ARELLANO UNIVERSITY

Plaridel Campus
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
S.Y. 2022 – 2023
REVIEWER IN 21st CENTURY LITERATURE FROM THE PHILIPPINES AND THE WORLD

Literature in General

Meaning of literature according to:

✓ ENCYCLOPEDIA: is a body of writing by a people or by people using the same language.
✓ DICTIONARY: writing in prose or verse regarding as having permanent worth in its intrinsic
value.
✓ ETYMOLOGICAL: came from the Latin term LITTERA or an individual written character.

What is Literature?
Origin of the term:
“Literature” is derived from the Latin word litera which means letter.

Literature is defined as “pieces of writing that are valued as works of art, especially those in a
form of novels, plays, short stories and poems.”

According to Kahayon (1998), literature deals with ideas, thoughts and emotions of man- thus it
can be said that literature is a story of man.

Through Literature, we learn the innermost feelings and thoughts of people – the most real part
of themselves, thus we gain an understanding not only of others, but more importantly, of
ourselves and of life itself. – Garcia, et al, 1993.

Literature has many different meanings. That being said, for some, literature has a much
defined meaning. For others, they believe in a very simplistic understanding of the term.
Literature is a written work. By this, one can consider the more accepted writings as literature
are; novels, novellas, poetry, short stories, and speeches.
Literature, most generically, is anybody or collection of written works. Most restrictively,
literature refers to writing considered to be an art form or any single writing deemed to have
artistic or intellectual value, and sometimes deploys language in ways that differ from ordinary
usage.
Examples of great literature are the following:
William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, works of Edgar Allan
Poe, Moby Dick written by Herman Melville, Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes, Noli Me
Tangere and El Filibusterismo of Dr. Jose Rizal and other timeless masterpieces written by
luminary writers of literature.

OTHER SIGNIFICANCE OF LITERATURE

1. Expanding horizons
 First and foremost, literature opens our eyes and makes us see more than just what the front
door shows. It helps us realize the wide world outside, surrounding us. With this, we begin to
learn, ask questions, and build our intuitions and instincts. We expand our minds.

2. Building critical thinking skills

Many of us learn what critical thinking is in our language arts classes. When we read, we learn
to look between the lines. We are taught to find symbols, make connections, find themes, learn
about characters. Reading expands these skills, and we begin to look at a sentence with a
larger sense of detail and depth and realize the importance of hidden meanings so that we
may come to a conclusion.

3. A leap into the past

History and literature are entwined with each other. History is not just about power struggles,
wars, names, and dates. It is about people who are products of their time, with their own lives.
Today the world is nothing like it was in the 15th century; people have changed largely.
Without literature, we would not know about our past, our families, the people who came
before and walked on the same ground as us.

4. Appreciation for other cultures and beliefs

Reading about history, anthropology, or religious studies provides a method of learning about
cultures and beliefs other than our own. It allows you to understand and experience these
other systems of living and other worlds. We get a view of the inside looking out, a personal
view and insight into the minds and reasoning of someone else. We can learn, understand,
and appreciate it.

5. Better writing skills

When you open a book, when your eyes read the words and you take in its contents, do you ask
yourself: How did this person imagine and write this? Well, many of those authors, poets, or
playwrights used literature to expand their writing.

6. Addressing humanity

All literature, whether it be poems, essays, novels, or short stories, helps us address human nature
and conditions which affect all people. These may be the need for growth, doubts and fears of
success and failure, the need for friends and family, the goodness of compassion and empathy, trust,
or the realization of imperfection. We learn that imperfection is not always bad and that normal can be
boring. We learn that life must be lived to the fullest. We need literature in order to connect with our
own humanity.
HALLMARKS OF LITERATURE
1. Artistry- quality in beauty sense; It has an aesthetic appeal to everyone and thus
possesses a sense of beauty. Artistry describes literature that is
aesthetically appealing and reveals or conveys hidden truth and beauty. This type of
literature appeals to broad audiences and possesses a sense of beauty in the writing
that could even feel poetic.
2. Intellectual Value- the thought in the text; It stimulates critical thinking that enriches the
mental processes of abstract and reasoning, making man realizes the fundamental truths
of life and its nature.
3. Suggestiveness- the emotions present in the story; It unravels and conjures man’s
emotional power to define symbolism, nuances, implied meanings, images and
message, giving and evoking visions above and beyond the plane of ordinary life and
experiences. A suggestive piece of literature relies on emotional power to convey
nuances, symbolism, implied meanings, imagery and messages. The power of
suggestion allows the work to inspire and provoke thoughts and understanding beyond
the actual words written on the page.
4. Spiritual Value- the moral lessons and values elevating the person’s spirit in the story whatever
situation; It elevates the spirit and the soul and thus have the power to motivate and
inspire, drawn from the suggested morals or lessons of the different literary genres.

Literature with spiritual value lifts up the inner spirit and soul and has the power to
motivate and inspire readers. It typically draws on the suggested lessons and moral
codes of society that are depicted in various literary genres.
5. Permanence-the endurance of the work; It endures across time and draws out the time
factor: TIMELINESS, occurring at a particular time, and TIMELESSNESS, remaining
invariably throughout time. Permanence is determined by a written work’s ability to
stand the test of time, which makes it impossible to determine at the moment of writing.
Novels that continue to be read over and over again across decades, either for
enjoyment or for fresh insights and ideas, meet this criteria. Many no vels enjoy initial
popularity but ultimately fade into obscurity with time, failing the permanence test.
6. Universality- how work is considered “timeless”; It appeals to everyone regardless of
culture, race, sex, and time which are considered significant. Universality describes a
piece of writing that appeals to the hearts and minds of almost any reader. The appeal
is considered universal due to its ability to cross gender, racial and cultural barriers,
regardless of the time it’s written.
7. Style - refers to the distinct way the author expresses his or her thoughts. Words
can be used in unique, creative and entertaining ways that make the work memorable.
Style is another element that is subject to interpretation by readers in terms of its appeal.
It presents peculiar ways on how man sees life as evidenced by the formation of his
ideas, forms, structures, and expressions which are marked by their memorable
substance.
ORIGIN OF LITERATURE AND ITS EXAMPLES
Origin: Literature mainly originated from oral text or oral literature.

Oral literature is a broad term which may include ritual texts, curative chants, epic
poems, musical genres, folk tales, creation tales, songs, myths, spells, legends, proverbs,
riddles, tongue-twisters, word games, recitations, life histories or historical narratives.

Examples are the following:

1. Epic - came from the Greek word, “Epikos” meaning word, speech, or poem. It is a
long narrative poem in elevated style recounting the deeds of a legendary or historical
hero. Example: Biag ni Lam-Ang
2. Legend - a popular myth that usually presents origins of things, people, events, etc.
Example: The Legend of the Pineapple
3. Myth - a usual traditional story of historical events that serves to unfold parts of the
worldview of a people or explain a practice, belief, or natural phenomena. Example:
“Si Malakas at Si Maganda”
4. Ballad - a narrative composition in rhythmic verse suitable for singing. Example:
“Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
5. Proverbs - saying that project the kind of character/ personality one should uphold or
discard.
Example:
"Absence makes the heart grow fonder”
"All that glitters is not gold”
“Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day; teach a man to fish and you feed him
for a lifetime”
6. Riddles – a narrative characterized or composed of animal characters that were
anthropomorphized, to teach a moral/ lesson.
Example: “What goes on four legs in the morning, on two legs at noon, and on three
legs in the evening?”- Answer: Man
7. Fables – a narrative characterized or composed of animal characters that were
anthropomorphized, to teach a moral/ lesson.
Example: The Dog and the Shadow

LITERARY GENRES

What is a Literary Genre?

- A literary genre is a type or category of literature.

Main Literary Genres:

1. Prose - continues, narrative. It has no sustained rhythmic regularity, with logical and
grammatical order, and characterized by virtues of style.

Types of Prose:
A. Fiction - Writing that tells about imaginary people and events
B. Non-Fiction - Accounts of real people, places and events

2. Poetry - refers to those expressions in verse, with measures, rhymes, lines, stanzas,
and melodious tone.
3. Drama - a story intended to be acted out on stage – or nowadays in films or on
televisions.
 LITERARY GENRES

PROSE DRAMA
POETRY

Fiction Non-Fiction

FICTION - Writing that tells about imaginary people and events.

KINDS OF FICTION
1. Short Story - short prose fiction (shorter and tighter in scope than a novel).
2. Novel - extended or longer narrative prose fiction.
3. Fables - A short story, usually with animal characters, that teaches a lesson about what is
important in life.
4. Folklore – refers to the tales people tell – folk stories, fairy tales, “tall tales”, and even urban
legends.
a. Legends - A story, handed down from the past that people tell as a “true story” but
sometimes the details are difficult to confirm.
b. Folktales - Story told generation to generation, usually by word of mouth.
5. Myths - Myths are early people’s way to explain the universe. It is somehow held in sacred
or religious reverence.
6. Fairy Tales - Includes magic or something enchanted; Involves a problem that is solved
and the good people live happily ever after.

ELEMENTS OF FICTION
1. SETTINGS and ATMOSPHERE - time and place of the events of the story.
➢ Elements:
a. Physical Setting
b. Time or Period
c. General Environment of Character
2. CHARACTER/CHARACTERIZATION - the means, which the author uses to describe or
project the characters and make them seem real.
➢ Kinds:
a. Protagonist – hero/ main character in the story
b. Antagonist – character in conflict with the hero.
c. Antihero – also a protagonist but depicts a ridiculous character.
d. Stock – a characterization that possesses a recognizably universal personality trait
(e.g. cruel stepmother).
e. Dynamic – characters who changes significantly during the course of the story.
f. Foil – a character who points up the qualities of another.
3. PLOT - the patterned arrangement of events in a narrative.
 ➢ Parts:
a. Exposition – setting and characters are introduced to the reader.
b. Rising Action – unfolding of the conflict is presented (Conflict – a struggle or an
opposition).
c. Climax – the most intense moment of the story.
d. Denouement/ Falling Action – the final unravelling of the plot.

▪ Effects in Plot:
1. Foreshadowing – instances of the stories that provides us with hints or clues
about what is going to happen later.
2. Flashback – takes us backwards in time from the current action.
3. Deus ex Machina - The term deus ex machina refers to the circumstance
where an implausible concept or a divine character is introduced into a storyline, for
the purpose of resolving its conflict and procuring an interesting outcome; From the
Latin "God out of the machine." Deus ex machina is an improbable plot event.
Example: Medea (By Euripides)

When Medea is shown in the chariot of the sun god Helios, the god himself isn’t
present. From her vantage point in the chariot, she watches the grieving Jason.
The argument goes about that this specific scene is an illustration of the
employment of the deus ex machina device within the plot of the tragedy.

4. In Medias Res - In Medias Res means narrating a story from the middle after
supposing that the audiences are aware of past events. The etymology of this
literary device goes back to the Roman lyric poet, Horace, who used it in
his poem Ars Poetica as “Semper ad eventum festinat et in medias res….” It is a
Latin phrase which literally denotes “in the midst of things.” Hence, the author
employs this expression as a common strategy to initiate their stories.
A sample beginning to such a story: “I saw the punch coming but couldn't duck in
time. I collapsed to the floor, nose gushing red, clotted blood.”

Example: Iliad by Homer

“Sing, O goddess, the anger of Achilles son of Peleus, that brought countless ills
upon the Achaeans. Many a brave soul did it send hurrying down to Hades, and
many a hero did it yield a prey to dogs and vultures, for so were the counsels of
Jove fulfilled from the day on which the son of Atreus, king of men, and great
Achilles, first fell out with one another.”

(Iliad by Homer, Book-1, Translation by Samuel Butler)

The practice of In Medias Res can be traced in Iliad as given in the first few lines.
Homer has started his narrative directly with a quarrel between Achilles and
Agamemnon during the events of the Trojan War instead of beginning
chronologically from the birth of Achilles to onward.

4. POINT OF VIEW - the outlook from which the story is told.

It answers the question: “Who tells the story?”
 ➢ Types:
a. First Person – if the main character tells the story.
b. Omniscient – it is when the narrator acts to be “All-knowing”.
c. Third Person – we never know everything that goes on in other person’s mind, thus
the reader will then have to draw their own conclusions and make their own
judgments.
5. THEME - the controlling idea or meaning of the story.
➢ Kinds:
a. Conventional – themes that conforms to our established moral standards.
b. Unconventional – critical of traditional
6. TONES - reflect the author’s attitude towards his/her subject, characters, and readers.

NON-FICTION AND ITS KINDS

• Non-fiction contains information that has been discovered and researched, while fiction is
created using purely the imagination of the writer. While some fiction may be based on or
inspired by actual events, fiction writers typically make the events more exciting or the timeline
of events easier to understand. True non-fiction doesn't adjust or amend any of the facts - it
simply presents them as they are and leaves the reader to interpret them as they like.

KINDS OF NON-FICTION:

1. Essay – A moderately brief prose composition usually o a restricted topic and

expository in nature.
A. Informal (Personal) – subjective; the main source of the interest is the personality
of the author.
B. Formal (Impersonal) – objective; it deals with serious and important topics such
as philosophy, theology, science, politics & others.
2. History - Historical non-fiction is the reporting of facts and accounts of events, a
significant amount of time after they've happened. While historical non-fiction can have
personal bias, for the most part, they're assumed to be reporting merely what happened
as it happened.

3. Biographies & Autobiographies - A biography is a long-form report based on the

complete story of a single subject. Autobiographies are traditionally first-person
accounts told by the author about the author. Biographies are third-person accounts of
an individual or entity other than the author.

4. Informational Text – This selection is designed to instruct or inform the readers; it is

consistently objective and accurate with the truth.

5. Critical – It is using non-fiction texts to make meaningful connections and promote

critical reasoning and judgment.

6. Scientific – It is writing for science, usually written by scientists, researchers or science

professors.

POETRY AND ITS GENRES

POETRY refers to the expressions in verse, with measures, rhymes, lines, stanzas, and melodious
tone.
• aims to delight and to instruct. - Horace
• its qualities are (1) content, (2) form, and (3) effect.

GENRES OF POETRY
A. LYRIC POETRY - Originally referred to songs sung to lyre music. It dwells on subjects like
feelings, religion, beauty, etc.
Types of Lyric Poetry
1. Simple - characterized by subjectivity, imagination, melody, and emotion.
2. Song - short lyric poem which has a specific melodious quality and is intended to be sung and can
be set easily to music. It is either religious or secular.
3. Sonnet - a lyric poem of 14 lines with a formal rhyme. It was perfected by an Italian, Francesco
Petrarca on the 14th century. (Ex. English /Shakespearean Sonnet)
B. NARRATIVE POETRY - It tells a story following an order of events.
Types of Narrative Poetry
1. Ballad - short simple narrative poem composed to be sung. (Ex. Richard Cory By: EDWIN
ARLINGTON ROBINSON)
2. Metrical Romance - centered about love stories and adventures of knights and lords, and their
royal ladies. Its setting is usually in the Medieval. (Ex. The Passionate Shepherd to His Love
By: CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE) A soliloquy is often used as a means of character revelation
or character manifestation to the reader or the audience of the play.

3. Epic - long narrative poem which tells the adventures of a traditional hero and the
development of a nation (Ex. Iliad, Odyssey, Ang Biag-ni-Lam-Ang).

C. DRAMATIC POETRY- dramatic forms and dramatic techniques, emphasis is more to the
characters rather than narration.
Types of Dramatic Poetry
1. Dramatic Monologue - a poem written in the form of a speech of an individual character. (Ex. “My
Last Duchess” by Robert Browning)
2. Soliloquy - a passage spoken by a speaker in a poem or a character in a play.
- The word soliloquy is derived from the Latin word solo, which means “to himself,” and loquor,
which means “I speak,” respectively.
3. Character Sketch - a rough-and-ready rendering or thumbnail portrayal of an individual,
capturing,
in brief, that person’s physical characteristics, psychological attributes, and the like; It is usually
identified by irony, humor, exaggeration, and satire.

ELEMENTS OF POETRY
a. Rhythm - Variation of stressed and unstressed sounds that has same regular pattern.
b. Imagery
- The collection of images in mind.
- Imagery is the use of words to create pictures, or images, in your mind.
- Appeals to the five senses.

✓ Figures of speech are tools that writers use to create images, or “paint pictures,” in your
mind.
• Kinds of Figures of Speech
1. Simile - Indirect comparison of ideas, things, or images; Uses the words “like”, “looks
like” or “as_ as _”.

Example:

- Life without love is like a tree without blossoms or fruit. (Khalil Gibran)
- She was as sly as a fox.

2. Metaphor - Direct comparison of ideas.

Example:

- Laughter is the best medicine.

- She is just a late bloomer.

3. Hyperbole - An exaggeration of something.

Example:

- I’m dying of thirst.

- This suitcase weighs a ton.

4. Oxymoron - Two contradictory terms in one statement.

Example:

- Only choice
- Same difference

5. Onomatopoeia - Having a sound that imitates what they denote.

Example:

- The buzzing bee flew away.

- The sack fell into the river with a splash.

6. Synechdoche – naming of parts to suggest the whole.

Example:

- Behind bars (signifies being in jail)

- Threads (signifies clothing)

7. Personification - Giving human attributes to inanimate objects.

Example:

- My alarm yelled at me this morning.

 - I like onions, but they don’t like me.

8. Allusions - Reference to any literary, biblical, historical, mythological scientific event,

character, or place.
Example:

- Is there an Einstein in your physics class? (Albert Einstein)

- arrow of love (allusion to Cupid)

9. Metonymy - Metonymy is a figure of speech in which one object or idea takes the
place of another with which it has a close association. In fact, metonymy means
“change of name.” As a literary device, it is a way of replacing an object or idea with
something related to it instead of stating what is actually meant.

Example:

- Hollywood (represents associations with the movie industry)

- Academics (represents associations with school, college, university, classes, or
studying)

c. Diction - Words chosen for a supposedly inherent poetic quality.

➢ Connotation:
The way a word makes us feel.
➢ Denotation:
The actual dictionary definition of the word.

Types of Diction

• Formal diction – formal words are used in formal situations, such as press
conferences and presentations.
• Informal diction – uses informal words and conversation, such as writing or
talking to friends.
• Colloquial diction – uses words common in everyday speech, which may be
different in different regions or communities.
• Slang diction – is the use of words that are newly coined, or even impolite.

d. Sounds - Some poems use techniques of sound such as:

✓ Rhymes - Identity of sound between syllables or paired group of syllables,

usually at the end of poem’s line.
✓ Alliteration - Repetition of the beginning consonant sound within the line of
a poem.
✓ Assonance - The repetition of a word with vowel sound within the line of a
poem.
✓ Consonance - Repetition of a within-the-word consonant sound within the
line.

e. Meter - Meter is a literary device that works as a structural element in poetry. Essentially,
meter is the basic rhythmic structure of a line within a poem or poetic work. Meter functions
as a means of imposing a specific number of syllables and emphasis when it comes to a line
of poetry that adds to its musicality. It consists of the number of syllables and the pattern of
emphasis on those syllables. In addition, meter governs individual units within a line of
 poetry, called “feet.” A “foot” of a poetic work features a specific number of syllables and
pattern of emphasis.

Common Examples of Metrical Feet

For English poetry, metrical feet generally feature two or three syllables. They are categorized by a
specific combination of stressed and unstressed syllables. The most common examples of metrical
feet include:

• Trochee: stressed syllable followed by unstressed syllable, as in “custom”

• Iamb: unstressed syllable followed by stressed syllable, as in “describe”
• Spondee: equal stress for both syllables, as in “cupcake”
• Dactyl: stressed syllable, followed by two unstressed syllables, as in “bicycle”
• Anapest: two unstressed syllables, followed by a stressed syllable, as in “understand”

The repetition of metrical feet in a line of poetry creates poetic meter, like beats in music. The length
of a poetic meter is labeled with Greek suffixes:

• one foot = monometer

• two feet = dimeter
• three feet = trimeter
• four feet = Iatetrameter
• five feet = pentameter
• six feet = hexameter
• seven feet = heptameter
• eight feet = octameter

Therefore, the term Iambic Pentameter signifies that a poetic line contains five repetitions of iamb, or
a unstressed syllable / stressed syllable pattern repeated five times, as illustrated in the sonnet lines
above.

Examples of Meter in Well-Known Words and Phrases

Meter is found in many well-known words and phrases. The English language lends itself to accenting
or stressing particular syllables as elements and patterns of speech. Here are some examples of
meter in well-known words and phrases:

Trochaic (stressed, unstressed)

• Gently down the stream

• Hold your horses
• Happy birthday
• Merry Christmas
• Nice to meet you

Iambic (unstressed, stressed)

• I pledge allegiance to the flag

 • Your wish is my command
• It came upon a midnight clear
• No pain, no gain
• The buck stops here

Spondaic (stressed, stressed)

• Lay low
• Stay gold
• On point
• Step up
• Lights Out

Dactylic (stressed, unstressed, unstressed)

• Where do you think you are going?

• Easy come, easy go
• Go forth and conquer
• Let them eat cake
• Live long and prosper

Anapestic (unstressed, unstressed, stressed)

• In the blink of an eye

• Hit the nail on the head
• At the drop of a hat
• Costs an arm and a leg
• In the blink of an eye

❖ Famous Examples of Meter

Meter is found in many famous examples of poetic works, including poems, drama, and lyrics.
Here are some famous examples of meter:

• Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? (iambic pentameter)

• Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, (trochaic octameter)
• Out, damned spot! Out, I say! (spondaic trimeter)
• The itsy, bitsy spider (iambic trimeter)
• Stop all the clocks, / Cut off the telephone (dactylic dimeter)
• I wandered, lonely as a cloud (iambic tetrameter)
• “Forward, the Light Brigade! / Charge for the guns!” he said. (dactylic dimeter)
• Fair is foul and foul is fair. (trochaic tetrameter)
• But, soft! What light through yonder window breaks? (iambic pentameter)
• ‘Twas the night before Christmas, and all through the house (anapestic tetrameter)
______________________________________________________________________________

“And whether or not it is clear to you, no doubt universe is unfolding as it should. Therefore be at
peace with God, whatever you conceive Him to be. And whatever your labors and aspirations, in the
noisy confusion of life, keep peace in your soul. With all its sham, drudgery and broken dreams, it is
still a beautiful world. Be cheerful. Strive to be happy.”

- Desiderata by Max Ehrman

GOODLUCK and GOD BLESS! ☺