Nama:

Muhammad Iqbal Fitrianto (05191048)

Steven Rezky Andreosan (05191072)

Coal fly ash

Coal fly ash, an industrial by-product, is derived from coal combustion in thermal power plants.

Coal fly ash (CFA) is generated during the combustion of pulverised coal in coal-fired powerstations;
as such it is an industrial by-product that if not put to beneficial use, is a recognised environmental
pollutant. CFAs are generated at 1200–1700°C from the various inorganic and organic constituents of
the feed coal. Because of the scale of the variety of the components, CFAs are one of the most
complex anthropogenic materials that can be characterised. Forexample, approximately 316
individual minerals and 188 mineral groups have been identified indifferent CFAs.

The principle components of fly ash are silica, alumina, ferrous oxide, and calcium oxide with varying
amounts of carbon as measured by a Loss on Ignition (LOI) test. CFAs have a bulk chemical
composition containing a variety of metal oxides in the order SiO2 > Al2O3 > Fe2O3 > CaO > MgO
> K2O > Na2O > TiO2.

CFA chemistry is determined by the type of coal burned to produce it. Generally it has been observed
that CFA from sub bituminous and lignite coals arec haracterised by higher CaO, MgO, and SO3 and
lower SiO2 and Al2O3 relative to the higher grade fuels such as bituminous and anthracite coals.
Bituminous and lignite CFAs that contain less than 10% CaO in total often consist mainly of
aluminosilicate glass and usually do not contain any crystalline compounds of calcium. CFAs that
contain more than 15% total CaO are composed of calcium aluminosilicate glass in addition to
substantial proportions of crystalline calcium compounds including C3A, C4A3S, CS, and CaO.

The adsorption capacity of the char in CFA could be advantageous in pollution control applications. It
has been shown that, although complex, the composition of CFA predominantly contains some
mixture of glass, quartz-mullite, char, Ca silicate–oxyhydroxide, iron rich, and salt fractions in a
separable form. In a series of publications a research group utilised a variety of techniques in a
sequential separation process to fully characterise the following CFA fractions:
(1) a ceramic cenosphere concentrate (CCC), (2) a water soluble salt
concentrate (WSC),
(3) a magnetic concentrate (MC),
(4) a char concentrate (CC),
(5) a heavy concentrate (HC),
(6) an improved CFA residue (IFA)
The morphology of CFA particles is controlled primarily by the combustion temperature and
subsequent cooling rate. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis has revealed that CFA
samples consist of solid spheres, hollow spheres (cenospheres), and irregular unburned carbon.
Mineral aggregates containing corundum, quartz, and magnetite particles have also been observed.

About 20% of the fly ash generated is being used in concrete production. Other uses include road base
construction, soil amendment, zeolite synthesis, and use as a filler in polymers (Cho et al., 2005).

Coal fly ash accounts for 5–20 wt.% of feed coal and is typically found in the form of coarse bottom
ash and fine fly ash,which represent 5–15 and 85–95 wt.% of the total ash generated, respectively.

Coal ash is discharged by both wet and dry methods of coal combustion. Bottom ash refers to the ash
that falls down through the airflow to the bottom of the boiler and is mechanically removed (Jala and
Goyal, 2006; Yao, 2013). The term fly ash, by contrast, is most often used to refer to fine f ly ash,
particles of which are captured from flue gas and collected by electrostatic or mechanical
precipitation.

Physically, fly ash occurs as fine particles with an average size of b20 μm and has low to medium
bulk density (0.54–0.86 g/cm3), high surface area (300–500 m2/kg) and light texture. The iron and
unburnt carbon contents present influence the apparent color, which ranges from water-white to
yellow, orange to deep red, or brown to opaque (Fisher et al., 1978).

The pH values vary from 1.2 to 12.5, with most ashes tending toward alkalinity (Kolbe et al., 2011).
The pH value of the ash–water system depends mainly on the Ca/S molar ratio in ash, although other
minor alkalis or alkaline earth cations may also contribute to the balance (Ward et al., 2009;
Izquierdoa and Querol, 2012). Based on the Ca/S ratio and pH value, fly ash can be classified into
three main groups: strongly alkaline ash (pH 11–13), mildly alkaline ash (pH 8–9) and acidic ash.

The environmental impact of coal fly ash has been fully recognized. Most ash disposal methods
ultimately lead to the dumping of fly ash on open land. In some countries, coal fly ash is defined as a
general solid waste and its treatment is not subject toregulation as a hazardous waste. Irregular
accumulation and inappropriate disposal of fly ash will lead to its disposal over vast areas of land,
with resultant degradation of the soil and danger to both human health andtheenvironment. Fly ash
particles, small enough to escape emission control devices, are easily suspended in air and have
become a major source of gas pollution. Repeated exposure to fly ash can cause irritation of the eyes,
skin, nose, throat andrespiratory tract, and can even result inarsenic poisoning. Fly ash can even reach
the sub-soil and ultimately cause siltation, clog natural drainage systems and contaminate the ground
water with heavy metals.

Use of coal fly ash:

▪︎soil amelioration
The physicochemical properties of coal fly ash including silt and clay-sized particles, low bulk
density, higher water-holding capacity, favorable pH, and source of essential plant nutrients, etc.,
make it a potential amendment for soils (Ram et al., 2006, 2007b; Pandey and Singh, 2010). In
addition, use of fly ash instead of lime can reduce CO2 emission (during calcite calcination to produce
lime), and thus reduce global warming. Coal fly ash, being mostly alkaline (depending on the coal
source and operating condition of the plant), can be used for buffering the soil pH.

▪︎construction industry
Fly ash has predominantly been used as a substitute for material in the construction industry,
especially either as a raw material or as an additive in the cement industry. Fly ash can be referred to
as either cementitious or pozzolanic depending on the CaO content. High calcium or Class C fly ash
has considerable cementitious properties in addition to pozzolanic properties (ASTM, 2008).

▪︎ceramic industry
Coal fly ash contains appreciable amounts of SiO2,Al2O3, CaO and Fe2O3, among other oxides.
These oxides have often been considered a low-cost material for the ceramic industry. In addition, the
fine powder form makes it suitable to be directly incorporated into ceramic pastes with almost no
pretreatment (Eroletal.,2008a).Recent research has investigated the production of glass, glass–ceramic
and sintered materials prepared from coal fly ash (see Fig. 7). The basis of manufacture is the
temperature activation of the raw fly ash with variations in temperatures and co-reagents directing the
final form of the glass or ceramic.

▪︎catalyst
Metal and metal oxides are widely used as catalysts in various industrial applications. Fly ash mainly
consists of various metal oxides with higher content of iron oxides and possesses higher thermal
stability. Thus, utilization of fly ash in heterogeneous catalysis could provide a cost-effective and
environmentally friendly method for recycling this waste (Wang, 2008).

▪︎environmental protection
Most fly ash is alkaline, and its surface is negatively charged at high pH. Hence, it can be expected to
remove metal ions from solutions by precipitation or electrostatic adsorption. Besides, it contains a
certain volume of unburnt carbon, which has a high adsorption capacity. Fly ash has been investigated
for its direct use as an adsorbent in both gaseous and aqueous applications. Singh (2009) studied the
adsorption of fly ash for the removal of metribuzin, metolachlor and atrazine from water. Lu and Do
(1991) used fly ash as an adsorbent for NOx removal. Izquierdo and Rubio (2008) evaluated fly ash as
an adsorbent for SO2 removal. Sarmah et al. (2013) investigated the CO2 capturing capacity of amine
fly-ash-based composites. A comparison of material cost and adsorption capacity showed that they
were cheap and efficient for CO2 capture.

▪︎depth separation
The recovery of cenospheres, unburnt carbon and magnetic spheres is one of the coal fly ash
beneficiations, providing economic as well as environmental benefits. The recovered unburnt carbon
from coal fly ash could serve as a fuel or a source of carbon-derived materials.

▪︎zeolite synthesis
Zeolites comprise of an important group of crystalline aluminosilicate minerals; they possess an
infinitely extending three-dimensional anion network made up of (SiO4)4- and (AlO4)5-tetrahedra
that link at the corners via their shared oxygen atoms. Ansari et al. (2014) synthesized zeolites from
flyash via microwave heating methods. The pure zeolite X nanoparticles or a mixture of zeolite X and
A can be synthesized using the microwave heating method by control of the crystallization time and
temperature.

▪︎mesoporus materials
CFA has been investigated for its potential as a silica source for the manufacture of mesoporous silica.
The methods of manufacture of these materials are very closely related to those of zeolite
manufacture. The main difference is that, during or prior to crystallisation, structure directing
templates are added

▪︎valuable metal recovery

Besides certain heavy elements, coal fly ash also contains valuable metals, including germanium (Ge),
gallium (Ga), vanadium (V), titanium(Ti) andaluminum(Al), which are extractable if anacceptable
process can be developed.

▪︎adsorbents
CFA has been investigated for its direct use as an adsorbent inboth gaseous and aqueous applications.
Adsorbents are often used in pollution control applications and the use of CFA for this purpose
provides an excellent example of how mutually beneficial industrial synergies can be built.

▪︎geopolymers
CFA geopolymers harden rapidly at room temperature and the development of mortar compressive
strengths of 80–120 MPa and concrete strengths of ca. 70 MPa have been reported in the literature.
The large-scale application of such geopolymers is much more complex, but high performance
geopolymer concretes are starting to become commercialised.

▪︎high volume fly ash concrete

The interest in HVFA concrete has increased recently because of the environmental and economic
benefits associated with its use.
Levels of 50–75% substitution in laboratory studies and field trials are routinely reported. There are
also technical benefits associated with the use of HVFA concrete relative to conventional concrete
some of which are summarised below:
1. Improved workability.
2. Early strength up to 7 days which can be accelerated with changes in the mix design as the situation
requires.
3. Later strength gain between 28 and 90 days or more. This has the result that it is unnecessary to
over-design for a specific strength.
4. Superior dimensional stability as result of increased resistance
to thermal, autogeneous, and drying shrinkage.
5. After 3–6 months, it exhibits a higher electrical resistivity and resistance to chloride penetration.
6. Greater durability to concrete reinforcement corrosion, alkali-silica expansion, and sulphate attack.

Reference:
Blissett, R. S., & Rowson, N. A. (2012). A review of the multi-component utilisation of coal fly ash.
Fuel, 97, 1–23. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2012.03.024

Yao, Z. T., Ji, X. S., Sarker, P. K., Tang, J. H., Ge, L. Q., Xia, M. S., & Xi, Y. Q. (2015). A
comprehensive review on the applications of coal fly ash. Earth-science reviews, 141, 105-121.

Palm oil fuel ash

Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) is a by-product of palm oil industry. It is generated from the
combustion of palm oil plant residues.

After the extraction of the oil from the fresh palm fruit, both husk and shell are burnt as boiler
fuel in palm oil mill at a temperature of 800–1000°C to produce steam, which is used in
turbine for supplying electrical energy to the whole mill for milling operation and domestic or
estate use (Abdullah et al. 2006; Tangchirapat et al. 2009). The burning process results in an
ash, which is referred to as POFA. After combustion in the steam boiler, about 5% POFA by
weight of solid wastes is produced (Sata et al. 2004). This POFA causes a nuisance to the
environment.

The physical properties of POFA are greatly influenced by the burning condition, particularly
burning temperature (Abdullah et al. 2006).

Fineness is a vital property of cement and supplementary cementing materials. The rate of
hydration and pozzolanic reaction depends on the fineness of particles. For the rapid
development of strength, a high fineness is necessary. The unground POFA is coarser than
OPC but the ground POFA becomes finer than OPC, as evident from Table 1.

The major chemical component of POFA is SiO2, which varies in the range of 44–66%. The
other pozzolanic components are Al2O3 and Fe2O3. The loss on ignition (LOI) and SO3 are
in the range of 0.1–21.5% and 0.2–3%, respectively. In most cases, the LOI was much higher
than the specified limit. In all cases, the amount of SO3 was well below, but in some
investigations, the amount of Na2O was higher than the maximum limit.

The following salient conclusions can be drawn based on the findings from the review on the
utilization of POFA in concrete:
▪︎The use of POFA as a supplementary cementing material in concrete can solve the
environmental and health problems caused by the ash generated in palm oil industry;
▪︎The physical and chemical properties of POFA are favorable for concrete production.
Properly processed POFA can be used to replace a significant amount of portland cement
without affecting the properties and durability of concrete;
▪︎POFA can be used as a supplementary cementing material with a content up to 40% by
weight of cement. However, the optimum POFA content is 20–30%. A POFA content higher
than 40% may adversely affect the properties and durability of concrete;
▪︎The fineness of POFA plays an important role in concrete. The high fineness of POFA
improves its micro-filing ability and pozzolanic activity, and thus contributes to improve the
hardened properties and durability of concrete;
▪︎POFA concrete shows a comparable and sometimes a better performance than OPC concrete
in resisting acid attack, sulfate attack, and alkalisilica reaction;
▪︎Further research should be carried out to confirm the beneficial effects of POFA on several
concrete properties and durability issues, and thus to encourage the use of POFA in concrete;
▪︎Additional research should be conducted to extend the use of POFA in self-consolidating
normal strength, high strength and high performance concretes.

Reference:
Safiuddin, M., Abdus Salam, M., & Jumaat, M. Z. (2011). Utilization of palm oil fuel ash in
concrete: a review. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 17(2), 234-247.

Superplasticizer in concrete
The superplasticizers (SP), also known as super-fluidizers, super-water reducers or high-
range water reducers, are often used in the concrete industries as dispersing agents. These
organic admixtures are natural or artificial water-soluble polymers. The most widely used
superplasticizers are: sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensate (SMF), sulphonated
naphthalene formaldehyde condensate (SNF), modified lignosulphonates (MLS) and
lignosulphonate (LS). Sulphonic-acid esters, carbohydrate esters, etc. are also used for this
purpose.

It was concluded that super-

plasticizers and other organic additives interact with the components of cement upon
hydration as well as with the hydrated products. These interactions were considered to be
mainly due to ionic bonding between Ca2+ ions and anionic parts of the polymer additives.
As a result of these interactions, additives undergo cross-linking which inhibits their film-
forming properties and
considerably influences the crystallization processes during hardening of cement paste. Also,
interactions between Ca(OH)2 and the anionic parts of the admixtures (adsorption of the
admixture molecules on cement components and the hydrated products, such as ettringite,
modification of zeta potentials, modification of crystallization processes, etc.) were
considered to explain the observed phenomena during hydration of cement as well as the
formation of the four main phases of cement minerals

Impedance spectroscopy has been used by many to investigate the effects of superplasticizers
on the hydration of Portland cement.22±24 The results of these studies indicate that the
influence of superplasticizers on the hydration of cement particles arises from several factors.
(a) Adsorbed superplasticizer molecules hinder the diffusion of water and Ca2+ ions at the
cement± solution interface.
(b) The Ca2+ ions form complexes with the superplasticizer molecules, which inhibit
nucleation and precipitation of Ca-containing species.
(c) Strong dispersive action of these polymers alters the growth kinetics and morphology of
the hydration products.
The afore-mentioned hydration reactions are also considerably affected by the presence of
superplasticizers. It is generally believed that the retardation is caused by the presence of
superplasticizers. It is generally believed that the retardation is caused by
(a) adsorption of the superplasticizer anion on the surfaces of cement particles to form a `skin'
around them, which restricts access of water to the cement particles and makes their near
solution region organic-like
(b) interaction of Ca2+ ions with the superplasticizer anions to generate reduced quantities of
solid calcium hydroxide in the hydration products.

In this paper, the new kind of multifunctional superplasticizer JM-PCA (IV) with a high
water-reduction performance and a good shrinkage reduction effect will be reported. In
addition, fundamental studies on the influence of multifunctional superplasticizer on
settlement shrinkage, autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage and also its mechanism will be
discussed.

Performance and the working mechanism of a new of superplasticizer with a high water-
reduction performance and a good shrinkage reduction effect were investigated. ▪︎The
effectiveness of water reduction by a multifunction superplasticizer in concrete is very good.
The water reduction can reach up to 22.3% at a rate of 0.20% by weight of cement; When
0.30% was added, 25.2% water reduction can be obtained. Moreover, the setting and strength
characteristics of the multifunction superplasticizer are quite acceptable.
▪︎The settle shrinkage and self-desiccation shrinkage of concrete at 1 day containing
multifunction superplasticizer was effectively reduced by 43% and 51.6%, respectively,
compared with sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensate superplasticizer; In contrast,
a conventional organic shrinkage reducing admixture showed 43.9% and 54% reduction with
eight times higher dosage, respectively.
▪︎Compared with Might100 at a dosage 0.74%, JM-PCA (IV) at dosage of 0.25%decreases the
autogenous shrinkage of concrete by 52.8% at 28 days and by 51.6% at 60 days, respectively.
And also reduces the drying shrinkage of concrete by 41.7% at 28 days and by 41.9% at 60
days, respectively.
▪︎The adsorption-reduction of interface tension and the coarser pore distribution are the main
mechanism of a multifunctional superplasticizer to reduce the shrinkage of concrete.
Acknowledgments

Reference:
Mollah, M. Y. A., Adams, W. J., Schennach, R., & Cocke, D. L. (2000). A review of
cement–superplasticizer interactions and their models. Advances in Cement Research, 12(4),
153–161. doi:10.1680/adcr.2000.12.4.153
Ran, Q., Miao, C., Liu, J., Wu, S., & Shen, J. (2006). Performance and Mechanism of a
Multi-Functional Superplasticizer for Concrete. MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS, 47(6),
1599–1604. doi:10.2320/matertrans.47.1599

Cementitious and pozzolanic reaction

A pozzolan, and there are many of them, is defined as "siliceous or siliceous and aluminous
materials which in themselves possess little or no cementitious value but will, in finely
divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at
ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious properties"

This chemical reaction between the siliceous and/or siliceous-alumina components in the
pozzolan, calcium hydroxide and water is called the pozzolanic reaction.

Pozzolanic reaction is defined as the chemical reaction between reactive silica or alumina
present in the FA particles and portlandite formed during the cement hydration in the
presence of water at ambient temperature.

Hence for the pozzolanic reaction to happen, network formers such as the crosslinked silica-
tetrahedra or alumina-tetrahedra in the FA have to be broken for the silica or alumina to be
reactive (Wang and Gillott, 1991) which will happen at the pH of above 12.5. Hence, to
accelerate the pozzolanic reaction at the room temperature, alkalinity of the pore solution in
the FA cement system should be increased.

Two types of pozzolanic materials are readily available. There are the natural pozzolans
which are of volcanic origin (and these were used by the early Romans and Greeks) such as
trass, certain pumicites and perlite. Since the best of the many varieties of volcanic ash was
found near Pozzoli, Italy, the material was called Pozzolana or Pozzolan (in English) and this
name has since been extended to cover the entire class of mineral admixtures of which it is a
member.

Those of the second type are man-made pozzolans which include such byproducts as fly ash
(the burning of coal), blast furnace slag (steel industry), and silica fume (silicon and
ferrosilicon manufacture).

Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), such as fly ash (FA), silica fume (SF) and
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) etc. have been widely used as pozzolanic
materials in construction industry. These materials can improving concrete durability, reduce
the risk of thermal cracking in mass concrete and lower the energy and environmental cost.
●Fly ash—cement hydration:
When water is added to FA blended cement, the cement hydration and pozzolanic reactions
in FA–Portland cement–water mixtures do not proceed independently. The major effect of
the cement on the pozzolanic reaction is the provision of the CH that reacts with the glassy
silica to form the calcium silicate hydrate. In addition the alumina in the glass also forms
calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH) or CASH in the presence of sulfates. The reactivity of the
glassy phase depends upon both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, such as alkali content in
solution.

The mean degree of condensation of silicate in the glass phase of FA is larger than that of the
slag and the dissociation rate of SiO2 from the glass phase reacting with OH− is generally
lower than that of slag. The reactivity of FA is enhanced with increasing amount of glass and
the basicity of glass phase and with decreasing degree of silicate condensation. In high-
dosage FA blended cement, the hydration products at different stages and the formation of
zeolites phase, viz., gismondine have been identified by impedance measurements (Tang et
al., 2016).

●Effect on strenght of mass concrete

Properties of mass concrete (compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and Yong’s
modulus) are presented in Table 6. Although the mass concrete containing 30% of SCMs had
lower compressive strength and splitting tensile strength at early ages, they kept developing
strength with time and approached (or exceeded) the strength of the control concrete (C) after
90 days. These observations indicate the beneficial pozzolanic reaction of the SCMs in mass
concrete. However, the Yong’s modulus of CF and CFP were lower than that of control
concrete (C) at 28 days. This confirms the beneficial effects of SCMs in improving the crack
resistance of mass concrete.

●Use of pozzolanic reaction:

▪︎soil stabilisation
Pozzolanic reactions occur over long time scales (months to years). The main mechanism
involves the transportation of calcium hydroxide via water within the soil to combine with the
aluminate and/or silicate clay minerals (Duxson et al., 2007). The high surface area aluminate
and silicate minerals are pozzolan phases, which in the presence of water and an alkali (e.g.,
calcium) produce cementitious materials, comprising calcium silicates and aluminate
hydrates (Bergado et al., 1996). Any dissolved Ca2+ ions within the soil then react with any
dissolved SiO2 and Al2O3 located on clay particles to produce hydrated gels of C-S-H and
C-A-H, which cement soil particles together as can be seen in Figure 21.5.

Figure 21.5. Cementitious bonding products formed during hydration and long-term
pozzolanic reactions.

Reaction:
Ca^2+ + 2(OH)^- + SiO2 -> C — S — H (21.3)
Ca^2+ + 2(OH)^- + Al2O3 -> C — A — H (21.4)

Pozzolanic reactions consume part of the soil’s water content. This is preferable in terms of
engineering performance of the stabilised soil, as the material becomes stiffer and less
susceptible to volume shrinkage/swelling. The soil–binder mixtures cure and produce
stronger, cementitious soil matrices known as ‘geopolymers’ (Sherwood, 1993), which will
be able to resist dissolution and soil erosion.

According to Bergado et al. (1996) and Diamond and Kinter (1965), pozzolanic reactions are
not complete until five years post-mixing. The solubility potential of silicates and aluminates
within the soil, their likelihood of reacting with lime/cement and cementitious bond
formation rely heavily on soil pH. According to Davidson et al. (1965), pozzolanic reactions
only occur when soil pH is ≥ 10.5, as this is when SiO2 and Al2O3 become soluble. Broms
(1984) and Palomo et al. (1999) suggest that if samples cure at higher temperatures during the
first 5 hours post-mixing, reaction rates are increased, resulting in further improved strengths.

▪︎Blended cement paste

Separation of the non-evaporable water content into two components, one due to dehydra-
tion of calcium hydroxide and the other due to dehydration of other hydrates can facilitate the
study of pozzolanic and cementitious activity of fly ash.

For some fly ashes the pozzolanic reaction in hardened cement paste changes the chemically-
bound water content: the water provided by calcium hydroxide is not the only water which
takes part in the reaction. At early and intermediate ages it appears that the hydrate which
forms has a higher water content/unit weight than that specified in the formula C3S2H3.

For the high-lime fly ash derived from lignite coal the increase in hydrate water is caused by
direct cementitious activity between the ash and water as well as by pozzolanic reactivity
with calcium hydroxide. The low-lime, subbituminous ash tested here showed only the
pozzolanic reaction.

Reference:
Dodson, V. H. (1990). Pozzolans and the Pozzolanic Reaction. Concrete Admixtures, 159–
201. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-4843-7_7

Hemalatha, T., & Ramaswamy, A. (2022). 18 Fly ash cement. Handbook of Fly Ash, 547.

Marsh, B. K., & Day, R. L. (1988). Pozzolanic and cementitious reactions of fly ash in
blended cement pastes. Cement and Concrete Research, 18(2), 301–310. doi:10.1016/0008-
8846(88)90014-2

Sargent, P. (2015). The development of alkali-activated mixtures for soil stabilisation.

Handbook of Alkali-Activated Cements, Mortars and Concretes, 555–604.
doi:10.1533/9781782422884.4.555

Yang, H. S., Fang, K. H., & Tu, S. J. (2010). Pozzolanic Reaction of Supplementary
Cementitious Materials and Its Effects on the Strength of Mass Concrete. Advanced
Materials Research, 168-170, 505–511. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.168-170.505