus type there is only one
accident in 2015. In subcategory N1, it happens in three of the ten years analysed. However,
considering the circumstances of the accident, ref. [48] suggests that an influencing factor
may be that a certain driver has a low-risk estimation together with high tolerance to
vehicle failures, or if he/she can compensate for the known vehicle failures by driving in a
conservative way. As a consequence, behavioural and attitude factors of the driver may
mislead crash risk estimates associated with vehicle failures.
In the analysis of accidents caused by mechanical failure in the period 2009–2018,
attending to the cause indicated in the official accident report, it could be concluded
that the most repeated causes for subcategory M1 are braking system failure (65.5%) and
steering system failure (17.2%). For the two remaining subcategories (M3 bus type and
N1), there were few accidents due to mechanical failures making it difficult to obtain any
relevant conclusion. This fact is due to the fact that in Ecuador, being a developing country,
the drivers involved in this type of accident reach agreements to avoid the detention
of the vehicles and having to pay the corresponding penalties. Therefore, neither these
accidents are registered nor an exhaustive analysis of the cause of the accident is not carried
out by the authorities. In addition, most of these vehicles are commercial vehicles (for
freight or passenger transport), so companies carry out their own preventive maintenance
programmes to keep them in good condition and not lose working hours that cause
economic losses to the company.
The mechanical failure drop in the time series with the quadratic trend in VTIs from
2013 onwards is related to the entry into force of the Resolution No 006-CNC-2012 in April
2012, by means of in which the National Competence Council transferred the competence
to plan, regulate and control traffic, land transport and road safety to the municipal de-
centralised autonomous governments of Ecuador, where there were stricter regulations on
traffic conditions and technical condition requirements of vehicles, consequently, the users
gave importance to the maintenance of their vehicles, to avoid the corresponding sanctions
Furthermore, a decrease in road crashes caused by mechanical failure was observed in all
three subcategories analysed.
Regarding braking system failure as the cause of road crashes in subcategory M1,
it can be disaggregated into two according to the most common ones recorded in VTIs:
insufficient tyre tread and parking brake effectiveness. This mechanical failure matches
with what was found in the study by [22], where fatal crashes were caused by tyre failure,
which represents two-thirds of the mechanical failures (28%), reinforcing the need for the
Vehicle Technical Inspection process.
An important number of studies over the most representative failures came to the
conclusion that VTI performance has a positive influence on traffic accidents and the
results obtained in this research provide the public and authorities in charge of regulating,
controlling traffic and road safety with an insight into the mechanical failure factors that
can influence traffic accidents. Therefore, it can be stated that the use of VTI as a mitigating
factor in traffic accidents depends on the country and the conditions where it is performed,
being recommendable further research to establish a clear correlation between VTI and
traffic accidents whenever those databases are available. In developing countries such
as Ecuador, it is a limitation to be able to acquire organised and systematised data that
is reliable from a single source. For the present research, three entities were used that
had information of interest in paper and digital archives that had to be systematised
and organised.
Author Contributions: The authors’ responsibilities were as follows: J.P.M.-S. performed the data
curation, formal analysis, investigation and writing—original draft. J.M.-S. performed conceptualisa-
tion, methodology, project administration and supervision. B.A.-R. performed supervision, validation
and writing—review and editing. C.A.-C. performed supervision, validation and writing—review &
editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The help of Jose Luis Muñoz, Cristina Alén Cordero, Blanca del Valle Arenas
Ramirez and Emilio Bautista is of importance for the development and content of this article. Our
acknowledgment also to the Transportation Engineering Research Group (GIIT) of the Universidad
Politécnica Salesiana, Cuenca, Ecuador for the help and support, to the Escuela Técnica Superior de
Ingenieros Industriales, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain for the for all the support during
this investigation, to the Empresa Pública de Movilidad, Tráfico y Transporte de la Municipalidad
de Cuenca-EMOV EP, the Oficina de Investigación de Accidentes de tráfico-OIAT and the Sección
de Investigación de Accidentes de Tráfico-SIAT, for supporting us with the information required for
this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Table A1. Vehicle Technical Inspection failure codification.
MAHA_DESCRIPTION CODE
BROKEN, INCOMPLETE SPRING CLAMPS ABIR01
ACCESSES WITH GROUND IN POOR CONDITION APME02
JOINT INADEQUATE FITTING ARI03
SPRING EYE BUSHINGS INADEQUATE FITTING AIBOB04
STEERING JOINT INCORRECT FITTING AIRD05
STEERING ARM INCORRECT FITTING AIBD06
1ST AXLE CONVERGENCE ALIGNMENT A1EC07
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT DRIVER HEADLIGHT AHFC08
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT DRIVER HEADLIGHT AVFC09
HIGH-INTENSITY BRAKE LIGHT/LIGHTS AILF10
DETERIORATED STABILISER BAR BOLTS ABED11
DETERIORATED FRONT TURN SIGNAL DEVICES ADDD12
DETERIORATED REAR TURN SIGNAL DEVICES ADPD13
LOW-INTENSITY BRAKE LIGHTS BILF01
DETERIORATED POWER STEERING BELTS BDHD02
POOR CONDITION RUBBER BUSHINGS FRONT SHOCK ABSORBERS BGMEAD03
POOR CONDITION RUBBER BUSHINGS REAR SHOCK ABSORBERS BGMEAP04
POOR CONDITION ELECTRICAL CABLE INSTALLATION CIEME01
DETERIORATED RUBBER IN STEERING CDD02
BREAK CIRCUIT NOT CORRESPONDING TO ASSEMBLY CFNCM03
DEFICIENT ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION CONNECTIONS CIED04
AUXILIARY BRAKE FITTING DEFECTS DFFA01
BRAKING IMBALANCE ON 1AXLE DF1E02
BRAKING IMBALANCE ON 2AXLE DF2E03
SUSPENSION IMBALANCE ON 1AXLE DS1E04
SUSPENSION IMBALANCE ON 2AXLE DS2E05
VISIBLE DETERIORATIONS IN FRONT SHOCK ABSORBERS DVAD06
VISIBLE DETERIORATIONS IN REAR SHOCK ABSORBERS DVAP07
BRAKING EFFECTIVENESS EF01
PARKING BRAKE EFFECTIVENESS EFE02
RIGHT WHEEL SUSPENSION EFFECTIVENESS OF 1AXLE ESRD1E03
RIGHT WHEEL SUSPENSION EFFECTIVENESS OF 2AXLE ESRD2E04
LEFT WHEEL SUSPENSION EFFECTIVENESS OF 1AXLE ESRI1E05
RIGHT WHEEL SUSPENSION EFFECTIVENESS OF 2AXLE ESRI2E06
CABLE BOARD CONDITION ECT07
FRONT SHOCK ABSORBERS MISSING FAD01
REAR SHOCK ABSORBERS MISSING FAP02
STEERING STOP CAPS MISSING FTD03
FRONT HEADLIGHTS WITH CRACKED OR BROKEN GLASS FFCR04
DETERIORATED FRONT HEADLIGHTS FFD05
FRONT HEADLIGHTS NOT WORKING FFNF06
STEERING–CHASSIS COLUMN DEFECTIVE FITTING FCDCD07
FRONT HEADLIGHTS DEFICIENT FITTING FDFF08
DRUM/DISC INADEQUATE FITTING FITD09
FRONT SHOCK ABSORBER INCORRECT FITTING FIAD10
REAR SHOCK ABSORBER INCORRECT FITTING FIAP11
STEERING JOINT INCORRECT FITTING FIRD12
STEERING WHEEL–COLUMN INCORRECT FITTING FVCDD13
FLUID LEAK IN BRAKE SYSTEM FLSF14
Table A1. Cont.
MAHA_DESCRIPTION CODE
WINDSCREEN WASHER DEFECTIVE OPERATION FDL15
WINDSCREEN WIPER DEFECTIVE OPERATION FDLP16
AUXILIARY BRAKE INADEQUATE OPERATION FIFA17
LIGHT SWITCHING INADEQUATE OPERATION FICL18
TURN SIGNAL INADEQUATE OPERATION FID19
LIGHT GUIDANCE INADEQUATE OPERATION FIGL20
PARKING LIGHTS INADEQUATE OPERATION FILP21
REVERSE LIGHT INADEQUATE OPERATION FILR22
DASHBOARD LIGHT INADEQUATE OPERATION FILT23
BROKEN OR DISPLACED LEAF SPRINGS HBRD01
DETERIORATED AUXILIARY BRAKE ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION IEFAD01
INSUFFICIENT TYRE TREAD ILN02
DRIVER HEADLIGHT INTENSITY IFC03
DEFECTIVE INTERMITTENCY ID04
SETS OR WEARS IN STEERING BARS JDBD01
RADIAL OR AXIAL SETS NOT ACCEPTABLE IN STEERING WHEEL JRANAV02
SETS OR WEARS IN GEARBOX JDCD03
NON-EXISTENT WINDSCREEN WASHER LI01
DETERIORATED WINDSCREEN WIPER LPD02
DETERIORATED BRAKE LIGHTS LFD03
BRAKE LIGHTS DO NOT TURN ON WHEN OPERATING THE PEDAL LFNEAP04
DETERIORATED FRONT POSITION LIGHTS LPDD05
DETERIORATED REAR POSITION LIGHTS LPPD06
DETERIORATED ROOF LIGHTS LTD07
EXISTING FRONT SPECIAL LIGHTS LEDE08
PLATE LIGHT NOT WORKING LPNF09
REVERSE LIGHT INADEQUATE COLOUR LRCI10
REVERSE LIGHT NOT WORKING LRNF11
PLATE LIGHT NOT REGULATORY LPNR12
LEAKING POWER STEERING HOSE MDHP01
SUSPENSION TABLES WITH CRACKS OR DEFORMED MSFD02
MODIFICATIONS AND WELDINGS IN STEERING BARS MSBD03
MODIFICATIONS AND WELDINGS IN STEERING ARM MSBRD04
TYRES WITH CRACKS, CUTS OR FAILURES NRCF01
LOW BRAKE FLUID LEVEL NLFB02
HIGH INDICATOR DOES NOT TURN ON OR NOT WORKING NEIA03
LOW INDICATOR DOES NOT TURN ON OR NOT WORKING NEIB04
TELL-TALE LIGHTS NOT WORKING OR DOES NOT HAVE NFNDTL05
FRONT TURN SIGNALS NOT WORKING NFDD06
REAR TURN SIGNALS NOT WORKING NFDP07
BRAKE LIGHTS NOT WORKING NFLF08
PARKING LIGHTS NOT WORKING NFLP09
BRAKE PEDAL SINKS WHEN HOLDING PRESSURE PFCMP01
FLUID LEAK IN FRONT SHOCK ABSORBERS PFAD02
FLUID LEAK IN REAR SHOCK ABSORBERS PFAP03
POWER STEERING FLUID LEAK PFHD04
DETERIORATED CLAMP/CALLIPER PMD05
TYRE TREAD PATTERN NOT SUITABLE RNNA01
BRAKED WHEEL (BRAKE TEST IS NOT PERFORMED AT S.) RF02
POWER STEERING GENERAL NOISE RGDH03
BLOWHOLES IN TYRES SEN01
FASTENING PUMP OR STEERING CYLINDER SBCD02
DETERIORATED OR WEARED DRUM/DISC TDDD01
NON-EXISTENT SUSPENSION REBOUND STOP CAPS TRSI02
BRAKE SYSTEM VALVES/CONNECTIONS VCSF01
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International Journal of

1 Machine Engineering Division, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales (ETSII-UPM),

Received: 24 May 2022

3. Materials and Methods

Road crash data required

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7787 7 of 27

Delivery of data by the

Choose the vehicle

The methodology used used toto generate

Set the variables

Set the variables

3.3.2. Pareto Chart

3.3.3. Time Series

Table 1. Mode results.

FAILURE NUMBER OF VEHICLES

By implementing the Pareto chart analysis to each subcategory, it is obtained that,

100000 36.8 40%

Figure 5. Representative failures in VTI for subcategory M1.

20000 13.5 20%

Number of vehicles with failure

4.2. The Most Representative

Number of vehicles of failure AHFC08

4.2.3. Braking Imbalance on the 2nd Axle Failure Trend

Number of vehicles of failure DF2E03

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,(a)

Number of vehicles of failure ILN02

4.2.5. Parking Brake Effectiveness Failure Trend

4.2.5. Parking Brake Effectiveness Failure Trend

Number of vehicles of failure EFE02

Number of accidents recorded by SIAT

Number of traffic accidents

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x Year 18 of 29

Number of accidents recorded by SIAT

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x 20 of 29

Bad road conditions and / or configuration. (Lighting and design)

programmes on crash outcomes is inconclusive, this recommendation, together with the

Table A1. Vehicle Technical Inspection failure codification.

Table A1. Cont.

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