The word Pe ‘ ely derived from a Greek word meaning to hear. rence, the acoustics is defined as the science of sound and as such, it discusses the origins propagation and auditory sensation of sound, A sound is produced when part of the atmosphere is compressed suddenly. This compression would have temained stationary at that place only in case the air was not elastic. But due to elasticity of air, the particles originally disturbed in turn disturb the neighbouring particles. Ultimately the compression is propagated or spread away from the source. The sound thus travels in the form of waves and when these waves come near our ear-drums, we feel a sensation of hearing, Following important facts in connection with the sound are to be noted (i) The sounding body which throws the sound waves is in a state of vibration If vibrations of the sounding body die out, the sound emitted by the sounding body will also die out. (ii) It is absolutely necessary that for a sound to be heard by our ears, the sound body and ear must be connected by an uninterrupted series of portions of elastic matter. The physical state of the matter, namely, solid, liquid or gaseous, is of no importance. The presence of some matter is required for the transmission of sound. The sound cannot travel in vacuum. (iv) The sound waves are longitudinal waves and hence, each particle of the medium through which sound wave is proceeding, moves backwards and forwards along a line in the direction in which the sound wave is travelling. The relation of sound with the human being is so common that we rarely appreciate its functions in our daily life. It permits us enjoyable experiences like listening to the musical programme, singing of birds, ete. It also permits the spoken Communication with our family members and friends. It also warns us or alerts us e.g. Singing of telephone, knock at door, etc. Pp. a In modern society, many sounds are (iii unpleasant or unwanted and we call them Noise. However, how much a noise annoys anand ag only. oR itt quality but. also our altitude to it. The sound need not be loud to, ae lop none ae “Scratch in arecord.or.a dripping faucet may annoy us muc more than a dg under. Titles reiespecuataré tbat ‘t/candemiage end dang A toni beom may Shatter windows and can cause damage to the plaster of walls. But d eras Misha ae 88s when Ag eases the delicate organ to receive it, namely, thepas Building Construction In this chapter, the topic of acoustics as related to the construction of jy will be discussed. 28-2. VELOCITY OF SOUND The speed at which the sound waves travel or pass through any im termed as the sound velocity and it depends on the nature and tempey medium through which the sound travels. Table 28-1 gives the sound vel different mediums. TABLE 28-1 SOUND VELOCITIES IN DIFFERENT MEDIUMS Medium Sound velocity at 20°C in m/sec ‘Atmospheric air 340 | Hydrogen 1305 Nitrogen 338 Pure water 1450 Granite 6400 Glass 5000 to 6000 Aen 5100 Brick 4 344 Concrete oh Iron 4700 to 5100 Copper Laid Brass ct cae os Lead oa Cor 450 to 530 Babes 40 to 150 The important facts to be remembered in connection with the velocity are as follows: (i) The time required by sound waves to travel from one place to quite appreciable. (ii) The velocity of sound in air is affected by the amount of moisture it the temperature of the air and the intensity of wind. (iii) The velocity of sound is independent of the frequency or pitch of : (iv) It can be seen from table 28-1 that sound travels much faster in s liquids than it does in air. 28-3. FREQUENCY AND INTENSITY OF SOUND The frequency or pitch is defined as the number of Pressure variations sounding body makes in each unit of time. The greater the number of variatil higher will be the pitch. The intensity of sound is defined as the flow of soi per unit of time through unit area.ai Acoustics 559 a3] yw he frequency or pitch is a measure of the quality of sound a fy measure of the quantity of sound energy, The difference between i iil! Btensity of sound and loudness should also be noted, The intensity o i sl etm purely © Physical quantity which can be accurately measured and it is count Ment of eat of listener. On the other hand, the loudness is the degree of o8Fion which is not wholly physical, but partly subjective and it does depend costtiom ear of listener. the 0 frequency is measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz) as it is now called The ernational agreement. The ran; ; ge of human hearing is very wide extending 2) aay Hz to 20000 Hz (or 20 KHz). It I may be noted that the range from the lowest in Mpighest note of Piano is about 27.5 Hz to 4186 Hz, io the he lower limit indicates the frequency which is required for an average ear to perceive the sound. If the frequency of sound is below the lower imimke effect of sound is lost and distinct pulses are experienced. The upper = of frequency depends on the a i ge of the person and his physical fitness to d. receive the soun The wavelength of sound i.e. the physical distance in air from one wave top to the nat can be found out by knowing its speed and frequency with the help of the following equation: speed wavelength = ae frequency or acoustics and sound measurement purposes, the speed of sound is taken as M0 m/sec. Thus, the wavelength at 20 Hz will be 17 m while at 20 kHz, it will be aly 17 mm. The intensity of sound is measured on a lo garithmic scale due to a wide range of variation of the intensity of sound. The two sounds of the same character and of 1, ‘eaiies 1, and Jp (energy units) are said to differ by n bels when n= logio >. The unit of bel is named after Alexander Graham Bell (1847 — 1929), US. inventor of the telephone, born in Scotland. The unit of bel is comparatively large and hence, in practice, a shorter practical ‘nit of decibel (abbreviated to db) equal to yo Of a bel is used. Thus, the two sounds ‘mentioned in the previous case are said to differ by m decibels when m= 10 logio T- The difference in loudness m of the too sounds is technically known as the Mensity Level, It m= 1 db, 4 = 10 logio 7, Le560 Building Construction Thus, the change in intensity by 26 per cent alters the level by one practically the smallest change in intensity level that the human ear can detect or appreciate, Also, when = 100, ; we get, m= 10 logy 100 = 10 logio 10? = 20 db; and when , = 1000 h, we get, m= 10 logy 1000 = 10 logy 103 = 30 db. It is thus seen that when two sounds differ by 20 dd, the louder 100 times more intense and when they differ by 30 db, the louder one ig more intense. The range of audible sound to painful noise varies from 1 to 1015, By range is covered on logarithmic scale between 1 to 130 db units. One approximately the smallest change of sound intensity which the human to appreciate. It is quite clear that intensity of sound is affected by the frequeney and as this scale does not take into account this factor, the more represel of phon is used. The phon indicates the level of sounds of equal low frequencies. For convenience, the phons and decibels differ so slightly thi be treated as synonymous. Table 28-2 gives a scale of loudness. The threshold of hearing is the scale while 130 db is the threshold of painful hearing. TABLE 28-2 SOME TYPICAL SOUND LEVELS Source or location Sound level in Threshold of audibility (inaudible) Zero Rustling of leaves due to a gentle wind 2 Quiet whispering 30 Conversation at a distance of 1 metre 40 Quiet speech 50 Average office 55 Small shop © City traffic in busy street 7” Printing press 80 Large factory ” Boiler factory 10 Loud noise accompanying lightning 120 Aeroplane noise at a distance of 3 metres (painful) 130 It should be noted that the intensity of sound in db cycles per second are physical quantities which are defined arbitrarily. Thes are measured with the help of mechanical or electrical equipment. There is no on the ear of the human being to interpret these physical quantities acco same rules. and frequencyAcoustics 561 ysl ; sound pressure corresponding to the threshold of hearing is about 0.03 kN The “ynd that corresponding to the threshold of painful hearing is about m & oe 7IMBRE a A. s s sae af the important characteristic of sound is its timbre or quality. The notes von by 120 different musical instruments like piano and cornet, although they may 0 the same pitch and intensity, are clearly distinguishable by the human ear. ity of @ musical note is called its timbre. ate pet {0 ‘is ave tone is a sound of distinct pitch that may be put into harmonic relation with sper such sounds. In general, the musical notes are composed of tones, the pitch of ihe note being that corresponding to the lowest tone it contains. The tone having ve fequeney 7 is called the fundamental tone. The additional tones of frequency an 3m 4 etc. are called the overtones or upper partials of the fundamental. The quality or timbre of a note is determined by its complex structure and it jyends on the overtones which accompany the fundamental. In general, the notes in which the fundamental is relatively strong and the overtones are few and feeble, are ofsoft and sweet character. On the other hand, the notes in which the overtones are jumerous and strong, are harsher and have a so-called metallic sound. It is to be noted that the memory of this tonal quality assists us in recognising a large number of {ifferent sounds such as cries of animals, voices of friends and relatives, sounds of familiar musical instruments, etc. 28-5, MEASUREMENT OF SOUND Objects: Following are the objects or purposes of measuring the sound: (i) Ithelps in improviding building acoustics and loudspeakers and thus enhances our enjoyment of music, both in the concert hall and home. (ii) Itindicates when a sound may cause hearing damage and thus helps in taking corrective measures to be taken, for avoiding the same. (iii) It permits evaluation of the hearing sensitivity of an individual. (iv) It permits precise and scientific analysis of the annoying sounds and as such, gives us an objective means of comparing annoying sounds under different conditions. \) It permits the improvement of the quality of our lives. lvl) It serves as a powerful diagnostic tool in the noise reduction programmes. ag tttd level meter: A sound level meter is an instrument which responds to the sound wPoximately the same way as the human ear and which gives objective reproduceable n 2 oa of the sound level. h — : : é Siraph nen level is converted to an identical slags mene i high quality "ad gq one and since the signal is quite small, it must be amp! efore it can be @ meter, must meet many high standards. it must be equally sensitive at all nsitive to the sounds coming from mnidirectional characteristic. 4 tug, Wality of the measuring microphone "uencieg stniform fi response i.e. enc requency resp Vangla’® The microphone should be equally se © in other words, it must possess a7 ©562 Building Construction ia The sound level meter is a precise instrument and ened Brice m calibrate it for accurate results. It is best done by placing a portal ie an ig ca directly over the microphone. This calibrator is basically a mi ud giving a precisely defined sound pressure level to which the sound level metet adjusted. 28-5-1. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT The environmental factors which affect the measurement of sound are a (1) Ambient pressure: The variations in the atmospheric pressure negligible influence on the microphone sensitivity. For extremely high altity other unusual conditions, the microphone instruction manual should be rel fe (2) Humidity: The sound level meter and microphone will not be influ relative humidity levels upto 90%. It is however necessary to shield the in from rain, snow, etc. (3) Magnetic fields: The influence of the electrostatic and magnetic the sound level meter is quite negligible. (4) Temperature: The sound | the temperature range of — 10% changes which may cause co: (5) Vibration: The sound level meters are relatively insensitive to the But it is a good practice to provide foam rubber pads or similar materia them from strong vibrations and shock. (6) Wind: The wind blowin; to minimize the effect of win level meters are designed to operate accure C to + 50°C. It is necessary to avoid sudden ten ndensation in the microphone. '§ across the microphone disturbs the Tea d while working outdoors, a special olyurethane sponge should always be u: 28-5-2. MEASUREMENT REPORT 1 It is necessary to have a good measurement Teport containing information: (i) background noise level; 3 (ii) data on object being measured like machine type load, speed, e (iii) meteorological data and date; (iv) method of calibration; ( v) sketch showing measuring site, location of microphone and measured; ‘a (vi) type and serial number of instrument; 7 (vii) type of sound signal; (viii) weighing networks and meters responses used; etc. With a carefully written rey port, the future comparisons can be made m and treated as reliable, :Acoustics 563 1) 9 Ho jgUND IN ENCLOSURES sound waves strike the surfaces of an enclosure in the form of a room wall, the following three things happen sith ome of the sound is reflected back in the room some of the sound energy is absorbed by the surfaces and listeners or persons (i) resent in the room ji) Some of the sound waves are transmitted outside the room through the (ii) “bration of wallls, floors and ceiling she amount of sound reflected or absorbed depends upon the surfaces while the pied category of,transmitted sound depends upon the sound insulation properties ithe surfaces: 28-7 REFLECTION OF SOUND When a free sound wave travelling through air strikes a uniform, large, solid, Jane surface, it is reflected in the same manner as that of a light ray. Thus, in jg 28-1 the angle which the incident wave makes with the plane surface is equal to theangle which the reflected wave makes with the plane surface. Reflection of sound from a plane surface | Fic. 28-1 Following facts in connection with the reflection of sound are to be noted: li) ‘The analysis of reflection from the curved surfaces may be derived by applying the laws of reflection of light. | lil) A concave surface leads to the concentration of reflected sound waves at eee ne and they are considerably smaller in magnitude as shown in ig. 28-2, They are most condensed and hence, they are amplified in nature. Hence, the Concave surfaces may be provided to work as the reflectors. ttt) A convex surface tends to spread the reflected sound waves which are magnified and are considerably bigger in magnitude as shown in fig. 28-3. Hence, the Convex surfaces may be used with advantage to spread the sound waves throughout the room. The study of law of the reflection of sound helps in selecting the proper shape of the room with regard to the distribution of sound in that room, The assumption that the sound is reflected in the same manner as light is true Only for limited circumstances and hence, great caution should be exercised < While applying the law of reflection of sound. liv) (v)SS Building Construction Concave > reflector Wave front Reflection of sound from concave surface FIG. 28-2 28-8. DEFECTS DUE To REFLECTED SOUND The acoustical design of an e of the reflected sound. Follo reflection of sound: (1) Echoes (2) Reverberation, The sensation of sound ceased. Hence, in order that in the atmosphere air as 343 m/sec., a distance of (0.10 x 343) = 34.30 mi the source of sound must be half o: 17 m, the echoes are formed. When a sound is reflected from a number the multiple echoes are formed. The heavy rol successive reflections from a number of reflecting surfaces like various strata of air, etc. (2) Reverberation: It is quite clear that some interval of ti for the sound energy to convert into other form of energy. This. nclosed space is primarily governed by wing are the two main defects develope persists for one-tenth of a second after an echo may be distin, reach the ear one-tenth of a second after the direct f 34.30 m ice. 17.15 m.. distance of the reflecting surface is less than 17 m. sound will be heard. When the distance of the refl 7 x /a-Wave / front Reflection of sound from convex surface Fic, 28-3 guished as separate, sound. Taking the v » Say 17 m. > the sound distortes lecting surface is bet reflecting surfaces. ling sound of a thu imeAcoustic ; ys) sf 565 ig bout by friction betw, ought al etween the t% av Re and the surfaces with which it comea wav’ 8nd ait particles as well as ie Aine quicker will be the transformary aise into contact. Naturally, the more iM eqctioDs my, a mn, pra 4 fee Rieiciath TncSeval of time his gradual process of transformation perm ar i rf and this is known as the reverberation. m= i 10 log 1 a B10 | iis found hat for. an average speaker, the ratio “i _ 196 go that m= 60 db. jime of reverberation is thus defined as be to decay to one-millionth of its initial ol jp of 60 gf The selection of the Correct time of reverberation is called the optimum ceerberation time and it will depend on the use of the room. Table 28-3 gives the “ion between the reverberation time and acoustics of the room. If the reverberation time is to long, it results in overlapping of speech and on the other hand, if it is too short, it produces the effect of deadness. TABLE 28-3 REVERBERATION TIME AND ACOUSTICS wet the time required by the reverberant value. This naturally corresponds to a Reverberation time in seconds Acoustics 0.50 to 1.50 Excellent 1.50 to 2.00 Good 2.00 to 3.00 Fairly good 3.00 to 5.00 Bad Above 5.00 Very bad Table 28-4 shows the recommended values of the optimum reverberation time in India for halls designed for the various purposes after considering the indicated audience strength. TABLE 28-4 OPTIMUM REVERBERATION TIME FOR HALLS Activity in hall Optimum reverberation 5 time ES aoas factor Audience Churches 1.8 to 3 Two-thirds Kerem theatres 13 Two-thirds Large halls 203 Full Law courts, Committee rooms, prac ‘avin Conference halls a a 1.6 to 2 ul Music concert halls Parliament house, Assembly halls, ee Ouene uneil chambers bat to 2 ne-third, Public lecture halls bebis Building Construction 28-9. ABSORPTION OF SOUND When a sound wave strikes a surface, part of its energy is absorbed by part of its energy is transmitted and the remaining part of its energy is But as the reverberation directly depends on the loss of energy of sound way, friction, it is of greater importance. This property of a surface by which sound energy is converted into other energy is known as the absorption and the absorption coefficient of a surface indi degree to which this surface affects the absorption of sound. It is thus the energy absorbed by the area to the energy striking the area. The value of coefficient of absorption will depend on the frequency of Table 28-5 gives the value of coefficients of absorption for some of the surfaces. These values correspond to the normal frequency of 500 cycles per It may be noted that the coefficient of absorption for an open window is taken This is very easy to understand as sound wave approaching an open wint completely pass through it. The furniture, curtains, carpets, etc. also absorb the sound energy to a fe extent. There is considerable change in the acoustics of room by the present number of persons together with their clothings. There will be more absorpti winter than in the summer because of the heavy clothings put up by the ai the cold season, TABLE 28-5 ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS Material Absorption coefficient per Open window 1.00 Ventilators 0.10 to 0.50 Brick wall 400 mm thick 0.03 Plaster on wall surface 0.02 Glass against solid surface 0.08 Marble 0.01 Stage curtain 0.20 Linoleum or concrete floor 0.03 Solid wooden floor 0.09 Framed wooden floor ons Plywood on battens 0.17 to 0.26 Window glazed 018 Curtains in heavyfolds 0.40 to 0.75 Metal 0.01 Individual objects Absorption units in m2 — Audience, adults in wooden seat 0.46 Plain seat 0.02 Covered seat 0.10 to 0.20oe Acoustics 567 gest] a sABIN’S EQUATION 40. aes a mae €, Sabin of Harvard University, U.S.A. carried out a number of Ppa Toms of different sizes and he was able to establish the following agttim yhich is known as the Sabin’s equation (Sabin’s Collected Papers, Harvard (or sity PES) 1923): ua 0.167 iA. 1 = reverberation time in seconds bee V = volume in m3 A = total absorbing power in m? - sabins = (a5, + 452 + 4383 +...) absorption units of individual objects. 4,5 8 ete being the coefficients of absorption of respective surfaces a1, ay, 43, etc: Note: The unit of sound absorption is m? — sabin and it is equal to sound absorption ofone square metre area of fully open window. since Vand A can be worked out from the plans and specifications of the structure, itis possible to design a structure for any desired value of the time of reverberation. 28-11. ABSORBENT MATERIALS Most of the common building materials absorb sound to a small extent and hence, for better acoustical requirement, some other materials are to be incorporated on the surfaces of the room. Such materials are known as the absorbent materials and they help a great deal in making the room acoustically good. The important facts in connection with absorbent materials are as follows: (i) An ideal absorbent material should be economical in construction and maintenance, water-proof, fire-proof, sufficiently strong and good in appearance. (ii) The noise level of the room provided with adsorbent materials is considerably reduced. (iii) In the hall treated with absorbent materials, the speech can be heard clearly and music can be fully enjoyed. liv) All the absorbent materials are found to be soft and porous. They work on the principle that the sound waves penetrate into the pores and in this process, the sound waves are converted into other form of energy by friction. () The absorbing capacity of the absorbent materials depends on the thickness of the material, its density and frequency of sound, (i) ‘The acoustic properties of the absorbent materials are considerably changed by their modes of fixing. The suspended absorbers in the form of inverted cones may be provided in the ceiling to make the hall acoustically good. (vii) Mere isto royal road for making a particular room acoustically good. Tt mainly depends on the ideas of the engineer or the architect. Each case is to be studied separately and after proper thinking, suitable absorbent Materials may be specified.$68 Building Construction ai (viii) Great care should be exercised while eee Covering ff absorbent material so as to improve its appearance. The improper destroys the absorbent properties of the material (vix) It should be remembered that in a big hall, prs wandigg is a absorbing factor. This is especially true in the high ia ney Zone the low frequency absorbent materials should be provided to achieve reverberation time over a wide range of frequency of sound. 28-12. TYPES OF ABSORBENT MATERIALS The various types of absorbent materials are available in the market different trade names. The value of coefficient of absorption is supplied manufacturer, ‘The requirements of a good acoustical material are as follows: (i) It should be durable and should not be liable to be attacked by. termites, etc. (ii) It should be easily available at a reasonable cost. (iii) It should be efficient over a wide range of frequencies ( iv) It should be fire resistant. (v)_ It should be non-hygroscopic and heat insulating. \vi) It should be self-supporting and should be capable of easy fixing, (vii) It should give pleasing appearance after fixing, (viii) It should have high coefficient of absorption. (ix) It should have sufficient structural strength. Following are some of the common types of absorbent materials: (1) Hairfelt: This material was used by Prof. Sabin in his experiment ie of coefficient of absorption of 25 mm thick hairfelt is 0. (2) Acoustic plaster: This is also known as the fibrous plaster and it granulated insulation material mixed with cement. If quantity of cement is required, the plaster will not have sufficient pores to become effective for If quantity of cement is less, the plaster will not have enough strength. quantity of cement should be carefully decided. For thickness of 20 mm of 1 kN/m’, the acoustic plaster possesses an absorbent coefficient of 0. cycles per second. The acoustic plaster boards are also available, They can) on the wall and their coefficient of absorption varies from 0.15 to 0.30, — (3) Acoustical tiles: These are made in factory and sold under diff to tile and they can elatively costly than other materials. They are most suitable for rooms in which small area te availal acoustical treatment. (4) Strawboard: This material can be thickness of 13 mm and density of 2.4 kN/ of 0.30 at 500 cycles per second, (5) Pulp boards: These are the soft boards which are pulp. They are cheap and can be fixed b coefficient of absorption is 0.17. also used as absorbent mi ‘m3, it possesses a coefficient prepared from the y ordinary panelling. The averAcoustics boo idl ee mpressed fibreboard: This material may be perforated or unperforated. @) Coe Roefficient of absorption for the former is 0.30 and for the latter is 0.52. jee ensity of 3 KN/m* a 1 compressed wood particle board: This material is provided with perforations Oe be painted also. With a thickness of about 13 mm, the average coefficient ic A an jeonption 18 0.40. w* perforated plywood: This material can be used by forming composite panels Fe jneral wool and cement asbestos or with mineral wool and hardboard. It is _ viltiy suspended from the trusses. The average value of coefficient of absorption entre former composite panel is as high as 0.95 and for the latter composite panel, tis about 0.20. (9) Wood wool board: This material is generally used with a thickness of 25 mm ind it has a density of 4 kKN/mS. The average value of coefficient of absorption is 0.20. a (10) Quilts and mats: These are prepared from mineral wool or glass wool and ue fixed in the form of acoustic blankets. The absorption coefficients of such quilts and mats depend on the thickness, density, perforations, mode of fixing, nature of tacking and frequency of sound. 28-13. CONDITIONS FOR GOOD ACOUSTICS OF AN AUDITORIUM OR AHALL Following conditions should prevail in an auditorium or a hall possessing good acoustical properties: (i) The initial sound should be of adequate intensity or loudness. This is quite obvious as it is impossible for a speaker to be heard over a long distance without the help of sound-amplification system. (ii) The sound which is produced should be evenly spread over the whole area covered by the audience. If this condition is not satisfied, the conditions tending the formation of echoes will be established. The initial sound should be clear and distinct so that there is no possibility of a disordered speech. For hall to be used for music, the initial sound should reach the audience with the same frequency and intensity. All undesired sound should be reduced to such an extent that it will not interfere with the normal hearing of music or speech. The undesired sound may be originating either from inside or outside the room. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE ACOUSTIC DESIGN OF AN AUDITORIUM 28-14, Following five factors play an important role in the acoustic design of an auditorium: vj), Volume: The hall should have enough volume and it should be decided Tor pehtePing in view the intensities of sounds likely to be developed in the hall, eapralls to be used only for music, the volume should be large so that there will be von" Space for the music to spread in the hall. On the other hand, the halls of small Prope’ Ate useful for weak sounds. The best guide for deciding the volume of a imped auditorium would be the detailed study of an existing auditorium used for ~ *" Purpose.ha Building Construction Ss The floor area of the hall including gangway but Bias stage shoulg calculated on the basis of 0.60 m? to 0.90 m? per Pret i. ". ight of the half decided by considering ventilation, presence oF absence Nellie pe yp E Perform The average height may vary from 6 m for small : Pee 720m for largely The ceiling may be flat. But it is desirable to provide sig ‘ase in the hej near the centre of the hall With all such considerations, the recommended volumes for different types auditoriums are as follows: 3 to 5 3 per perso i) Cinemas or theatres 4.0 m3 to 5.0 m? per person ( BY, "8's (i) Musical halls or concert halls .. 4.0 m®° to 5.5 3 5 (iii) Public lecture halls m? to 4.5 (2) Shape: This is a very important consideration in the acoustic design of auditorium and it involves geometrical aspects of the hall. The paths followed by reflected sound waves are traced and concentration of sound waves, if any, are not The concave walls are not good for acoustic purposes as they tend to concenty sound waves. The plain walls are better. But the convex walls are excellent and used to reduce the possibilities of echoes to the minimum extent. m® per person m4 per person Sound absorbing surface aes of sound \ Splayed side walls Fan shaped floor plan of auditorium FIG. 28-4 A fan shaped floor plan gives better performance. The side walls should be arrani to have an angle of not more than 100° with the curtain line as shown in fig. 2 The fan shaped plan gives favourable reflection of the sound from sides. For talking pictures, the synchronisation of sound with lip movement is the m essential. For theatres, a person with normal vision should be able to discern fa expressions of the actors on stage. To satisfy these conditions, the distance of farthest seat from the curtain line should generally not exceed 93 sn (3) Sound absorption: The adequate absorbing surfaces should be provided in hall to control the reverberation. As a matter of fact, the acoustic. design of auditorium will be incomplete without the provision of such a surface. The ¢ study of the hall should be made before recommending the type of absorbent mate and its location in the hall.i Acoust 71 4) cs 5' M surfaces from which the sound is like igrdistribution of sound. The areas like st pe cleatly sorted out for the treat, sho" peas include rear walls, balcony gatas sorbing materials should be an auditorium. ith ly to be reflected should be so designed ly to cause objectionable sound reflection ment with sound absorbing material. Parapet, concave surfaces, etc. The rest of the Properly distributed on the remaining surfaces he 4) Site selection: There are various considerations for the proper site selection quditorium. But the most important one is the noise pollution. If the site is not ted in a quiet place, elaborate costly arrangements will have to be made to have iusustcally good hall. For auditoriums withow air-conditioning and requiring fpasand windows to be kept open during performance, the orientation should ke such it the external noise is permitted to the minimum possible extent. Depending upon the surrounding noise level of the site, structural design, orientation, jyout and such other factors, it should be seen that the background noise level not sxceeding 40 db to 45 db is achieved within the hall. (6) Seats and seating arrangement: The seats should be arranged in concentric aes of the circles. The centre from which the circles should be drawn should be located as much behind the centre of curtain line as the distance of curtain line from the auditorium rear wall. The factors to be considered for arangements are as follows: seats and seating (i) Arrangement: The seats should be staggered sideways in relation to those in front so that a listener in any row is not looking directly over the head of the person in front of him. (ii) Back to back distance: The back to back distance of chairs in successive tows or seats should be at least 450 mm and this distance may be increased upto 1000 mm or so for extra comfort (ii) Balcony: Where balcony is provided, the precautions to be taken are as follows: +2, 1, +13 he3m 4 423m L = Length of auditorium 1; = Projection of balcony Ay = Height of balcony edge at end Hy = Height of balcony edge at entry Hy = Height of last row in balcony from projection room, Where Rig. 98, ion of a typical auditorium. If the balconi: a 5s] inal section of a typ’ u ies ta, be x" ie woneincine sound shadows to be ae is oe to the The seats underneath the balcony do not ua e one ES lections, nite of sound shadows can be rectified by providing angle reflectors, as M fig. 28-6,we Building Construction Sound gallery i Hy t Balcony = S45 | H, 1.8m Orchestra pit Longitudinal section of a typical auditorium Fic. 28-5 (iv) Balcony seats: The elevation of balcony seats should be such that line of is not inclined more than 30° to the horizontal. (v) Covering of seats: If covered or upholstered seats are provided, the ac¢ characteristics of the hall are not appreciably altered by the fluctuating ai occupancy. (wi) Front-most row: The angle subtended with the horizontal at the front observer by the highest object to be seen on the stage should not excee On this basis, the distance of the first row works out to about 4.5 cinema and 3.6 m for theatre. Sound absorbing Hard reflecting surface surface Angle reflector *<- Source of Sound Sound shadows FIG. 28-6 (vii) Raising of seats: The successive rows of seats should be raised the preceding ones for good visibility and good listening conditions. in level may be between 80 mm to 120 mm per row. As a thom the angle of elevation of the inclined floor of the auditorium should less than 8°. (viii) Width of seats: The width of seats should be between 450 mm to 60yo 7) Acoustics . pEFECTS IN AN AUDITORIUM AND THEIR REMEDIES e three object “pee a volved in the design of an auditorium: ) There should be good direct path forthe sound ) io be heard loudly and clearly and will ny reflections. This will enable the sound avoid confusion with subsequent 4) Itshould be seen that none of the subsequent re i as the original sound, bsequent reflections has the same strength 1 ired di erati ti The desired degree of reverberation should be provided in the auditorium. Following defects are however found in most of the auditoriums: 1) Reverberation: The defect of excessive reverberation is very common in auditoriums. The effect is that the sound once created prolongs for a jonger duration resulting in confusion with the sound created next. The remedy of itis defect is to correct the time of reverberation by suitably installing the absorbent materials. (2) Formation of echoes: When the reflecting surfaces are situated at a distance eater than 17 metres or so and when the shape of the auditorium is unsuitable, the formation of echoes takes place. This defect can be removed by selecting proper shape of the auditorium and by providing rough and porous interior surfaces to disperse the energy of echoes. (3) Sound foci: In case of concave reflecting interior surfaces, certain spots are formed where reflected sound waves meet and create a sound of large "intensity. These spots are known as the sound foci and they can be eliminated by woiding curvilinear interiors or by providing highly absorbent materials on the focussing areas. (4) Dead spots: This defect is just the reverse of previous one. Because of high concentration of reflected sound at the sound foci, there is deficiency of reflected sound at some other points. These points are known as dead spots and the sound level a dead spots is generally inadequate for satisfactory hearing. This defect can be remedied by the installation of suitable diffusers so as to have even distribution of sound in the hall. (5) Loudness: This defect is due to lack of the reflecting surfaces near the souree of sound and excessive absorption of sound in the hall, The remedies to comrect this defect consist in arranging hard reflecting surfaces near the source of ‘ound and in adjusting the absorption of the hall so as to give an optimum time Of reverberation, If length is more, it is desirable to provide more than one source “sound by installation of loud-speakers. The location of loud-speakers should be “arefully adjusted. TEREPPTNT e ness rrhis defect is'aueto"poor sound insulation anc Resics, the Fi i h loose doors and windows or “ior noi ditorium either throug z : tough walls Se ee etara elements having improper sound ee Hs ior noise zs a ig d by vehicles, factories, cooling Pe etc. The remedy Comreét this BaveNelope an suitable sound insulation to the various components of defect is to provi alll auditorium.ee Building Construction Ich, 28-16. ACOUSTICS OF STUDIOS aE ie The term studio is used to indicate a big room or a hall where sound j by a microphone and it includes the radio-broadcasting station, television sound-recording studio. The basic requirements of a studio will be to h, sound-proofing and to have variable reverberation time as per nature of soun, in it. The acoustic design of a studio requires the following special pre taken for its efficient working: (i) The noise level in the studio should be brought down to 20 dh to 30 (ii) The design of the studio should be such that the echoes are eliminated. S Picked Station ave De d prod Cautions comple (iii) The finish on the outside surfaces of the building should be of S01 reflecting material. (iv) The partition walls and exterior walls of the studio should be suffici rigid to resist vibrations and to prevent resonance. (v) The finish on the interior surfaces of walls, ceilings and floors should absorbent materials. This will help in reducing the time of reverberati (vi) The provision of windows in the studio should be minimum so as to pr transfer of noise from outside to inside of the building. The air-conditioning machinery and such other equipments should be sui insulated so that their vibrations are not carried upto the working cham| of the studio. (vii) (viii) If there are more than one studios in the same building, it is preferabl locate all of them on the same floor. In no case, the studios should be loc one above the other. There should be a minimum space of one floor be! two consecutive studios in elevation, (ix) The heavy curtains and draperies may be used with adv. antage to col the time of reverberation in the studio. (x) The optimum reverberation time depends on the pitch or frequene} , in some studios, the arrangements of hinged panels in w: Jo case of hinged panel arrangement, a hinge is provided as sho fig. 28-7 and one surface of the rotable panel is ab: The hinged panel construction is cheap and easy arrangement, the revolving panels with hinge at different absorbent materials may be provided Reflective surface Hinged panel FIG. 28-7a st6l Acoustics 575 ae ase of rotable cylinders, the drums of required diameter are suspended from ai as shown in fig. 28-8. The surfaces of drums are divided into three equal je cong Subtending an angle of 120° at the centre. The three surfaces 1, 2 and 3 ars ptt with different absoxptive material, The cylinders can be rotated by rack and pin arrangement and thus, any desired combination of fwo surfaces can be exposed rf te 007 Rotating drum Rack and pinion y > | amangement 9 t T “Ceiling line Rotable cylinders FIG. 28-8 problem 28-1. ‘An auditorium is rectangular in shape. The dimensions of the auditorium are: jagh = 30 m, breadth = 20 m and height = 8 m, The areas of different surfaces ae as follows: Plaster 700 m2 Wooden floor 300 m? Concrete floor 900 m? Curtains 100 m2. The capacity of the auditorium is of 1000 seats. Work out the following: la) Number of absorbing units and time of reverberation when there is (i) no audience, (ii) an audience of 400 persons, (iii) an audience of 700 persons, and (iv) full audience | (b)_ Number of extra absorbing units required so as to get a reverberation time of 1.2 seconds when the strength of audience is 400 persons (0) Coefficient of absorbing material, if the area available for fixing the absorbing material is 840 m?. Solution: i) |e ficient} Ab: Absorption coefficien sorption units | Surface | Area or no. | “por m? or er n0- io ee Plaster 700 m2 0.02 M Concrete 900 m2 0.03 7 Wooden 300 m2 0.09 2 Curtains 100 m? 0.40 40 Seats 1000 0.02 20 Total 128 Now 0.46. H he net i " ; Bin! fan adult is 0.46. Hence, the net increase in ab the absorption power in m sabin of . one person is obtained by deductin, tho "Ption power of room due to presence © s Mion power of seat from that of person-oP Building Construction ia = 0.46 - 0.02 = 0.44. 5 - ‘i n . Net increase in absorption power pert perso! The absorption units of the auditorium with different strength of audieng, be as follows: A Absorption units Absorption units Total absorptig Audience when room is empty of audience units in m2-sabj Nil 128 = 128 400 128 176 304 700 128 308 436 1000 128 440 568 Now, volume of auditoriuminl = 30 x 20 x 8 = 4800 m°. The time of reverberation for different strength of audience can be worked applying Sabin’s equation 0.16 V A ). 00 For no audience, 1 = oe mai eeeconds. For 400 persons, 1 = ae = 2.53 seconds. For 700 persons, ¢ = ee Peal @obsecandlad 0.16 x 4800. = 135 568 = 1.35 seconds. t= For full audience, ¢ (b) 0.16 V poe A 0.16 x 4800 A 640 m?-sabins. The absorption power of room when the audience consists of 400 pe 304 m2-sabins, 12= Extra absorption units required = 640 - 304 = 336 m?-sabins. (c) Coefficient of absorbent material = 220) = 0.40. Problem 28-2. In the above problem, discuss the effect of adding the absorbent mater room on the time of reverberation. Solution: Without the addition of absorbent material, the time of reverberation 6 seconds to 1.35 seconds for no audience to full audience. These times ace for good acoustics._ 16) Acoustics 577 38" fe vas we qh the addition of absorbent material, the absorption units of empty room with ,36 = 464 m?-sabins, 28 i “a ,milarly, the absorption units of the room with different strength of the audience Simrotked out as follows - woo persons, A = 464 + 176 = 640 m?-sabins for 700 persons, A = 464 + 308 = 772 mm sabins For 1000 persons, A= 464 + 440 = 904 m2-sabins. The times of reverberation for different strength of audience can then be worked 1 by applying the Sabin’s equation. aul For no audience, For 400 persons, For 700 persons, For full audience, ¢ aS 0.16 x 4800 464 0.16 x 4800, 640, 0.16 x 4800 772 0.16 x 4800 Il I I 1.66 seconds. 1.20 seconds. 1.00 second 0.85 second. 904 Itmay be noted that the auditorium has become acoustically good by addition of - borbent material and the effect of audience in corrected room on time of reverheration ss compared to that of uncorrected room is very small. . Problem 28-3, Ans. Astudio has clear dimensions of length = 10 m, breadth = 7 m and height = 4 m. The ceiling is provided with acoustical tiles having absorption coefficient of 0.30. curtains in heavyfolds are provided on one of the short wal lls. The absorption Power of other surfaces of the studio may be taken as 5 m2-sabins. It is desired to provide revolving panels in the studio such that the time of "erberation can be varied from 0.75 second to 1 second. Calculate the following: (@) absorption units required with each time of reverberation, () coefficients of absorbent materials on both faces of the revolving panel, and (©) area of wall panel. Solution: i 7‘ . Absorption Absorption units Surface Area in m? | coefficient per m2 | in m2-sabing Acoustical lea ra 0.30 21 Corte 8 ar in heavyfolds 28 O80 i. ther surfaces i fi a Total 840Building Construction 578 : = 280 m°. VoluailofiroornpesulDIXe? Gotlie=t2® 0.16 V. Now, leon) 0.16 x 280 075, = sana A = 59.73, say 60 m?-sabins. = d Extra absorption units required, when £= 0.75 secon = 60 - 40 = 20 m®sabins. 0.16 V Then, = US 0.16 x 280 Laan maa A = 44.80, say 45 m®-sabins. Extra absorption units required when ¢= 1 second = 45 - 40 = 5 m*-sabins. (b) From the figures worked out in (a), it is clear that the ratio of coefficie absorbent materials on both faces of the revolving panel should be equal Hence, provide hairfelt with coefficient of absorption as 0.60 on one f the panel and acoustic plaster boards with coefficient of absorption as 0. the other face of the panel. one 20 1 (c) Area of revolving panel = 7 = 33 3 m2, ca} « 5 or Area of revolving panel = 55 = 33 28-17. NOISE AND ITS EFFECTS When the sound waves are periodic, regular and of long duration, they pro pleasing effect and such a sound is known as the musical sound. On the contrary, the sound waves are non-periodic, irregular and of short duration, they pro displeasing effect and such a sound is known as the noise. Thus, a noise is an unt abrupt sound of complex character with an irregular period and amplitude origit from a source of non-periodic motion. Following are the important effects of noise: (i) The noise creates uncomfortable living conditions, (ii) The prolonged exposure to the noise may nervous breakdowns. (iii) It is observed that the noise has an influence on strain and even on sleep. (iv) The noise leads to the fatigue and consequently, exposed to the noise decreases considerably. (v) It is an established fact that reduction in the noise the output of labour. (vi) The presence of noise takes away the essence of music and speech. result into temporary deaft blood pressure, on mi the efficiency of p increases to a greataa _ a0) “ 45, NOISE MAPPING Acoustics 579 for’ noise abatement programme, it is necessary to make a noise map or topograph. Mcedure to be adopted for the noise mapping is as follows: A reasonably accurate sketch showing the relative positions of all machines ind other items of interest is drawn fi) The measured noise levels are taken at a suitable number of positions around the area being investigated and they are marked on the sketch. The more the measurements, the more accurate is the topograph. The connecting times between the points of equal sound levels are drawn and thus a noise topograph indicating the sound distribution patterns is obtained. (ii) A noise topograph of the above type will immediately show the zones of noise danger and necessary steps may then be taken to protect the workers. The new noise wopograph after the remedial measures being taken will give a clear picture as to what exient they have changed the noise patterns. ‘A topograph with red zones could also be used to indicate the areas where ear protectors are obligatory. 2849. TYPES OF NOISES Following are the two distinct types of the noises: (1) Indoor noises (2) Outdoor noises. ‘The indoor noises are created in the adjacent room or in the same room where noise is noticed. The sources of indoor noises are moving of people, crying of babies, playing of radios, banging of doors, traffic on staircase, movement of furniture, conversation of the occupants, operation of cisterns and waterclosets, noise of typewriters, working of machines nearby, etc. The outdoor noises are created from nearby streets and the largest source of outside wise is generally the automobile traffic on the road. The other sources of outdoor Roises are railways, aeroplanes, loud-speakers, machines in nearby factories, etc. 28-20. TRANSMISSION OF NOISE Any type of noise is transmitted to the room through walls, floors, ceiling or conduits. The origin of transmitted noise may be air-borne or may be due to impact. The air-borne noise can be transmitted to the receiving room in two ways: li) By air path between two rooms such as doors, windows, ventilators, key-holes, ducts, Pipes, cracks, etc. (ti) By forced vibrations set up by the transmitting room to the walls, floors and ceiling of the receiving room. It is found that the rE eae noise sets Up forced vibrations in the walls, floors and cei ing of the transmitting toom and they in turn set up corresponding ae Se the walls, Biestedeceiling of: the te ae oreo thus transmedito te Teceiving room create sound waves and the nois jitted to the 7 Teceiving room.Building Construction id developed in solid structures The impact noise or tructure-borne noise is bias -Giations Seam is then transmitted as air-borne noise. The closing © > mag] etc. set up vibrations in solid mater Js of the structure which result q transmission of noise to the rec eiving room. s less power, continues for a long duration The impact or structure-borne noise possesses gated over long dist, The air-borne noise posse confined to places near its origin. power, eanbatieal fot oaenntee dateaon and is often propagated The difference between air-borne noise and impact noise is related to the of noise in relation to the receiver room only. For instance, a a multi-st building, the washing of clothes on fifth floor will be heard as air-borne n sixth floor and as impact noise in fourth floor. 28-21. SOUND INSULATION The term sound insulation or sound proofing is used to indicate the redue| the level of sound when it passes through a building component. It has necessary to give attention to the sound insulation of buildings because of factors such as increase in population densities, change in habits of the co improvement in building construction practices, etc. The flat-dwelling is the ou example requiring serious attention to sound insulation. Similarly, every ho: radio, T.V. or some other source of noise. The science of sound insulati been considerably advanced in recent years and for exact details of sound in: in a particular case, reference should be made to the technical literature av: on the subject. Table 28-6 shows the desirable levels of sound insulation between ins rooms for the air-borne sound. TABLE 28-6 SOUND INSULATION BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL ROOMS No. Overall insulation Situation of rooms Between one room and another in the same hou: flat; between one room and another room in an Between houses or flats; between teaching rooms school; between normal wards in a hospital. Between extra-quiet special wards and other ward hospital. 4 50 Between living room in one house or flat and the room and bed rooms in another. It should be remembered that the sound insulation and sound absorption different terms. The functions of a sound insulating construction is to reduce thi passing through it. The function of a sound-absorbent material is to reduc reflected from a surface. Hence, the porous materials in general are good sound absorbers. But poor sound insulators. On the other hand, the hard materials in general are po absorbers. But they are good sound insulators, Further, the insulation a measured in an adjoining room while absorption of sound is measured in where the sound is produced.- 23) we TRANSMISSION Loss Acoustics ae ihe air-borne sound passes through any structure, the loss of sound intensity $ tice, This is known as the transmission loss (TL) eee Fo amporiant facts to be remembered in case of amission 10ss are: iThe transmission loss is numerically equal to 8) helo of sound intensity expressed in decibels, ‘The efficiency of sound insulation of a wall or a partition is expressed in terms of trans- mission Joss which occurs when the air-borne sound passes through the wall or the partition. For instance, the transmission loss of the wall as shown in fig. 28-9 will be 50 db. The transmission loss of a structure depends on the methods employed for the construction of the structure and the materials of which the Transmission loss structure is made. Fic. 28-9 (iv) The transmission loss varies directly with the frequency of sound. Hence, the transmission loss of a structure should be studied over a wide range of sound frequencies. (v) Greater sound insulation of a wall or a partition is indicated by the larger value of the transmission loss. axes TL=50db he 80 db (i) Me }—> 30 db 28-23. ACCEPTABLE NOISE LEVELS The maximum level of noise which will neither annoy the occupants nor damage ihe acoustics of the building is termed as the acceptable noise level inside the building. Itdepends on the following factors: li) nature of the noise, (iii) time of fluctuation of the noise, and (ii) type and use of the building, _—_ (iv) background noise. Table 28-7 gives the generally acceptable noise levels for different structures from view points of economy, comfort and practical considerations of the conditions Prevailing in our country. TABLE 28-7 NOISE LEVELS FOR DIFFERENT STRUCTURES Type of building Acceptable noise level in dé Radio and T.V. studios 25 to 30 Auditoriums and music rooms 35 to 40 Small offices, court rooms, libraries 40 to 45 Hospitals 40 to 50 Schools 45 to 50 Residential buildings and restaurants 45 to 55 Large public offices, banks and stores 50 to 60 Factories 60 to 65- Building Construction toy, ON 28-24, METHODS OF SOUND INSULATI' Ben will depend on the type of noise to required. The methods of sound insy three main categories: be tra lation The method of sound insulation and the degree of sound insulation thus be classified in the following if (1) When source of noise is in the room itsel. (2) When noise is air-borne. (3) When noise is structure-borne. 28-24-1. WHEN SOURCE OF NOISE IS IN THE ROOM ITSELF Following are the methods of sound insulation which are commonly used when source of noise is situated in the room to be treated for the sound insulation: (1) Improvement in working methods: The basic principle of soy insulation is to suppress the noise at the source itself. A working method creating fy noise may be adopted. For instance, the welding may be preferred to riveting. If not possible to alter the working method, the machines which are responsible noise, should be provided with such constructions that they create the least possi noise. Usually, the machine is enclosed in a box-like structure with sound absorbj materials on its surfaces. (2) Acoustical treatment: The walls, floors and ceilings should be provided sound absorbing materials. The sound absorbing materials should be mounted on surfaces near the source of noise. The acoustical treatment of the room considera reduces the noise level in the room. (3) Personal protective devices: It is possible to reduce the noise to extent of 20 db to 30 db by using personal protective devices such as ear pl headphones, etc. 28-24-2. WHEN NOISE IS AIR-BORNE The sounds generated and transmitted in air directly to the human ears are kno} as the air-borne sounds. The air-borne noise possesses less power, continues for a duration and is confined to the places near its origin. Following methods of sound insulation may be adopted for the reduction of borne noise: (1) Solid non-porous homogeneous Partitions: porous homogeneous partitions will reduce airborne noise. I loss of such partitions depends The sound insulation of a partiti The provision of solid 1 it is found that the transmi directly on the weight of partition per unit ion thus increases with the increase in its thickm amount. For instance, suppose 50 db and a 50 mm thick partition has a transmission loss of 45 dé, Thus, doubl the thickness of a partition reduces transmission loss by about 5 db. This figuré Practically constant and can be used to work out the transmission loss of the part with different thicknesses. Thus, a 75 mm thick partition will have « transmission IAcoustics 583 ytd “Ht anitons of porous materials: The porous materials may be rigid or flexible. 0) Pass of rigid porous materials such as concrete masonry, the sound insulation i r cet e e a , iti orf about 10 per cent due (o the absorptive property of the material, But partitions orous materials such as wool, quilt, etc. do not give enough sound insulation. the value of transmission loss decreases as further layers of flexible porous ‘yre added. The general behaviour of partitions of flexible porous materials that as the thickness of partition is increased in arithmetic progression, the is nding transmission loss is in geometric progression. A combination of rigid oe? materials and flexible porous materials may be used with advantage for the way of partition wall. It will provide effective sound insulation and will have oo “i weight. (3) Double wall construction: It is found that a double wall construction is better sound insulation than a solid wall construction, The walls are of plaster-boards or hee boards OF plaster on lath. An air space of about 100 mm to 120 mm is kept jaween the walls and staggered wooden studs are provided as supports as shown in i 98-10. In order to make the partition more effective, it is necessary to reduce ihe number of structural ties between the fwo parts of the partition to a minimum. The hollow space may be filled with the sound absorbing blankets. Boards. 5 Wooden stud iC EL Wie el tt woouenanal ~ “Boards = Sound absorbing blanket Double wall construction FIG. 28-10 (1) Floating floor construction: In this type of construction, a floor is separated fom the structural floor by means of a layer of resilient material such as mineral or sss wool quilt. Such a floor is known as a floating floor and it results in better Sound insulation, HoMeeii@ehows a concrete floating floor constructed on a concrete structural na Itis necessary to see that the concrete of floating floor does not get through the Y*t of resilient material. /witeCUMMEL UP EA coring Wall—>} t [ Water-proof paper Structural floor Concrete floating floor Fic. 28-11mee Building Construction a provided on the layer of the a water-proof layer is an For this purpose, a water-proof layer Reyer exif material and then 50 mm thick concrete screed is noes pee pe of skirtin, its method of fixing with the wall will also affect the soun ation of the flog a certain extent. Fig. 28-12 shows a wood-joist floating floor. A layer of resilient matey; battens and wooden joists The sound insulation of timber fl ing materials in the air space as showy materials or other mate provided between the ‘ may further be improved by inserting pugs! i fig. 28-12. The pugging materials may be sound absorbing like ashes, sand, etc. Battens Floor-Boards t oa ak q/\ 7. \_Pugging material Wood-joist floating floor Fic. 28-12 (5) Suspended ceiling construction: If a false independent ceiling is cons below the structural floor, the sound insulation capacity of the floor incre This construction is useful especially in case of wood-joist floors. (Flooring a Board + Bee A a ies F Uptaster board or fy Plaster expanded metal Suspended ceiling construction Fic. 28-13 Floori | _ He [er ead eoredons + Wood Plaster board or PI expanded metal a Suspended ceiling construction FIG. 28-14 Fig. 28-13, fig. 28-14 and fig. 28-15 show typical suspended ceiling cons adopted for timber floors with increasing degree of insulation. It should be remembered that the extent of sound insulation achieved will upon the weight of the ceiling as well as on the structural rigidity with whiclpo seat Acoustics 585 afte ted to the solid or wooden floor Thus, 0! ‘ all : ar ediby Using # very heavy ceiling supported on the resilient mountings with such il gement that it is independent of the floor in| ssf the highest sound insulation can be Flooring Floor-Board /-Fibre-Board == F eee ~Plaster Board or t Plaster J expanded metal Suspended ceiling construction FIG. 28-15 (6) Box-type construction: This type of construction gives exceptionally low vale of the ait-borne transmission and hence, it is adopted at places such as broadcasting sudios where low air-borne sound transmission is most essential, Aboxlike structure is constructed on the structural floor. The walls can start from the top of resilient material as shown in fig. 28-16 or from the top of floating floor asshown in fig. 28-17. =: —Floating floor g / ‘Structural floor Box-type construction Fic. 28-16 Resilient material — Floating floor — Resilient material \- Structural floor tion Box-type construc Fic. 28-17= Building Construction ted (7) Design of doors and windows: For good insulation, i is necessary to di carefully the doors and windows of the room. The sound travels through very cracks between the door and wall. The space between the jamb and frame ma packed with sound absorbing material. In case of a door, the oe loss iney with the increase in weight. In case of a window, the transmission loss increases the increase in thickness of glass, The excellent sound insulation is obtaing, constructing glazed windows with double or triple panes of glass. The air space edges of such panes is filled with sound absorbing material. Such windows are for special construction such as broadcasting studios, etc. (8) Planning of rooms: If rooms within residential buildings are suitably arr good sound insulation is achieved. It is also economical than structural me, required for good sound insulation. A few suggestions are mentioned below: The bed-rooms should be situated away from the sources of noise The staircase should not abut to any of the quiet rooms. The location of bathrooms should be carefully designed. The bed-rooms should be separated from other rooms where noise certain extent can be tolerated. The mechanical equipment creating noise should not be placed near or the quiet rooms. 28-24-3. WHEN NOISE IS STRUCTURE-BORNE structure-borne noise: (1) Treatment of floors and ceilings: The floors and ceilings may be as in the previous case. The floating floors and suspended ceilings. considerably in reducing the structure-borne sound. ¢ | avoided as far as possible or special r isolators are employed for this Purpose. As discontinuous construction is it is to be recommended only Tor special rooms such as broadcasting studio (3) Insulation of machinery: The mechanical equipments such as refri lifts, fans, etc. create vibrations in the structure and hence, properly, structure-borne sound is reduced to a considerable exte of insulation of machinery is to rest the mechanical which may be of rubber, cork, felt or metal spring. if they are ii nt. The main pi equipment on a flexible (4) Town planning: The vibrations from external sources such as railwa traffic, factories, etc. create structure-borne sound, The most effective met reducing such type of structure-borne sound is to hav The city is to be divided into suitable zones and resident from railways, workshops, factories and main streets. a rational town pli ial zone is to be plac