PSYC 2290 Unit 4 Notes: Prenatal Development & Birth

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO 1 Recount what happens to a fertilized egg in the first two weeks after conception.

LO 2 Describe when body structures and internal organs emerge in prenatal development.

LO 3 Note when body systems begin to function well enough to support life.

LO 4 Explain how prenatal development is influenced by a pregnant woman’s nutrition, the stress she experiences while
pregnant, and her age.

LO 5 Define what a teratogen is, and state what specific diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards can be teratogens.

LO 6 Detail exactly how teratogens affect prenatal development.

LO 7 Summarize how prenatal development can be monitored and how abnormal prenatal development can be
corrected.

LO 8 List the stages of labour and delivery.

LO 9 Describe “natural” ways of coping with the pain of childbirth, and state under what circumstances childbirth at
home might be safe.

LO 10 Identify some complications that can occur during birth.

LO 11 Summarize how we determine whether a baby is healthy and what behavioural states are common in newborns.

LO 12 Understand the characteristics of postpartum depression and its effects.

PSYC 2290 Unit 4 Notes: Prenatal Development & Birth
DEFINITIONS
Prenatal development: the changes that transform the fertilized egg into a newborn human.

Zygote: a fertilized egg.

Implantation: the burrowing of the zygote into the uterine wall.

Germ disc: a small cluster of cells near the zygote’s center that develops into the baby.

Placenta: a uterine structure for exchanging nutrients and wastes between mother and baby.

Embryo: an embedded zygote.

Ectoderm: the outer layer of the embryo, which becomes the hair, outer skin, and nervous system.

Mesoderm: the middle layer of the embryo, which becomes the muscles, bones, and circulatory system.

Endoderm: the inner layer of the embryo, which becomes the digestive system and lungs.

Amnion, or amniotic sac: the sac in which the baby develops.

Amniotic fluid: the liquid that fills the amnion and cushions the baby.

Umbilical cord: a cord-like structure containing blood vessels that joins the developing baby through the baby’s
abdomen to the mother’s placenta.

Cephalocaudal: growth from the top and extending downward.

Proximodistal: growth from the center and extending outward.

Fetus: after the eighth week of gestation until birth, the developing baby is called a fetus.

Cerebral cortex: the folded surface of the brain that regulates many human behaviours.

Vernix: a thick, greasy coating on the skin that protects the baby during gestation.

Age of viability: the age at which most bodily systems function well enough to support life once the baby is born.

Spina bifida: a disorder in which an embryo’s neural tube does not close properly during development.

Teratogen: any agent that disrupts normal prenatal development.

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD): a developmental disorder caused by maternal consumption of alcohol during
pregnancy.

Ultrasound: a medical procedure that involves imaging a developing baby using sound waves.

Amniocentesis: a medical procedure in which a sample of amniotic fluid is taken and tested for genetic disorders.

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS): a medical procedure in which a sample of placental cells is taken and tested for
genetic disorders.

Maternal-fetal medicine: a medical practice specialty focusing on high-risk pregnancy and on treating fetal health
problems in utero.

Cervix: the opening at the end of the uterus (top of the vagina) that forms the entryway to the birth canal.

Crowning: the appearance of the top of the baby’s head outside the birth canal.

Breech presentation: a physical position in utero in which the developing baby’s feet, rather than the head, are closest
to the birth canal.
PSYC 2290 Unit 4 Notes: Prenatal Development & Birth
Doula: a nonmedically trained person who provides coaching, personal support, and education about birth but does not
provide medical care or intervention during the birth process.

Obstetrician: a physician who specializes in women’s health and reproduction.

Caesarean section (C-section): delivery of a baby through a surgical incision in the mother’s abdomen.

Midwife: a person who is not a physician but who is trained to assist mothers in the physical delivery of their babies by
normal, spontaneous vaginal delivery.

Anoxia: complete oxygen deprivation (lack of oxygen).

Placental abruption: detachment of the placenta from the uterine wall.

Hypoxia: a reduced supply of oxygen.

Prematurity: when a baby is born less than 38 weeks after conception.

Small-for-date infants: babies who are substantially smaller at birth than expected based on the length of time since
conception.

Infant mortality: the number of infants out of 1000 births who die before their first birthday.

Apgar score: a numerical scale used to rate a newborn baby’s vital signs.

Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep: a period during sleep involving small physical movements or twitches of the eyes,
mouth, arms, and legs (irregular sleep).

Non-REM sleep: a period during sleep that is motorically quiet and involves steady breathing, heart rate, and brain
activity.

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): a syndrome in which a healthy baby dies suddenly, usually during sleep, for
no apparent reason (crib death).

Postpartum depression: feelings of low self-worth, disturbed sleep, poor appetite, and apathy in the months after
delivering a baby.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Consider two research studies discussed in Module 4.1—the DiPietro study of fetal activity and infant fussiness
and the DeCasper and Spence study of reading aloud during pregnancy. What do these studies suggest about
connections between prenatal and postnatal development?

2. Design a public health program to alert women that lifestyle can affect the development of a fetus even before a
woman knows she is pregnant. What groups of women might find special benefit from your program?

3. Review the four principles of how teratogens affect development that were discussed earlier in this chapter.
Explain how these principles are related to the principles of reaction range and gene–environment relations.

4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of grand theories versus smaller-scale theories of development. Give
an example of a research question for which each type of theory might be most useful
PSYC 2290 Unit 4 Notes: Prenatal Development & Birth
TABLES & FIGURES
PSYC 2290
SUMMARY
4.1 From Conception to Birth
Period of the Zygote (Weeks 1–2)
• The period of the zygote lasts two weeks and begins when
the egg is fertilized by the sperm in the fallopian tube.
• The period of the zygote ends when the fertilized egg has
implanted in the wall of the uterus.
• By the end of this period, cells have begun to differentiate.
Period of the Embryo (Weeks 3–8)
• The period of the embryo begins two weeks after
conception and ends eight weeks after conception.
• This is a period of rapid growth, when most major body
structures are formed.
Period of the Fetus (Weeks 9–38)
• The period of the fetus begins eight weeks after conception
and lasts until birth.
• This period is marked by an increase in the size of the fetus
and changes in the body systems necessary for life.
4.2 Influences on Prenatal Development
General Risk Factors
• Prenatal development can be adversely affected if a
pregnant mother does not provide adequate nutrition for the
developing baby or when she experiences considerable stress
during pregnancy.
• Teenagers often have problems during pregnancy because
they rarely receive adequate prenatal care.
• Women in their thirties are likely to have problem-free
pregnancies if they are in good health before becoming
pregnant.
Teratogens: Diseases, Drugs, and Environmental Hazards
• Teratogens are agents that can cause abnormal prenatal
development.
• Several diseases and many drugs that adults take are
teratogens.
• Environmental teratogens are particularly dangerous
because a pregnant woman might not know when these
substances are present. How Teratogens Influence Prenatal
Development
• The effect of teratogens depends upon the genotype of the
developing child, when during prenatal development the
exposure occurs, and the amount of exposure.
• The impact of a teratogen might not be evident until later in
life.
Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment
Unit 4 Notes: Prenatal Development & Birth
• Many techniques are used to track prenatal development,
including ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus
sampling.
• The new field of maternal-fetal medicine seeks to correct
problems of prenatal development medically, surgically, or
through genetic
engineering.
4.3 Happy Birthday!
Labour and Delivery
• Labour consists of three stages: enlargement of the cervix,
movement of the baby through the birth canal, and expulsion
of the placenta.
Approaches to Childbirth
• Prepared childbirth assumes that parents should understand
what takes place during pregnancy and birth.
• In natural childbirth, pain-relieving medications are avoided
because they prevent women from pushing during labour and
because they affect the fetus.
• In natural childbirth, women learn to cope with pain through
relaxation, visual imagery, and the help of a supportive
coach.
• Home birth can be safe when the mother is healthy, labour
and birth are expected to be trouble-free, and a health-care
professional is present to deliver the baby.
Birth Complications
• During labour and delivery, the flow of blood to the fetus
can be disrupted, either because the umbilical cord is
squeezed shut or because the placenta becomes detached
from the wall of the uterus.
• Interrupted blood flow causes anoxia, a lack of oxygen to
the fetus.
• If the fetus is in danger, the obstetrician might do a
Caesarean section and surgically remove the baby from the
uterus.
• Premature babies develop more slowly at first but catch up
by 2 or 3 years of age.
• One of the greatest risks for premature babies is a damaged
or underdeveloped cerebellum.
• Small-for-date babies often do not fare well, particularly if
they weigh less than 1500 grams at birth and if their
environment is stressful.
• Infant mortality is on the decline in Canada but is relatively
high in the United States, primarily because of low birth
weight and inadequate prenatal care.
PSYC 2290 Unit 4 Notes: Prenatal Development & Birth
The Newborn
• The Apgar score measures five vital signs to determine a
newborn baby’s physical well-being.
• The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
provides a comprehensive evaluation of a baby’s behavioural
and physical status.
• Newborns spend their day in one of four states: alert
inactivity, waking activity, crying, and sleeping.
• Newborns spend two-thirds of every day asleep and go
through a sleep–wake cycle every four hours.
• By 3 or 4 months, most babies sleep through the night.
• Newborns spend about half their time in REM sleep.
• Some healthy babies die from sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS).
• Prematurity and low birth weight increase the risk of SIDS.
• Babies are also vulnerable to SIDS when they sleep on their
tummies, are overheated, or are exposed to cigarette smoke.
• Use of a pacifier may reduce risk for SIDS.
Postpartum Depression
• After giving birth, many women briefly experience irritation
and crying spells.
• Some mothers experience postpartum depression, during
which they experience irritability, low self-worth, poor
appetite, disturbed sleep, and emotional apathy