Dokumen - Tips Aircraft Design Project 150 Seated Aircraft

DESIGN OF A 50 SEATED
T ANSPORT AIRCRAFT
AN AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT REPOR - I
Submitted by
RENJITH.R - (7219111 1015)

CHARLES. .PHILIPOSE - (7219111 1003)
INDERJITH. V - (7219111 1301)
in partial fulfilment for the award of the degre
of
BAC ELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
AE ONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN COLLEGE OF EN INEERING

COIMBATORE
ANNA U IVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 025
APRIL 2014

50 SEATED TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT

ANNA UNIVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 0 5
B NAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this pro ject report on "DESIGN OF A 50 SEATED

TRANSPORT AIRC AFT” is the bonafide work o RENJITH.R
(721911101015),CHAR ES.C.PHILIPOSE(721911101003)I DERJITH.V,
(721911101301) who carried out the project work under my su ervision.
SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mr.P.DHARMADURAI, B.E,(M.E) Mr.S.RAMESHBAB ,M.E, (Ph.D)
SUPERVISOR HEAD OF THE DE ARTMENT
LECTURER Department of Aeron utical Engg
Department of Aeronautical ngg, Dhanalakshmi Sriniv san College of
Dhanalakshmi Srinivasan Co llege Engineering,Coimbat re
Engineering,Coimbatore
Submitted for the Aircraf Design Project – I Viva – Voce held n ..................

at Dhanalakshmi Srinivas an College of Engineering ,Coimbator e – 641105.
INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly I would like to thank the Almighty god for always being by my
side and providing me with strength and capability to face all types of situations
during this project tensure
I thank our beloved Chairman A.Srinivasan , Dhanalakshmi Srinivasan
Groups of Institution, Coimbatore for providing the facilities
I extend my fullest and ever owing thanks to Dr.S.Charles Principal,
Dhanalakshmi Srinivasan College of Engineering and technology, Coimbatore,
for the academic freedom and inspiration
We also thank our Professor and Head of the department,
Mr.S.RameshBabu,M.E,(Ph.D,) Our Lecturer Mr.P.Dharmadurai.B.E
(M.E),and staff members of Aeronautical department of Dhanalakshmi
Srinivasan College of Engineering for leading their support to this project.
I also thank everyone who lent us support in the completion of this
project.

ABSTRACT
The aim of this design project is to design a 50 Seated Transport

Aircraft by comparing the data and specifications of present transport aircrafts
and to calculate performance details. The aircraft designed is such that the
landing and take-off field lengths they require are accordingly shorter than
those for the larger transport aircraft minimum drag and maximum thrust is also
taken into consideration. Then the necessary graphs have to be plotted for
further performance calculation. Required diagrams are also drawn.
i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
ABSTRACT i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x
01 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Preliminary Design 2
1.2 Project Design 3
1.3 Detail Design 4
1.4 Manufacturing 9
1.5 Testing 10
02 COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET 12
2.1 Specification 14
03 GRAPHS 19
3.1 Graphs for Comparison of Contemporary 19
Aircraft
3.2 Mean Design Parameter 28
04 WEIGHT ESTIMATION 29
4.1 First Weight Estimation 29
4.2 Estimation of We/Wo 30
4.3 Estimation of Wf/Wo 31
4.4 Mission Profile 32
ii

4.5 Calculation of Wo 37
4.6 Iteration 38
05 POWER PLANT SELECTION 40
5.1 Required Engine 41
5.2 Engine Specification 43
06 FUEL WEIGHT VALIDATION 45
6.1 Calculation 46
07 WING SELECTION 47
7.1 Introduction 47
7.2 Wing Geometry Design 47
7.3 Wing Chord Design 49

08 AIRFOIL SELECTION 52
8.1 Introduction 52
8.2 Estimation of the Critical Performance 54
Parameter
8.3 Airfoil Geometry 57
09 FLAP SELECTION 62
9.1 Introduction 62
9.2 Types of Flaps 62
9.3 Selected Flap 65

10 FUSELAGE AND CABIN LAYOUT 67
10.1 Introduction 67
10.2 Fuselage Layout 68
10.3 Fuselage Sizing 69
10.4 Passenger Cabin Layout 71
iii

10.5 Rear Fuselage 73
11 TAIL SELECTION 75
11.1 Tail Surface 75
11.2 T-Tail 75
11.3 Horizontal and Vertical Tail Calculation 77
12 C.G CALCULATION 79
12.1 Center Of Gravity 79

13 LANDING GEAR SELECTION 81
13.1 Introduction 81
13.2 Landing Gear Design Requirement 81
13.3 Landing Gear Configuration 82
13.4 Retractable Landing Gear 83
13.5 Tyre Sizing 85
13.6 Landing Gear Height 85
13.7 Landing Gear Attachment 86

14 LIFT ESTIMATION 87
14.1 Lift 87
14.2 Lift Coefficient [CL] 87
14.3 Generation of Lift 87
14.4 Calculation 90
15 DRAG ESTIMATION 91
15.1 Drag 91
15.2 Drag Coefficient 91
15.3 Drag Calculation 93

16 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 95
16.1 Takeoff Performance 95
iv

16.2 Ground Roll Takeoff Distance 95
16.3 Climbing Performance 96
16.4 Manoeuvres/Turning Performance 99
16.5 Gliding Performance 100
16.6 Landing Performance 101
16.7 Endurance Calculation 102
17 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM OF AIRCRAFT 103
17.1 Surface Model 104
18 CONCLUSION 107
18.1 Design Data 108
19 BIBLIOGRAPHY 110
v

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TABLE PAGE
4.1 FUEL FRACTION 33
4.2 LIFT/DRAG RATIO 34
4.3 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION 36
5.1 ENGINE SELECTION 41
7.1 DIHEDRAL ANGLE (Г) 50
8.1 NACA 6 SERIES AIRFOILS 56
8.2 SELECTED AIRFOIL 57
9.1 CL MAX DUE TO FLAP 66
11.1 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL TAIL 77
CALCULATION
vi

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. FIGURE PAGE NO.
1.1 PHASE OF DESIGN 2
1.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONCEPT 3
1.3 DESIGN CRITERIA 5
1.4 LIFT & DRAG IN AIRFOIL 7
3.1 THRUST VS ASPECT RATIO 19
3.2 THRUST VS CRUISE SPEED 19
3.3 THRUST VS EMPTY WEIGHT 20
3.4 THRUST VS GROSS WEIGHT 20
3.5 THRUST VS HEIGHT 21
3.6 THRUST VS LENGTH 21
3.7 THRUST VS MAX. TAKEOFF WEIGHT 22
3.8 THRUST VS PROPELLER POWER 22
3.9 THRUST VS RANGE 23
3.10 THRUST VS RATE OF CLIMB 23
3.11 THRUST VS SERVICE CEILING 24
3.12 THRUST VS SPEED 24
3.13 THRUST VS THRUST LOADING 25
3.14 THRUST VS USEFUL LOAD 25
3.15 THRUST VS WING AREA 26
3.16 THRUST VS WING SPAN 26
3.17 THRUST VS WING LOADING 27
vii

4.1 MISSION PROFILE 32
5.1 ENGINE LAYOUT 42
5.2 CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW 43
7.1 WING GEOMETRY DESIGN 47
7.2 WING LAYOUT IN AIRCRAFTS 51
8.1 AIRFOIL LAYOUT 52
8.2 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY 57
8.3 ANGLE OF ATTACK VS LIFT COEFFICIENT 59
FOR NACA 65-410
8.4 ANGLE OF ATTACK VS LIFT COEFFICIENT 59
FOR NACA 65(2)-415
8.5 PERFORMANCE CURVE FOR CHOSEN 60
AIRCRAFT
9.1 TYPES OF FLAPS 64
9.2 DOUBLE FLOWER-SLOTTED 65
10.1 CABIN LAYOUT 67
10.2 COCKPIT LAYOUT 70
10.3 HONEYWELL’S AVIONIC SUITE 70
10.4 COCKPIT INSTRUMENT LAYOUT 71
10.5 PASSENGER CABIN LAYOUT 71
11.1 TYPES OF AIRCRAFT TAIL 75
11.2 STABILITY DUE TO HORIZONTAL TAIL 76
12.1 C.G INDICATION 79
12.2 C.G LAYOUT 80
viii

13.1 MAIN LANDING GEAR ASSEMBLY 81
13.2 TYPES OF LANDING GEAR 82
13.3 MAIN LANDING GEAR IN AIRCRAFT 83
13.4 LANDING GEAR MARKING 84
13.5 NOSE LANDING GEAR DEPOYED 84
14.1 GENERATION OF LIFT 87
14.2 AERODYNAMIC FORCES DUE TO LIFT 88
14.3 PRESSURE VARIATION 89
14.4 LIFT AT DIFFERENT ANGLES 89
14.5 LIFT CURVE 90
15.1 DRAG SEPARATION 91
15.2 FORM DRAG 92
15.3 DRAG AT DIFFERENT MACH NUMBERS 93
15.4 TYPICAL STREAMLINING EFFECT 93
16.1 TAKEOFF FOR AIRCRAFT 95
16.2 WEIGHT COMPONENT INDICATION 97
16.3 THRUST VS CLIMB ANGLE 98
16.4 GLIDING LAYOUT 101
17.1 AIRCRAFT FRONT VIEW 103
17.2 AIRCRAFT TOP VIEW 103
17.3 AIRCRAFT SIDE VIEW 103
17.4 SURFACE VIEW OF AIRCRAFT 104
ix

LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATION
A.R - Aspect Ratio

b - Wing Span (m)
C - Chord of the Airfoil (m)
C root - Chord at Root (m)
C tip - Chord at Tip (m)
Cm - Mean Aerodynamic Chord (m) C
CD - Drag Co-efficient
CD o - Zero Lift Drag Co-efficient
Cp - Specific fuel consumption (lbs/hp/hr)
CL - Lift Co-efficient
D - Drag (N)
E - Endurance (hr)
E - Oswald efficiency
L - Lift (N)
M - Mach number of aircraft
Mff - Mission fuel fraction
R - Range (km)
Re - Reynolds Number
S - Wing Area (m²)
Sref - Reference surface area
Swet - Wetted surface area
Sa - Approach distance (m)
Sg - Ground roll Distance (m)
T - Thrust (N)
Tcruise - Thrust at cruise (N)
Ttake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)
x

Vcruise - Velocity at cruise (m/s)

Vstall - Velocity at stall (m/s)
Wcrew - Crew weight (kg)
Wempty - Empty weight of aircraft (kg)
Wfuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
Wpayload - Payload of aircraft (kg)
W0 - Overall weight of aircraft (kg)
W/S - Wing loading (kg/m²)
- Density of air (kg/m³)
Μ - Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m²)
λ - Tapered ratio
xi

Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
The start of the design process requires the recognition of a ‘need’. This
normally comes from a ‘project brief’ or a ‘request for proposals (RFP)’. Such
documents may come from various sources:
 Established or potential customers
 Government defense agencies.
 Analysis of the market and the corresponding trends from aircraft demand
 Development of an existing product (e.g. aircraft stretch or engine
change).
 Exploitation of new technologies and other innovations from research and
development.
It is essential to understand at the start of the study where the project

originated and to recognize what external factors are influential to the design
before the design process is started.
At the end of the design process, the design team will have fully specified
their design configuration and released all the drawings to the manufacturers. In
reality, the design process never ends as the designers have responsibility for
the aircraft throughout its operational life. This entails the issue of modifications
that are found essential during service and any repairs and maintenance
instructions that are necessary to keep the aircraft in an airworthy condition. The
design method to be followed from the start of the project to the nominal end
can be considered to fall into three main phases. These phases are illustrated in
Figure 2.0.
1

1.1 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

The preliminary phase (sometimes called the conceptual design stage)
starts with the project brief and ends when the designers have found and refined
a feasible baseline design layout. In some industrial organizations, this phase is
referred to as the ‘feasibility study’. At the end of the preliminary design phase,
a document is produced which contains a summary of the technical and
geometric details known about the baseline design n. This forms the initial draft
of a document that will be subsequently revised to contain a thorough
description of the aircraft. This is known as the aircraft ‘Type Specification’.
The ultimate objective during preliminary design is to ready the company
for the detail design stage, also called full-scale development. Thus, the end of
preliminary design usually involves a full scale development proposal. In
today’s environment, this can result in a situation jokingly referred to as “you -
bet-your-company”. The possible loss on an overrun contrast o from lack of
sales can exceed the net worth of the company! Preliminary design must
establish confidence that the airplane can be built in time and at the estimated
cost.
2

Fig 1.2 Preliminary design concept
1.2 PROJECT DESIGN

The next phase (project design) takes the aircraft configuration defined
towards the end of the preliminary design phase and involves conducting
detailed analysis to improve the technical confidence in the design. Wind tunnel
tests and computational fluid dynamic analysis are used to refine the
aerodynamic shape of the aircraft. Finite element analysis is used to understand
the structural integrity. Stability and control analysis and simulations will be
used to appreciate the flying characteristics. Mass and balance estimations will
be performed in increasingly fine detail. Operational factors (cost, maintenance
and marketing) and manufacturing processes will be investigated
1.2.1 Introduction to the project

1) Project brief
2) Problem definition
3) Design concepts
3

4) Initial sizing and layout

5) Initial estimates
6) Constraint analysis and trade-offs
7) Revised baseline layout
8) Further work
9) Study review
Design project work, as taught at most universities, concentrates on

the preliminary phase of the design process. The project brief, or request for
proposal, is often used to define the design problem. Alternatively, the problem
may originate as a design topic in a student competition sponsored by industry,
a government agency, or a technical society. Or the design project may be
proposed locally by a professor or a team of students. Such design project
assignments range from highly detailed lists of design objectives and
performance requirements to rather vague calls for a ‘new and better’
replacement for existing aircraft. In some cases student teams may even be
asked to develop their own design objectives under the guidance of their design
professor.
1.3 DETAIL DESIGN
The process of designing an aircraft, generally divided into three
distinct phases: conceptual design, preliminary design, and detail design. Each
phase has its own unique characteristics and influence on the final product.
These phases all involve aerodynamic, propulsion, and structural design, and
the design of aircraft systems.
4

Fig 1.3 Design criteria
1.3.1. Design phases:

`Conceptual design activities are characterized by the definition and
comparative evaluation of numerous alternative design concepts potentially
satisfying an initial statement of design requirements. The conceptual design
phase is iterative in nature. Design concepts are evaluated, compared to the
requirements, revised, reevaluated, and so on until convergence to one or more
satisfactory concepts is achieved.
5

During this process, inconsistencies in the requirements are often

exposed, so that the products of conceptual design frequently include a set of
revised requirements. During preliminary design, one or more promising
concepts from the conceptual design phase are subjected to more rigorous
analysis and evaluation in order to define and validate the design that best meets
the requirements. Extensive experimental efforts, including wind-tunnel testing
and evaluation of any unique materials or structural concepts, are conducted
during preliminary design. The end product of preliminary design is a complete
aircraft design description including all systems and subsystems.
During detail design the selected aircraft design is translated into the
detailed engineering data required to support tooling and manufacturing
activities.
1.3.2. Requirements
The requirements used to guide the design of a new aircraft are
established either by an emerging need or by the possibilities offered by some
new technical concept or invention. Requirements can be divided into two
general classes: technical requirements (speed, range, payload, and so forth) and
economic requirements (costs, maintenance characteristics, and so forth).
1.3.3. Aerodynamic design
Initial aerodynamic design centers on defining the external geometry and
general aerodynamic configuration of the new aircraft.
The aerodynamic forces that determine aircraft performance capabilities
are drag and lift. The basic, low-speed drag level of the aircraft is
conventionally expressed as a term at zero lift composed of friction and pressure
drag forces plus a term associated with the generation of lift, the drag due to lift
or the induced drag. Since wings generally operate at a positive angle to the
relative wind (angle of attack) in order to generate the necessary life forces, the
wing lift vector is tilted aft, resulting in a component of the lift vector in the
drag direction (see illustration).
6

Fig 1.4 Lift & Drag in airfoil
Aircraft that fly near or above the speed of sound must be designed to
minimize aerodynamic compressibility effects, evidenced by the formation of
shock waves and significant changes in all aerodynamic forces and moments.
Compressibility effects are mediated by the use of thin airfoils, wing and tail
surface sweepback angles, and detailed attention to the lengthwise variation of
the cross-sectional area of the configuration.
1.3.4. Propulsion design
Propulsion design comprises the selection of an engine from among the
available models and the design of the engine's installation on or in the aircraft.
Selection of the best propulsion concept involves choosing from among a wide
variety of types ranging from reciprocating engine-propeller power plants
through turboprops, turbojets, turbofans, and ducted and undusted fan engine
developments. The selection process involves aircraft performance analyses
comparing flight performance with the various candidate engines installed. In
the cases where the new aircraft design is being based on a propulsion system
which is still in development, the selection process is more complicated.
1.3.5. Structural design
Structural design begins when the first complete, integrated aerodynamic
and propulsion concept is formulated. The process starts with preliminary
estimates of design air loads and inertial loads (loads due to the mass of the
aircraft being accelerated during maneuvers).
7

During conceptual design, the structural design effort centers on a first-

order structural arrangement which defines major structural components and
establishes the most direct load paths through the structure that are possible
within the constraints of the aerodynamic configuration. An initial
determination of structural and material concepts to be used is made at this time,
for example, deciding whether the wing should be constructed from built up
sheet metal details, or by using machined skins with integral stiffeners, or from
fiber in forced
composite materials.
1.3.6. Aircraft systems design
Aircraft systems include all of those systems and subsystems required for
the aircraft to operate. Mission systems are those additional systems and
subsystems peculiar to the role of military combat aircraft. The major systems
are power systems, flight-control systems, navigation and communication
systems, crew systems, the landing-gear system, and fuel systems.
Design of these major subsystems must begin relatively early in the
conceptual design phase, because they represent large dimensional and volume
requirements which can influence overall aircraft size and shape or because they
interact directly with the aerodynamic concept (as in the case of flight-control
systems) or propulsion selection (as in the case of power systems).
DESIGN SEQUENCE
1. Define the mission
2. Compare the past design
3. Parametric selection
a. Geometry
b. Shape
8

4. Weight Estimation
5. Aerodynamics
a. Wing
b. Speed
c. Altitude
d. Drag
6. Propulsive device
a. Engine selection
b. Location
7. Performance
a. Fuel weight
b. Take-off distance
c. Landing distance
d. Climb
e. Descent
f. Loiter
g. Cruise
8. Stability and control

a. Tail
b. Flaps
c. Control surfaces
1.4 MANUFACTURING
Businesses in this industry do one or more of the following:
manufacture complete aircraft; manufacture aircraft engines, propulsion units
and other related equipment or parts; develop and make prototypes of aircraft;
aircraft conversions (i.e. major modification to systems); and complete aircraft
9

overhaul and rebuilding (i.e. periodic restoration of aircraft to original design

specifications).
Industry Products
 Aircraft
 Aircraft engines and engine parts
 Other aircraft parts and auxiliary equipment
Industry Activities
 Manufacturing and rebuilding of aircraft
 Developing and producing prototypes for aircraft
 blimps, gliders, hand gliders, ultra light aircraft and helicopters
 Manufacturing aircraft engines and engine parts
 Developing and producing prototypes for aircraft engines and engine
Parts
 Manufacturing aircraft assemblies, subassemblies, propellers, joints, and
other parts
 Manufacturing aircraft auxiliary parts
 Developing and producing prototypes for aircraft parts and auxiliary
equipment
1.5 TESTING
Flight testing is a branch of aeronautical engineering that develops and
gathers data during flight of an aircraft and then analyzes the data to evaluate
the flight characteristics of the aircraft and validate its design, including safety
aspects.
The flight test phase accomplishes two major tasks:
 Finding and fixing any aircraft design problems and then
 Verifying and documenting the aircraft capabilities for government
certification or customer acceptance
.
10

The flight test phase can range from the test of a single new system for an
existing aircraft to the complete development and certification of a new aircraft.
Therefore the duration of a flight test program can vary from a few weeks to
many years.
Examples of some subsystems we have performed aerospace testing on
include:
 Airframes: Structural, Fatigue,

 Antennas
 Avionics
 Power Inverters,
 Communications
 Flight Control Surfaces, Winglets
 Landing Gear
 Oxygen Systems
 Passenger Service Units (PSU's)
 Rotor Systems
 Windows and doors
 Etc…..
11

Chapter-2
COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET
In the designers’ perspective it is necessary to compare the existing

airplanes that are of the same type as that of our desired airplane. Their
important parameters, positive aspects to b e considered and pitfalls to be
overcome are taken into consideration.
The data have been collected from various sites from the internet for 50
seated TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT design.
Several parameters are compared for over 15 aircrafts and different
critical parameters were plotted on graph. They are
• Cruise speed
• Range
• Wing area
• Thrust loading
• Empty weight
• Maximum take-off weight
• Length
• Wing span
• Aspect ratio
• Thrust
• Power plant
• Service ceiling
• Speed
• Wing area
• Wing loading
• Thrust power
12

• No of engines
• Crew member
• Types of Engine
• Endurance
• Height
13

Chapter-3
SPECIFICATION
TABLE-1.1
SPECIFICATIONS UNITS NAME OF THE AIRCRAFTS
BOMBARDIER ANTONOV ATR 42-200

CRJ100 AN-140
- GE CF34-3A1 KlimovTV3- Pratt&Whitney
ENGINE NAME 117VMA- Canada
SBM1 PW120
NO.OF.ENGINES - 2 2 2
PROPELLER POWER KW 1,446 1,838 1,300
THRUST POWER KN 26.2 29.8 24.4
THRUST LOADING - 0.424 0.665 0.609
LENGTH m 26.77 22.6 22.67
HEIGHT m 6.22 8.23 7.59
WING SPAN m 21.21 26.4 24.57
2
WING AREA m 48.35 51 54.5
ASPECT RATIO - 9.30 13.665 11.07
2
WING LOADING Kg/m 126.7 104.74 87.26
EMPTY WEIGHT Kg 13,655 12,810 10,500
GROSS WEIGHT Kg 19,781 18,152 15,256
MAX.TAKE OFF WEIGHT Kg 24,041 21,500 15,550
CREW MEMBERS - 2 2 2
RANGE Km 3,000 1,380 1,885
CRUISE SPEED Km/hr 510 460 494
SPEED Km/hr 860 575 754
SERVICE CEILING m 12,496 7,600 7,600
RATE OF CLIMB m/s 9.27 6.83 6.89
USEFULL LOAD Kg 6,126 5,342 4,756
14

TABLE-1.2

FOKKER 50 HANDLEY EMBRAER
PAGE DART ERJ-145
HERALD
- Pratt & Whitney Rolls-Royce Rolls Royce
ENGINE NAME Canada Dart Mk.527 AE-3007A
PW125B
THRUST LOADING - 0.605 0.594 0.459
LENGTH m 25.25 23.01 29.87
HEIGHT m 8.32 7.32 6.75
WING SPAN m 29 28.9 20
2
WING AREA m 70 82.3 51.2
ASPECT RATIO - 12.01 10.14 8.12
2
WING LOADING Kg/m 73.14 55.62 112.59
EMPTY WEIGHT Kg 12,250 11,345 11,667
GROSS WEIGHT Kg 17,370 15,923 17,432
RANGE Km 2,055 2,632 2,445
SPEED Km/hr 560 654 833
SERVICE CEILING m 7,620 8,140 11,277.60
USEFULL LOAD Kg 5,120 4,578 5,765
15

TABLE-1.3

SAAB 2000 CASA CN-235 XIAN MA60
ENGINE NAME - Allison AE- General Electric Pratt &Whitney
2100A CT7-9C3 Canada PW127J
PROPELLER KW 3,096 1,305 2,051

POWER
THRUST POWER KN 39.43 24.44 32.17
THRUST LOADING - 0.459 0.7206 0.6913
LENGTH m 29.87 27.28 21.4
HEIGHT m 6.75 7.73 8.18
WING SPAN m 20 24.76 25.81
2
WING AREA m 51.2 55.7 59.1
ASPECT RATIO - 8.12 11.00 11.27
WING LOADING Kg/m 112.59 95.87 78.68
EMPTY WEIGHT Kg 11,667 13,800 9,800
GROSS WEIGHT Kg 17,432 19,140 14,450
MAX.TAKE OFF Kg 20,600 22,800 15,100

WEIGHT
RANGE Km 2,445 2,185 4,355
SPEED Km/hr 833 594 514
SERVICE CEILING m 9448.8 7,620 7,620
USEFULL LOAD Kg 5,340 4,650 4,785
16

TABLE-1.4

DE
AVRO 748 BOMBARDIER HAVILLAND
DASH 8 CANADA
DASH 7
- Rolls-royce 2PW 123B Pratt&Whitney
ENGINE NAME dart Rda 7 mk Canada PT6A-
536-2 50
THRUST LOADING - 0.7965 0.583 0.628
LENGTH m 24.56 22.07 27.1
HEIGHT m 7.57 8.3 7.98
WING SPAN m 31.23 27.43 28.35
2
WING AREA m 77 56.2 79.9
ASPECT RATIO - 12.66 13.37 10.05
2
WING LOADING Kg/m 66.7 88.7 72.04
EMPTY WEIGHT Kg 12,327 11,791 12,560
GROSS WEIGHT Kg 19,456 16,860 15,560
RANGE Km 1,715 2,034 1,284
SPEED Km/hr 494 435 528
SERVICE CEILING m 7,620 11,430 6,4005.9
USEFULL LOAD Kg 5,136 4,986 5,756
17

TABLE-1.5

MARTIN 2-0-2 ANTONOV DHC-8-
AN-24 300SERIES
ENGINE NAME - Pratt &Whitney R- Ivcenko AI-24A 2PW 123B
2800 CA-18
THRUST POWER KN 27.17 29.216 26.07
THRUST LOADING - 0.648 0.871 0.516
LENGTH m 26.47 24.77 23.34
HEIGHT m 8.66 8.32 7.49
WING SPAN m 28.42 29.2 27.43
2
WING AREA m 80.3 75 56.2
ASPECT RATIO - 10.05 11.36 13.37
2
WING LOADING Kg/m 61.967 68.266 91.24
EMPTY WEIGHT Kg 11,379 13,300 11,791
GROSS WEIGHT Kg 18,460 21,000 17,654
MAX.TAKE OFF Kg 18,756 17,450 19,500

WEIGHT
RANGE Km 1,022 2,761 1,558
SPEED Km/hr 311 684 765
SERVICE CEILING m 10,058 8,400 9,450
RATE OF CLIMB m/s 6.8 6 8
USEFULL LOAD Kg 4,976 5,120 5,138
18

GRAPHS
THRUST vs ASPECT RATIO
THRUST vs CRUISE SPEED
19

THRUST vs EMPTY WEIGHT
THRUST vs GROSS WEIGHT
20

THRUST vs HEIGHT
THRUST vs LENGTH
21

THRUST vs MAX.TAKE OFF WEIGHT
THRUST vs PROPELLER POWER
22

THRUST vs RANGE
THRUST vs RATE OFF CLIMB
23

THRUST vs SERVICE CEILING
THRUST vs SPEED
24

THRUST vs THRUST LOADING
THRUST vs USEFUL LOAD
25

THRUST vs WING AREA
THRUST vs WING SPAN
26

THRUST vs WING LOADING
27

MEAN DESIGN PARAMETER
SL.NO MEAN DESIGN PARAMETER MAGNITUDE UNIT
1 Propeller power 1450 KW
2 Thrust power 30.5 KN
3 Thrust loading 0.6 -
4 Length 24 m
5 Height 7.5 m
6 Wing span 28 m
7 Wing area 53 m²
8 Aspect ratio 10 -
9 Wing loading 3946.99 kg/m²
10 Wempty weight 11100 Kg
11 Gross weight 19000 Kg
12 Max.Take- off weight 20000 Kg
13 Crew member 2 -
14 Range 1800 Km
15 Cruise speed 510 Km/h
16 Speed 810 Km/h
17 Service ceiling 7100 m
18 Rate of climb 7.2 m/s
19 Useful load 4900 Kg
28

Chapter-4
WEIGHT ESTIMATION
4.1 THE WEIGHT OF AN AIRCRAFT AND IT’S FIRST ESTIMATE

Let us discuss the nature of the weight of an airplane in detail. There are
various types’ ways to subdivide and categorize the weight components of an
airplane. The following is a common choice.
1. Crew weight Wcrew. The crew comprises the people necessary to operate the
air plane in flight. For our airplane, the crew is simply the pilot.
2. Payload weight Wpayload . The payload is what the airplane is intended to
transport passenger, baggage, freight, etc. If airplane is intended for military
combat use, the payload includes bombs, rockets, and other disposable
ordnance.
3. Fuel weight Wfuel. This is the weight of the fuel in the fuel tanks. Since fuel
is consumed during the course of the flight, W fuel is a variable, decreasing with
time during the course of the flight.
4. Empty weight Wempty. This is the weight of everything else-the structure,
engines( with all accessory), electronic equipment (including radar computers,
communication device,etc.),landing gear, fixed equipment(seats, galleys, etc.),
and anything else that is not crew, payload, or fuel.
The sum of these weights is the total weight of the airplane W. Again, W
varies throughout the fight because fuel is being consumed, and for a military
combat airplane, ordnance may be dropped or expended, leading to a decrease
in the payload weight.
The design takeoff gross weight W 0 is the weight of airplane at the instant
it begins its mission. It includes the weight of all the fuel on board at the
beginning of the flight.
29

Hence,
W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wempty [4.1]
In Eq. (4.1), Wfuel is the weight of the full fuel load at the beginning of the
flight.
In Eq. (4.1), W0 is the important quantity for which we want a first estimate; W 0
is the desired result from graph. To help make this estimate, Eq. (4.1) can be
rearranged as follows. If we denote W fuel by Wf and Wempty by We (for notational
simplicity), Eq. (4.1) can be written as
W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wf + We [4.2]
W0=Wcrew+Wpayload+ W0+ W0 [4.3]
Solving Eq. (4.3) for W0, we have
W0= [4.4]
The form of Eq. (4.4) is particularly useful. Although at this stage we do

not have a value of W0, we can fairly readily obtain values of the ratios W /W
f 0
and We /W0, as we will see next. Then Eq. (4.4) provides a relation from which
W0 can be obtained in an iterative fashion.[The iteration is required because in
Eq.(4.4) W /W
f 0 and We /W0 may themselves be functions of W 0.]
4.2 ESTIMATION OF We /W0

Most airplane design are evolutionary rather than revolutionary; that is, a
new design is usually an evolutionary change from previously existing
airplanes. For this reason, historical, statistical data on previous airplanes
provides a starting point for the conceptual design of a new airplane. We will
use such data here. In particular, Graph of W e /W0 versus W0 for a number of
Turbofan engine, jet aircrafts.
30

As a result of the data shown in graph. we choose for our first estimate
= 0.56 [4.5]
4.3 ESTIMATION OF W /

f W0
The amount of fuel required to carry out the mission depends critically on
theefficiency of the propulsion device-the engine specific fuel consumption and
the propeller efficiency. It also depends critically on the aerodynamic
efficiency-the lift-to-drag ratio. These factors are principal players in the
Brequet range equation, represented here:
R= ln [4.6]
Equation (4.6) is very important in our estimation of W /W

f 0, as defined
below. The total fuel consumed during the mission is that mission is that
consumed from the moment the engines are turned on at the airport to the
moment they are shut down at the end of the flight. Between these times, the
flight of the airplane can be described by a mission profile, a conceptual sketch
of altitude versus time such as shown in (figure 4.1).As stated in the
specifications. The mission profile is that for a simple cruise from one location
to another. This is the mission profile shown in Figure. It starts at the point
labeled0, when the engines are first turned on. The takeoff segment is denoted
by the line segment0-1, which includes warm-up, taxing, and takeoff. Segment
1-2 denotes the climb to cruise altitude (the use of a straight line here is only
schematic and is not meant to imply a constant rate of climb to altitude).
Segment 2-3 represents the cruise, which is by far the largest segment of the
mission. Segment 2-3 shows an increase in altitude during cruise, consistent
with an attempt to keep C L (and hence L/D) constant as the aircraft weight
decreases because of the consumption of fuel. Segment 3-4 denotes the descent,
31

which generally includes loiter time to account for air traffic delays; for design
purposes, a loiter time of 20 min is commonly used. Segment 4-5 represents
landing .The mission profile shown in Figure is particularly simple. For other
types of missions, especially those associated with military combat aircraft, the
mission profile with include such aspects as combat dog fighting, weapons
drop, in-flight refueling etc. For a discussion of such combat mission profiles,
see, for example, Raymer book. For our purpose, we will deal only with the
simple cruise mission profile sketched in Figure (Fig.4.1)
4.4 MISSION PROFILE
Fig 4.1 Mission Profile
The mission profile is a useful book keeping tool to help us estimate fuel
weight. Each segment of the mission profile is associated with a weight fraction,
defined as the aircraft weight at the end of the segment divided by the weight at
the beginning of the segment.
Mission segment weight fraction =
For example, the cruise weight fraction is W 3 /W2, where W3 is the aircraft
weight at the end of the cruise and W2 is the weight at the beginning of cruise.
The fuel weight ratio W /W
f 0,can be obtained from the product of the mission
segment weight fractions as follows. Using the mission profile in Figure, the
32

ratio of the aircraft weight at the end of the mission to the initial gross weight is
W5 /W0. In turn,
= [4.7]
SUGGESTED FUEL FRACTIONS FOR SEVERAL MISSION PHASES:
TABLE 4.1
AIRPLANE TYPE TAKE OFF CLIMB DESCENT LANDING

Business Jet 0.995 0.980 0.990 0.992
Transport 0.970 0.985 1.000 0.995
Military Trainers 0.990 0.980 0.990 0.995
Supersonic Cruise 0.995 0.92-0.87 0.985 0.992
The right side of Eq. (4.7) is simply the product of the individual mission
segment weight fractions. Also, keep in mind that for the simple cruise mission
shown in Figure, the change in weight during each segment is due to the
consumption of fuel. It, at the end of the flight, the fuel tanks were completely
empty, then
Wf = W0-W5 [4.8]
Or
=1-
However, at the end of the mission, the fuel tanks are not completely
empty-by design .There should be some fuel left in reserve at the end of the
mission in case weather conditions or traffic problems require that the pilot of
the aircraft divert to another airport, or spend a longer-than-normal time in a
holding pattern. Also, the geometric design of the fuel tanks and the fuel system
leads to some trapped fuel that is unavailable at the end of the flight. Typically,
33

a 6% allowance is made for reserve and trapped fuel. Modifying Eq. (4.8)for
this allowance, we have
=1.06 − [4.9]
Hence, the sequence for the calculation of W /W

f 0 that appears in the
denominator of Eq. (4.9) is as follows:
a. Calculate each individual mission segment weight fraction W 1 / W0, W2

etc., that appears in Eq. (4.7).
b. Calculate W5 / W0 from Eq. (4.7).

c. Calculate Wf / W0 from Eq. (4.9).
Let us proceed to make this calculation for our transport fifty seated aircraft.
For takeoff, segment 0-1, historical data show that W 1 / W0 are small, on the
order of 0.97. Hence, we assume
= 0.970 [4.10]
For climb, segment 1-2. we again rely on historical data for a first
estimate which indicate that W2 / W1 is also small, on the order of 0.985. Hence,
we assume
= 0.985 [4.11]
INITIAL ESTIMATES OF LIFT/DRAG RATIO (L/D):

TABLE 4.2
AIRCRAFTS CRUISE LOITER

Homebuilt & Single Engine 8-10 10-12
Business Jet 10-12 12-14
Regional Turboprop 11-13 14-16
Transport Jets 13-15 14-18
Military Trainers 8-10 10-14
Fighters 4-7 6-9
34

Military Patrol, Bombers & 13-15 14-18

Transports
Supersonic Cruise 4-6 7-9
For cruise, segment 2-3, we make use of the Brequet range equation. This
requires an estimate of L/D. At this stage of our design process, we cannot carry
out a detailed aerodynamics analysis to predict L/D- we have not even laid out
the shape of the airplane yet. Therefore, we can only make a crude
approximation, again based on data from existing aircraft. Loft in has tabulated
the values of (L/D) max for a number of famous aircraft over the past century.
Hence, a reasonable first approximation for our aircraft is
(L/D)max =14 [4.12]
Also needed in the range equation, are the specific fuel

consumption c and velocity V cr.
A typical value of specific fuel consumption for aircraft turbo fan engine is 0.6
lb of fuel consumed per horse power per hour. In consistent units, noting that 1
hp = 550 ft-lb/s, we have
c = 0.7 [4.13]
A reasonable value for the velocity, assuming a variable- pitch engine
Vcr = 510 km/hr [4.14]
The ratio W0 /W1 in that equation is replaced for the mission segment 2-3 by
W2 /W3. Hence,for range equation
R= ln [4.15]
35

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION:

TABLE 4.3
AIRCRAFTS CRUISE LOITER
Business Jets & Transport jets 0.5-0.9 0.4-0.6
Military Trainers 0.5-1.0 0.4-0.6
Fighters 0.6-1-4 0.6-0.8
Supersonic Cruise 0.7-1.5 0.6-0.8
Solving Eq. (4.15) for W 2 /W3, we have
= . [4.16]
The loiter segment 3-4 in figure is essentially the descent from cruise
altitude to the landing approach. For our approximate calculation here, we will
ignore the detail of fuel consumption during descent is part of the required
3221.13-mi range, Hence, for this assumption
= 1.00 [4.17]
Finally, the fuel consumed during the landing process, segment 4-5, is
also based on historical data. The amount of fuel used for landing is small, and
based on previous aircraft, the value of W 5 /W4 is approximately 0.995. Hence,
we assume for our airplane that
= 0.995 [4.18]
Collecting the various segment weight fractions form Eq. (4.10), (4.11), (4.16),
36

(4.17), and (4.18), we have from Eq. (4.7)
= 0.970×0.985×0.838×1×0.995 [4.19]
=0.796
Inserting the of W 5 /W0 from Eq. (4.19) into Eq. (4.9), we have
=1.06 −
=1.06 (1 - 0.796) [4.20]
=0.215
4.5 CALCULATION OF W0
Return to Eq. (4.4) for the design takeoff gross weight W 0. We have
obtained a value for We /W0 giver by Eq. (4.5). We have also obtained a value
for W /W
f 0 given by Eq. (4.20). All we need to obtain W 0 from Eq. (4.4) are
values for the crew and payload weights Wcrew and Wpayload, respectively.
Corning suggests the average passenger weight of 100kg with baggage
per passenger. For our aircraft, there are fifty passengers, two stewards and two
pilots, 54 people in total. Let us assume the average weight per person is 80.
Hence, since the 2 crew is the pilots and stewards, we assume
Wcrew = 2×80=160 Kg [4.21]
The payload is the 50 passenger, plus the baggage for all 50 people. The
type of short business trip for which this aircraft will most likely be used would
require les baggage than a longer, intercontinental trip. Thus, including the
pilot’s baggage, we have
Wpayload = 50×(80+20)
= 5000 Kg [4.22]
Inserting the values form Eq. (4.5) and (4.20) to (4.22) into Eq. (4.4), we have
37

W0 =
=22933.33 Kg
We know that,
= 0.56
=12842.67 Kg
This is only the first estimation. Now by doing iterations, we can get a fairly
accurate value of the Maximum Take off Weight (W0).
4.6 ITERATION PROCESS (W0):

For the iteration process, we use the given formula,
-0.06
= 1.02× 0 [4.23]
 FIRST:
-0.06
= 1.02× 25671.64
=0 .578
W0 = 22211.324 Kg
 SECOND:
W0 = 22953.53 Kg
 THIRD:
W0 = 22998.83Kg
 FOURTH:
W0 = 23001.57Kg
38

 FIFTH:
W0 = 23001.71Kg
 SIXTH:
W0 = 23001.74Kg
After doing sixth iterations, we can take the value W 0 =23001.74 Kg as the final
estimate of the W0.
Max Takeoff Weight (W0) = 23001.74 Kg [4.24]
We know that,
= 0.215
So, substituting the value of W0, we get the first estimation value of W f ,
Wf = 23001.74 × 0.215
Wf = 4945.37 K
Weight of the Fuel Wf = 4945.37 Kg [4.25]
The weight of aviation gasoline is 5.64 lb/gal. Hence, the capacity of the fuel
tank (or tanks) should be
.
Tank capacity =
.
Tank capacity = 1933.2955 gal
39

Chapter-5
POWER PLANT SELECTION
• From the first weight estimate, we can have rough idea of the weight of
the power plant that is to be used.
• The total weight of the power plant is found to be 0.25×W ○.
• The literature survey indicated a thrust to weight ratio of 0.25 was
appropriate.
• The choice of engine is a turbofan for the following reasons such as:
1) High operating fuel economy
2) Efficiency for high payloads
3) Short take-off roll due to increased thrust at low speeds
• Most of the aircraft in the business category were found to have 2
engines & hence the preference is towards having twin engines
Max. take off weight ,W0 = 23001.74 kg
=23001.74×9.81
=225.65 KN
Wpowerplant =0.25×W0
3
=0.25×225.65×10
=61.62 KN [5.1]
● Engines can be used in a combination of 2×30.8 KN
A choice of engines from different manufacturers is always the preferred

commercial position for the airframe manufacturer. This ensures that the engine
price and availability is more competitive. It also provides the potential airline
40

customer with more bargaining power when selecting the aircraft/engine

purchase.
There are several available engines that would suit our requirement. All of them
are currently used on civil aircraft operations therefore considerable experience
is available.
The engines below are typical options:
TABLE:5.1
SL.NO NAME OF THE ENGINE TYPE THRUST
1 Rolls-Royce AE-3007A Turbofan 31.3KN
2 Klimov TV3-117VMA-SBM1 Turboprop 27.6KN
3 Allison AE-2100A Turboprop 35.7.2KN
5.1 REQUIRED ENGINE

Calculated thrust and weight of the engine are satisfied with the General
Rolls-Royce AE-3007A therefore chosen this engine.
 Rolls-Royce AE-3007A
Manufactured by Rolls-Royce in Indianapolis, Indiana the AE 3007

turbofan entered into service in 1995 as a leader in its class, meeting the
meticulous requirements of regional, corporate and military customers. With a
common core among the Rolls-Royce AE family of engines, including the AE
41

2100 turboprop and the AE 1107 turboshaft, the AE 3007 allows operators to
benefit from worldwide usage, military qualifications and international civil
certification.
Safety and reliability are strong values of the AE 3007, supported by the Rolls-
Royce global customer support and maintenance network. Rolls-Royce offers
both TotalCare® and CorporateCare® maintenance plans for the AE 3007
family of engines, allowing worry-free management and cost predictability for
operators.
Fig:5.1 Rolls-Royce AE-3007A
The above engine is a high by pass ratio,two-spool axial flow turbofan

engine.The mean design features include
• A single stage fan

• A 14-stage axial flow compressor with inlet guide vanes and five variable
geometry stator stages
• A 2-stage high pressure turbine to drive the compressor
• A 3-stage low pressure turbine to drive the fan.
• Dual redundant ,full Authority Digital Electronic Controls
• Accessory gearbox
42

• Air system for aircraft pressurization and engine starting
5.2 ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Length :306cm
 Width :155cm
 Diameter :0.98m
 Weight :436kg
COMPONENTS
 Compressor : 1LP,14HP
 Turbine : 2HP,3LP
PERFORMANCE
 Thrust : 28.9-42kn
 Inlet mass flow : 240-280 lb/sec
0
 Turbine inlet temperature : 994 c
 Thrust to weight ratio : 4.1-5.6
2
 Exhaust nozzle area :0.4323m
 Fan bypass : 40.8kg/min
 Rotor speeds :16270 - 8700
 Fuel inlet pressure :379.2kpa
 Bypass ratio :5
 Pressure ratio :23
43

Fig 5.1 Cross sectional View

Fig:5.2 Rolls-Royce AE-3007A
Fig:5.3 Engine Position
44

Chapter-6
FUEL WEIGHT VALIDATION
The choice of a suitable engine, having been made, it is now possible

to estimate the amount of fuel required for a flight at the given cruising speed
for the given range.
× × × × .
Wfuel =
The factor of 1.2 is provided for reserve fuel.

Thrust at altitude is calculated using the relation:
1.2
T =T0×σ
σ
ρ
σ =
ρ
Altitude = 10200 m = 33465 ft

ρ
ρ =
ρ
.
= = 0.326 [6.1]
.
Cruise velocity = 510 Km/hr = 141.66m/s
T0 = 31.3 KN
= 31.3×0.326 .
= 8.15 KN = 831.26kg [6.2]
SFC = 0.7 (at medium thrust setting)

Number of engines = 2
45

6.1 CALCULATION:
× . × × . × .
Wfuel =
Wfuel= 4928.87 kg [6.3]
46

Chapter-7
WING DESIGN
7.1 INTRODUCTION
After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component of
the aircraft to be designed is the wing. The wing may be considered as the most
important component of an aircraft, since a fixed-wing aircraft is not able to fly
without it. Since the wing geometry and its features are influencing all other
aircraft components, we begin the detail design process by wing design. The
primary function of the wing is to generate sufficient lift force or simply lift (L).
However, the wing has two other productions, namely drag force or drag (D)
and nose-down pitching moment (M). While a wing designer is looking to
maximize the lift, the other two (drag and pitching moment) must be minimized.
The wing must produce sufficient lift while generate minimum drag, and
minimum pitching moment. These design goals must be collectively satisfied
throughout all flight operations and missions.
7.2 WING GEOMETRY DESIGN
Fig:7.1 Wing Geometry Design
47

 The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely the

Wing loading (W/S),
 Sweep back angle at quarter chord (Λqc).
 The Take-off Weight that was estimated in the previous analysis is used
to find the
 Aspect Ratio (b2/S),
 The value of S also enables us to calculate the Taper ratio (λ)
Form Raymer book we choose our, Taper Ratio λ) = 0.6
The root chord is given by,
Root chord (Cr) =

( )
The tip chord is given by,

Tip chord (Ct) = λ × Croot
Mean Aerodynamic Chord,
( )
Mean chord = × Croot×
( )
Where,
S = Reference wing area
C = Chord
b = Wing span
λ = Taper ratio
2
A= Aspect ratio = b /S
Sweep back angle (Λ) can be obtained approximately using a taper ratio
(λ ) of 0.6
7.2.1. WING AREA:
Wing planform area (S) =
. × .
=
.
2
= 57.16m [7.1]
48

7.2.2. WING SPAN (b):

Aspect ratio = 10 (from the graph)
Aspect ratio =
0.5
Span (b) = (Wing planform area × Aspect ratio)
0.5
= (57.16×10)
=23.9m [7.2]
7.3 WING CHORD DESIGN

7.3.1. ROOT CHORD, Cr
The root chord is given by,
Root chord (C r) =
( )
= 2.989m [7.3]
7.3.2. TIP CHORD, Ct

Tip chord (Ct) = λ × Croot
Tip chord (C t) = 0.6×2.989
= 1.79m [7.4]
DETERMINATION OF THE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD
( )
Mean chord = × Croot×
( )
= 3.487m [7.5]
7.3.3. Distance of the Mean Chord from the Aircraft Centre line
( )
=
( )
= 5.47m [7.6]
49

7.3.4. SWEEP ANGLE ( Ʌ ):

Sweep back angle at Leading edge
Ʌ = tan
= . [7.7]
7.3.5. DIHEDRAL ANGLE ( Γ )
TABLE:7.1
From the above table the Dihederal angle of different 50 seated transport
0.
aircraft are range between 2-5 we take our design consideration
Dihedral Angle ( Γ ) = . [7.8]
7.4 WING VERTICAL LOCATION
One of the wing parameters that could be determined at the early stages
of wing design process is the wing vertical location relative to the fuselage
centerline. This wing parameter will directly influence the design of other
50

aircraft components including aircraft tail design, landing gear design, and
center of gravity. In principle, there are four options for the vertical location of
the wing.
7.4.1 Low Wing
 The aircraft take off performance is better; compared with a high wing
configuration; due to the ground effect
 The pilot has a better higher-than-horizon view, since he/she is above the
wing.
 The retraction system inside the wing is an option along with inside the
fuselage
 Landing gear is shorter if connected to the wing. This makes the landing
gear lighter and requires less space inside the wing for retraction system.
This will further make the wing structure lighter
 The wing has less downwash on the tail, so the tail is more effective.
 The tail is lighter; compared with a high wing configuration.
 The wing has less induced drag.
 It is more attractive to the eyes of a regular viewer.
Fig:7.2 Low Wing Arrangement
51

Chapter-8
AIRFOIL SELECTION
8.1 INTRODUCTION:
The airfoil is the main aspect and is the heart of the airplane. The airfoils
affects the cruise speed landing distance and take off, stall speed and handling
qualities and aerodynamic efficiency during the all phases of flight
Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions,

design/selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio, lift
curve slope, characteristic curves.
Fig:8.1 Airfoil Layout
The following are the airfoil geometry and definition:
Chord line: It is the straight line connecting leading edge (LE) and trailing
edge(TE).
Chord (c): It is the length of chord line.
52

Thickness (t): measured perpendicular to chord line as a % of it (subsonic

typically 12%)
.
Camber (d): It is the curvature of section, perpendicular distance of section
mid-
points from chord line as a % of it (sub sonically typically 3%).
Angle of attack α : It is the angular difference between chord line and
airflow direction.
The following are airfoil categories:
Early it was based on trial & error.
NACA 4 digit is introduced during 1930’s.
NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards for
increased
CL max.
NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of laminar flow.
Modern it is mainly based upon need for improved aerodynamic characteristics
at speeds just below speed of sound.
NACA 4 Digit
 1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).
 2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from
leading edge(LE)).
 3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).
NACA 5 Digit
 1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient
53

 2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber (as % of chord
from LE).
 4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).
NACA 6 Digit
 1st digit: identifies series type.
 2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from
leading edge(LE)).
 3rd digit: indicates acceptable range of CL above/below design value for
satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).
 4th digit (x0.1): design CL.
 5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)
The airfoil that is to be used is now selected. As indicated earlier

during the calculation of the lift coefficient value, it becomes necessary to use
high speed airfoils,i.e., the 6x series, which have been designed to suit high
subsonic cruise Mach numbers.
8.2 ESTIMATION OF THE CRITICAL PERFORMANCE

PARAMETERS
We now move to pivot point 3, namely, an estimation of critical
performance (CL) max, L/D, W/S, and T/W. These parameters are directed by the
requirements; that is, they will be determined by such aspects as maximum
speed, range, and ceiling, rate of climb, stalling speed, landing gear, and takeoff
distance.
54

Maximum Lift Coefficient

This is the stage in the design process where we make an initial choice for
the airfoil shape for the wing. Historically, general aviation airplanes have
employed the NACA four digit, and 6-series airfoil sections-the laminar-flow
series.
2
L=W=0.5×ρ×V stall×S×CL cruise [8.1]
VStall = 0.25 × Vcruise [8.2]
VStall = 0.25× 141.66
VStall = 35.416 m/s [8.3]
sub, the value Eq .(7.3) in (7.1)
= 0.5 × 0.4 × ( . ) × 57.16×CL cruise
CL cruise = 0.972 [8.4]
t/c CALCULATION:
.
. ( Ʌ)
= − cos Ʌ 1 −
Ʌ { ( #) }
Taking # = 1.05 - 0.25 CL cruise=0.80

Where,
55

M = Drag Divergence Cruise Mach Number = 0.83

Δ = Sweep Back Angle = 2.87° at Quarter Chord
CL cruise = 0.972
Substituting the values in the above equation, we get,
= 0.12 [8.5]
From the above list of airfoils, the one chosen is the 65(1)-412 airfoil
which has the suitable lift coefficient for the current design.
In order to obtain better span-wise distribution of lift and to have better

stalling characteristics (the root should stall before the tip so that the pilot may
56

realize and avoid a stall by sensing the vibrations on his control stick), it is
usually necessary to provide a lower t/c to the tip section and a higher t/c to the
root section.
Hence,
Section used at the mean aerodynamic chord - 65(1)-412
Section used at the tip - 65-410
Section used at the root - 65(2)-415
TABLE:8.1
CHORD AIRFOIL CL max

ROOT 65(2)-415 1.238
MEAN 65(1)-412 1.107
TIP 65-410 1.015
8.3 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY
Fig:8.2 Airfoil Geometry
57

Fig:8.2 Airfoil Geometry
58

Fig:8.3
Fig:8.4
59

Performance curves for the chosen airfoil NACA 65(1)-412

Fig:8.5
60

CALCULATIONS:
. . .
(CL max ) = + + = 1.12
max avail = 0.9 ×CL max = 0.9 × 1.12 = 1.008 [8.6]
61

Chapter-9
FLAP SELECTION
9.1 INTRODUCTION
During takeoff and landing the airplane's velocity is relatively low. To
keep the lift high (to avoid objects on the ground!), airplane designers try to
increase the wing area and change the airfoil shape by putting some moving
parts on the wings' leading and trailing edges. The part on the leading edge is
called a slat, while the part on the trailing edge is called a flap. The flaps and
slats move along metal tracks built into the wings. Moving the flaps aft (toward
the tail) and the slats forward increases the wing area. Pivoting the leading edge
of the slat and the trailing edge of the flap downward increases the effective
camber of the airfoil, which increases the lift. In addition, the large aft projected
area of the flap increases the drag of the aircraft. This helps the airplane slow
down for landing.
9.2 TYPES OF FLAP

Types of flap systems include:
 Krueger flap: hinged flap on the leading edge. Often called a "droop".
 Plain flap: rotates on a simple hinge.
 Split flap: upper and lower surfaces are separate, the lower surface
operates like a plain flap, but the upper surface stays immobile or moves
only slightly.
 Gouge flap: a cylindrical or conical aerofoil section which rotates
backwards and downwards about an imaginary axis below the wing,
increasing wing area and chord without affecting trim. Invented by
Arthur Gouge for Short Brothers in 1936.
62

 Fowler flap: slides backwards before hinging downwards, thereby

increasing both camber and chord, creating a larger wing surface better
tuned for lower speeds. It also provides some slot effect. The Fowler flap
was invented by Harlan D. Fowler .
 Fairey-Youngman flap: moves body down before moving aft and
rotating.
 Slotted flap: a slot (or gap) between the flap and the wing enables high
pressure air from below the wing to re-energize the boundary layer over
the flap. This helps the airflow to stay attached to the flap, delaying the
stall.
 Blown flaps: systems that blow engine air over the upper surface of the
flap at certain angles to improve lift characteristics.
63

Fig:9.1 Types Of Flapes
64

9.3 SELECTED FLAP

A wing designed for efficient high-speed flight is often quite different
from one designed solely for take-off and landing. Take-off and landing
distances are strongly influenced by aircraft stalling speed, with lower stall
speeds requiring lower acceleration or deceleration and correspondingly shorter
field lengths. It is always possible to reduce stall speed by increasing wing area,
but it is not desirable to cruise with hundreds of square feet of extra wing area
(and the associated weight and drag), area that is only needed for a few minutes.
It is also possible to reduce stalling speed by reducing weight, increasing
air density, or increasing wing C Lmax. The latter parameter is the most
interesting. One can design a wing airfoil that compromises cruise efficiency to
obtain a good C Lmax, but it is usually more efficient to include movable leading
and/or trailing edges so that one may obtain good high speed performance while
achieving a high CLmax at take-off and landing. The primary goal of a high lift
system is a high C Lmax; however, it may also be desirable to maintain low drag
at take-off, or high drag on approach. It is also necessary to do this with a
system that has low weight and high reliability.
Fig:9.2
65

CL max INCREASES DUE TO FLAP

TABLE:9.1
 Our flap is Double fowler flap the required value is at above.
TAKE-OFF CL max DUE TO FLAP

0
During Take-off Flap deflection up to 20
Δ (CL max ) = 0.5 + 1.008

= 1.508 [9.1]
LANDING CL max DUE TO FLAP

0
During Landing Flap deflection up to 50
Δ (CL max ) = 0.9 + 1.008

= 1.908 [9.2]
66

Chapter-10
FUSELAGE AND CABIN LAYOUT
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The interiors of business aircraft are laid out more flexibly than are
commercial transports. Interior appointments often cost millions of dollars and
can be very luxurious, especially for the large long range aircraft such as the
Gulfstream V or Global Express. Business aircraft based on commercial
transports such as Boeing Business Jet provide even greater possibilities.
Cabine layout of of 50 seater transport aircraft
Fig:10.1 Cabin Layout

Cabin parameters obtained from similar transport aircrafts
 Seat pitch = 0.9652m

 Seat width = 0.7m
 Aisle width=0.61m
 Seats abreast=2
 No. of aisles=1
67

10.2 FUSELAGE LAYOUT-INTRODUCTION

The fuselage layout is important as the length of the entire aircraft
depends on this. The length and diameter of the fuselage is related to the seating
arrangement. The fuselage of a passenger aircraft is divided into a number of
sections:
a. Nose
b. Cockpit
c. Cabin
d. Tail fuselage
Functions of fuselage:
 provides of volume for payload

 provide overall structural integrity
 Possible mounting of landing gear and power plant
Once fundamental configuration is establishment, fuselage layout proceeds
almost
independent of other design aspects.
Pressurization
 If required, it has a major impact upon the overall shape.
 Overall effect depends on the level of pressurization.
Low Differential Pressurisation:
 Defined as no greater than 0.27 bar (4 psi).

 Mainly applicable to fighters where crew are also equipped with pressure
suits.
 Cockpit pressurisation primarily provides survivable environment in case
of suit failure at high altitude.
 Also used on some general aviation aircraft to improve passenger comfort
at moderate altitude.
68

 Pressure compartment has to avoid use of flat surfaces.
Normal (High) Differential Pressurisation:
 Usual requirement is for effective altitude to be no more than 11 km

(32000 ft) ISA for passenger transports.
 Implied pressure differentials are:
• 0.37 bar (5.5 psi) for aircraft at 7.6 km (25,000 ft).
 High pressure differential required across most of fuselage for passenger
transports so often over-riding fuselage structural design requirement.
10.3 FUSELAGE SIZING:

The required value of Fuselage size is taken from the graph
LFUSELAGE = 19.5 m [10.1]
10.3.1 NOSE AND COCKPIT-FRONT FUSELAGE:

The layout of the flight deck and specified pilot window geometry is
often the starting point of the overall fuselage layout. For the current design,
flight decks of various airplanes are considered and the value of
is found to be 0.03 [10.2]
Lnos = 0.03 × 19.5
Lnos = 0.58 m [10.3]
The cockpit length for a 2 member crew is given by RAYMER
69

Fig:10.2 Cockpit Layout
Honeywell’s avionics suite is designed for commercial airline applications
Fig:10.3 Honeywell's Avionic Suite

70

Cockpit instument layoutt
Fig:10.4 Cockpit Instrument Layout
9.4 PASSENGER CABIN LAYOUT:
Fig:10.5 Passenger Cabin Layout
71

Two major geometric parameters that specify the passenger cabin are
Cabin Diameter and Cabin Length. These are in turn decided by more specific
details like number of seats, seat width, seating arrangement (number abreast),
seat pitch, aisle width and number of aisles.
We choose a circular cross section for the fuselage. The overall size must
be kept small to reduce aircraft weight and drag, yet the resulting shape must
provide a comfortable and flexible cabin interior which will appeal to the
customer airlines. The main decision to be taken is the number of seats abreast
and the aisle arrangement. The number of seats across will fix the number of
rows in the cabin and thereby the fuselage length. Design of the cabin cross
section is further complicated by the need to provide different classes like first
class, business class, economy class etc.
10.4.1 CABIN LENGTH:
Fig:10.6 Cabin Length
The total number of seats (50) is distributed as 4 seats abreast. Cabin

parameters are chosen based on standards of similar airplanes.
The various parameters chosen are as follows
 Seat pitch =0.86m
 Seat width =0.93m
 Aisle width =0.43m
 Seats abreast =2
 No. of aisles =1
Hence, the total cabin length will be = seat pitch × rows
72

=0.86 × 19 + additional space
Total cabin length =18m [10.4]
10.4.5 CABIN DIAMETER:
Using the number of seats abreast, seat width, aisle width we calculate the
internal diameter of the cabin.
dfus (internal) = 2.10m [10.5]
According to the standards prescribed by Raymer, chapter 9, the structural

thickness is given by
t = 0.02df + 1 inch [10.6]
= 0.02 × 2.10 + 0.0254

t = 0.067 m
Therefore the external diameter of the fuselage is obtained as
= 2.10 + 0.067×2
External diameter = 2.235 m [10.7]
10.5 REAR FUSELAGE:

The rear fuselage profile is chosen to provide a smooth, low drag shape
which supports the tail surfaces. The lower side of the provide adequate
clearance for aircraft when rotation during takeoff. The rear fuselage should
73

also house the auxiliary power unit (APU). Based on data collected for similar
aircraft we choose the ratio L tail / dfus as 4.
Ltail = 6m [10.8]
10.5.1 Total fuselage length:

Various parts of the fuselage are indicated below
Cockpit length = 3.9
Cabin length = 18m
Total = 27.93m [10.9]
Fig:10.7 Overall Layout
74

Chapter-11
TAIL SELECTION
11.1 TAIL SURFACES:
The type and area of the tail surfaces are important in determining the
stability of the airplane. A conventional tail arrangement is chosen. Some of the
important parameters that decide the aerodynamic characteristics of the tail are
area ratio (St/S), tail volume ratio(VH and Vv), tail arm, tail span etc. All this
parameters have to be decided for both the horizontal and vertical tail.
Fig 11.1 Types of aircraft tail
From the above list of tail types, the T-tail unit type is chosen which the most
suitable configuration for the current design.
11.2. T-TAIL
A T-tail is an aft tail configuration (see figure. 34) that looks like the
letter “T”;which implies the vertical tail is located on top of the horizontal tail.
The T-tail
75

configuration is another aft tail configuration that provides a few advantages,

while it has a few disadvantages. The major advantage of a T-tail configuration
is that it is out of the regions of wing wake, wing downwash, wing vortices, and
engine exit flow (i.e. hot and turbulent high speed gas). This allows the
horizontal tail to provide a higher efficiency, and a safer structure. The lower
influence from the wing results in a smaller horizontal tail area; and the lower
effect from the engine leads in a less tail vibration and buffet. The less tail
vibration increases the life of the tail with a lower fatigue problem.
On the other hand, the disadvantages that associated with a T-tail are:
1. vertical tail structure,
2. deep stall.
The bending moment created by the horizontal tail must be transferred to the
fuselage through the vertical tail. This structural behavior requires the vertical
tail main spar to be stronger; which cause the vertical tail to get heavier.
Aircraft with T-tail are subject to a dangerous condition known as the
deep stall (Ref. 6); which is a stalled condition at an angle of attack far above
the original stall angle.T-tail Aircraft often suffer a sever pitching moment
instability at angles well above the initial stall angle of about 13 degrees,
without wing leading edge high lift device, or about 18 degrees, with wing
leading edge high lift device. If the pilot allows the aircraft to enter to this
unstable region, it might rapidly pitch up to a higher angle of about 40 degrees.
Fig 11.2 Stability due to Horizontal Tail
76

This condition may be assumed as a stable condition, but it accompanies

an enormous drag along with a resulting high rate of descent. At this moment,
the elevator and aileron effectiveness have been severely reduced because both
wing and horizontal tail are stalled at the very high angle of attack. This is
known as a locked-in deep stall, a potentially fatal state. The design solutions to
avoid a deep stall in a T-tail configuration are to:
 Ensure a stable pitch down at the initial stall,

 Extend the horizontal tail span substantially
beyond the nacelles, and
 Employ a mechanism to enable full down elevator angles if a
deep stall occurs. In addition, the aircraft must be well protected
from the initial stall by devices such as stick shaker, lights, and
stall horn.
11.3. HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL TAIL CALCULATION:

From the data collected on similar transport aircraft, we choose the following
values for the tail parameters.
TABLE:11.1
PARAMETER HORIZONTAL TAIL VERTICAL TAIL
Area ratio (St/S) 0.31 0.21
Aspect ratio 5 1.7
Taper ratio 0.26 0.31
77

11.3.1 TAIL AREA:

The areas of the horizontal and vertical tail (SH and Sv) are calculated as,
SH = 0.31 × 57.16
2
SH = 17.71 m [11.1]
Sv = 0.21 × 57.16
2
SV = 12 m [11.2]
11.3.2 TAIL SPAN:

The span of the horizontal and vertical tail (bh and bv) are given as,
0.5
bh = (AhSH) [11.3]
0.5
bv= ((AhSB)) [11.4]
Taking ARH = 5 and ARV = 1.7, we get

bh = 9.4 m [11.5]
bv = 4.5 m [11.6]
Fig 11.3 Tail Section
78

Chapter-12
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The center-of-gravity (CG) is the point at which an aircraft would

balance if it were possible to suspend it at that point. It is the mass center of the
aircraft, or the theoretical point at which the entire weight of the aircraft is
assumed to be concentrated. Its distance from the reference datum is determined
by dividing the total moment by the total weight of the aircraft. The center-of-
gravity point affects the stability of the aircraft. To ensure the aircraft is safe to
fly, the center-of gravity must fall within specified limits.
Fig:12.1 Center Of Gravity Indication
12.1 CENTER OF GRAVITY IS CALCULATED AS FOLLOWS:
 Determine the weights and arms of all mass within the aircraft.
 Multiply weights by arms for all mass to calculate moments.
 Add the moments of all mass together.
 Divide the total moment by the total weight of the aircraft to give an
overall arm.
79

The arm that results from this calculation must be within the arm limits for
the center of gravity. If it is not, weight in the aircraft must be removed, added
(rarely), or redistributed until the center of gravity falls within the prescribed
limits.
For the sake of simplicity, centre of gravity calculations are usually
performed along only a single line from the zero point of the reference datum.
Weight is calculated simply by adding up all weight in the aircraft. This
weight must be within the allowable weight limits for the aircraft.
First estimate weight components for which we have some idea of their
location of the engine, the passengers and pilot, and the baggage.
Considering the forces to be acting at middle each part, and hence taking
moment about the nose, we get the centre of gravity.
CG =
( × ) + ( × ) + ( × )+( × )

( × × × )
= 14.4 m [12.1]
12.2 Layout
Fig:12.2 Center Of Gravity Layout

80

Chapter-13
LANDING GEAR SELECTION
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Every aircraft maintained in today’s Aerospace Company is equipped
with a landing gear system. Most Aerospace company aircraft also use arresting
and catapult gear. The landing gear is that portion of the aircraft that supports
the weight of the aircraft while it is on the ground. The landing gear contains
components that are necessary for taking off and landing the aircraft safely.
Some of these components are landing gear struts that absorb landing and
taxiing shocks; brakes that are used to stop and, in some cases, steer the aircraft;
nose wheel steering for steering the aircraft; and in some cases, nose catapult
components that provide the aircraft with carrier deck takeoff capabilities.
13.2 LANDING GEAR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
The following design requirements are identified to be satisfied: ground
clearance requirement, tip-back (or tip-forward angle if tail gear) angle
requirement, take-off rotation requirement, overturn angel requirement,
structural integrity, aircraft ground stability, aircraft ground controllability, low
cost, maintainable, and manufacturable.
Fig:13.1 Main Landind Gear Assembly

81

11.3 LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATION

This is a transport aircraft, and the passenger’s comfort is an important
requirement. So, the tail gear, bicycle, single main configurations would not
satisfy this requirement.
Three viable configurations are:
1. Tricycle or nose-gear,
2. Quadricycle, and
3. Multi-bogey.
4. Ski type gear
5. Float type gear
Fig:13.2 Types Of Landing Gear
Since the aircraft weight is not very high, both quadricycle, and multi-
bogey configurations are set aside due to their cost and weight. Therefore the
best landing gear configuration for this aircraft is Nose gear or tricycle. An
attractive feature for this configuration is that the aircraft will be horizontal at
the ground. The passengers do not have to climb during boarding period. The
82

nose gear also decreases the take-off run, and at the same time, the aircraft will
take-off sooner.
13.3 FIXED OR RETRACTABLE
The aircraft must compete with other transport aircraft in the market, and
it must have a fairly high performance, so a retractable landing gear (see figure)
is the best option. The cost of this configuration covered by the customers
(passengers). Then, this will reduce the aircraft drag during flight and therefore
the aircraft will feature a higher performance. The higher landing gear weight
due to retraction system will be paid off compared with the other advantages of
a retractable landing gear
Fig:13.3 Main Landing Gear In Aircraft
83

Main landing gear deployed
Fig:13.4 Landing Gear Marking
Nose landing gear deployed
Fig:13.5 Nose Landing Gear Deployed
13.4.1 STEERING OF LANDING GEAR

The steering mechanism used on the ground with wheeled landing gear varies
by aircraft, but there are several types of steering.
84

• RUDDER STEERING
• DIRECT STEERING
• TILLER STEERING
Maximum Takeoff Weight of the aircraft (from Weight Estimation)
= 23001.74Kg
13.5 TYRE SIZING
During landing and takeoff, the undercarriage supports the total weight of
the airplane. Undercarriage is of three types
• Bicycle type
• Tricycle type
• Tricycle tail wheel type
13.6 LANDING GEAR HEIGHT
The aircraft cg is at the same height as the wing mid-plane. The landing
gear height is a function of its attachment location. The nose gear will be
naturally attached to the fuselage. But, the main gear attachment tends to have
two main alternatives: 1. Attach to the fuselage, 2. Attach to the wing. As soon
the wheel track is determined, we are able to decide about landing gear
attachment; and then the landing gear height may be determined.
13.6.1ATTACH MAIN GEAR TO THE FUSELAGE:

HLG = Haircraft – ( Dfuse +H tail ) [13.1]
apply eq.(14.2) and (9.5) in (14.3)
= 6.5 – (2.28+2.64)
HLG = 1.581 m [13.2]
85

13.7 LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

As a natural selection, the nose gear is attached to the fuselage nose.
However, for the main gear, we need to compare the fuselage diameter with the
wheel track. It is observed that the fuselage diameter (2.78m) is smaller than the
wheel track (29.22 m). Hence, the main gear cannot be attached to the fuselage.
Thus, main gear may be either attached directly to the wing; or attached under
the nacelle. In order to determine the best location, several design requirements
must be examined, which is beyond the scope of this example. For the time
being, it is decided to attach the landing gear to the wing. Thus, the landing gear
height
will be:
HLG = 1.581m [13.3]
Tyre sizes 30×9.5-14(main) ,19.5 ×6 .75-8(nose)

Tyre pressure 8.60-9.00 bars
Minimum ground turning radius nose wheel 12.51m ,Minimum turning circle
29.22m
(The above measurements are collected from similar aircraft with given
landing gear)
15
86

Chapter-14
LIFT ESTIMATION
14.1 LIFT:
Component of aerodynamic force generated on aircraft p rpendicular to
flight direction
14.2. Lift Coefficient (C )
• Amount of lift gen rated depends on:
Planform area (S), air density (p), flight speed (V), lift co fficient (CL)
2
L = ½ ×ρ× ×S×CL [14.1]
• CL is a measure of lifting effectiveness and mainly depends upon:

Section shape, plan form geometry, angle of attack (α), c mpressibility
Effect (mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds number
14.3 GENERATION O LIFT
Fig:14.1 Generation Of Lift
87

Aerodynamic force a rises from two natural sources:
Variable pressure distribution.
Fig:14.2 Aerodynamic Forces Due To Lift
Shear stress distribution.

Shear stress primarily contributes to overall drag force on aircraft.
• Lift mainly due to pressure distribution, especially on main lifting
surfaces, i.e. wing.
• Require (relatively) low pressure on upper surface and higher pressure
on lower
surface.
• Any shape can be made to produce lift if either cambered or inclined to
flow direction.
• Classical aerofoil section is optimum for high subsonic lift/drag ratio.
88

Pressure variations with angle of attack
Fig:14.3 Pressure Variation
 Negative (nose-down) pitching moment at zero-lift (negative α).

0
 positive lift at α =0
 Highest pressure at LE stagnation point, lowest pressure at crest on
upper surface.
 Peak suction pressure on upper surface strengthens and moves forwards
with increasing α.
 Most lift from near LE on upper surface due to suction.
Fig:14.4 Lift At Different Angles
89

Lift Curves of Cambered and Symmetrical airfoils
Fig:14.5 Lift Curve
14.4 CALCULATION:
CL cruise = [14.2]
ρ
where, ρ = 0.40 (at 10800 m)

. .
=
. .
CL cruise = 0.972 [14.3]
14.4.1 LIFT AT TAKE-OFF
CL takeoff = CL cruise + Δ CL flap [14.4]
where, Take off flap at 200 is

=0.972 + 0.5
C L takeoff = 1.472 [14.5]
VR = 1.1 Vstall [14.6]
= 1.1 ×35.416
90

VR = 38.66 m/sec [14.7]
2
L take-off = ½ ×ρ× V R ×S×CL take – off
where, ρ = 1.225 (at sea level)
= ½ ×1.225 × (38.66) ×57.16×1.472
Ltake-off =77024.66 N [14.8]
14.4.2 LIFT AT LANDING
CL landing = CL cruise + Δ CL flap [14.9]
= 0.972 + 0.9
CL landing = 1.872 [14.10]
VR = 0.7 Vstall [14.11]
= 0.7 × 35.416
VR = 24.79 m/sec [14.12]
where, ρ = 1.225 (at sea level)
2
L landing = ½ ×ρ× VR ×S×CL landing
= ½ ×1.225 × (24.79) ×57.16×1.872
L landing = 41263.38 N [14.13]
91

Chapter-15
DRAG ESTIMATION
15.1DRAG:
Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force
which is parallel to the flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow).It always
acts to oppose the direction of motion. It is the undesirable component of the
aerodynamic force while lift is the desirable
component.
15.2 Drag Coefficient (CD)
Amount of drag generated depends on:
Planform area (S), air density, flight speed (V), drag coefficient (C D)
CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon:
Section shape, planform geometry, angle of attack, compressibility effects
(Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).
Drag Components
 Skin Friction.
 Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.
 Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary layers.
Fig:15.1 Drag Seperation

91

Form (Pressure) Drag
Fig:15.2 Form Drag

Due to static pressure distribution around body - Drag is the resolved
component of the complete aerodynamic force which is parallel to the flight
direction (or elative oncoming airflow).It always acts to oppose the direction of
motion.
It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the
desirable component.
Wave Drag
Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and supersonic speeds.
Result of both direct shock losses and the influence of shock waves on the
boundary layer.
Often decomposed into portions related to:
 Lift.
 Thickness or Volume.
Fig:15.3 Drag At Different Mach Numbers

92

Typical streamlining effect

The lift induced drag is the component which has to be included to
account for the 3-D nature of the flow (finite span) and generation of wing lift.
Fig:15.4 Typical Streamlining Effect
15.3 DRAG CALCULATION:
15.3.1 DRAG AT TAKE-OFF
2
CD Take-off = CD o+KCL takeoff [15.1]
K= [15.2]
( )
K=
. × . ×
K = 0.037 [15.3]
93

where CD0 = 0.03 and apply eq. (13.4) and (12.5) in (13.1)
2
CD Take-off = 0.03 + (0.037 × (1.472) )
CD Take-off = 0.11 [15.4]
2
D Take -off = ½ ×ρ×V ×S×CD take-off [15.5]
where, apply eq. (12.7) and (13.4) in (13.5)

2
= ½ ×1.225 × (38.66) ×57.16×0
DTake-off = 5764.86 N [15.6]
15.3.2 DRAG AT LANDING

2
CD Landing = CD0 + KCL landing [15.7]
where CD0 = 0.03 and apply eq. (13.3) and (12.10) in (13.7)
2
= 0.03 + (0.037 × (1.872) )
CD Landing = 0.16 [15.8]
2
DLanding = ½ ×ρ×V ×S×CD Landing [15.9]
where apply eq. (12.12) and (13.9) in (13.10)

2
= ½ ×1.225 × (24.79) ×57.16×0.16
D Landing = 3442.48 N [15.10]
94

Chapter-16
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
16.1 TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE

Distance from rest to clearance of obstacle in flight path and usually
considered in two parts:
 Ground roll - rest to lift-off (SLO)
 Airborne distance - lift-off to specified height (35 ft FAR, 50 ft others).
 The aircraft will accelerate up to lift-off speed (V LO = about 1.2 x VStall)
when it will then be rotated.
16.2 A first-order approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be
made from:
.
SLO = [16.1]
This shows its sensitivity to W (W2) and ρ (1/ ρ 2 since T also varies with
ρ). SLO may be reduced by increasing T, S or CL max (high lift devices relate to
latter two). An improved approximation for ground roll take-off distance may
be made by including drag, rolling resistance and ground effect terms.
Fig 16.1 Take-off for aircraft
95

.
SLO = [16.2]
{ [ ( ]}
The bracketed term will vary with speed but an approximation may be
made by using an instantaneous value for when V = 0.7 x VLO.
In the above equation:
Ø= [16.3]
Where h = height above ground, b = wing span.

μr = 0.02 for smooth paved surface, 0.1 for grass.
Ø = 0.961 [16.4]
16.2.1 TAKE OF RUNWAY DISTANCE
.
SLO = [16.5]
{ [ ( )]}
. ( . )
=
. . . . [ ( . . ( . . ))]
= 1769.36 m [16.6]
16.3 CLIMBING
Increasing the power by advancing the throttle produces a marked
difference in the rate of climb. Climb depends upon the reserve power or thrust.
Reserve power is the available power over and above that required to maintain
horizontal flight at a given speed. Thus, if an airplane is equipped with an
engine which produces 200 total available horsepower and the airplane requires
only 130 horsepower at a certain level flight speed, the power available for
climb is 70 horsepower.
96

Although we sometimes use the terms "power" and "thrust"

interchangeably, erroneously implying that they are synonymous, it is well to
distinguish between the two when discussing climb performance. Work is the
product of a force moving through a distance and is usually independent of
time. Work is measured by several standards; the most common unit is called a
"foot-pound." If a 1 pound mass is raised 1 foot, a work unit of 1 foot-pound has
been performed. The common unit of mechanical power is horsepower; one
horsepower is work equivalent to lifting 33,000 pounds a vertical distance of 1
foot in 1 minute. The term "power," implies work rate or units of work per unit
of time, and as such is a function of the speed at which the force is developed.
"Thrust," also a function of work, means the force which imparts a change in
the velocity of a mass. This force is measured in pounds but has no element of
time or rate. It can be said then, that during a steady climb, the rate of climb is a
function of excess thrust.
Fig 16.2 Weight component indication
When the airplane is in steady level flight or with a slight angle of
climb, the vertical component of lift is very nearly the same as the actual total
lift. Such climbing flight would exist with the lift very nearly equal to the
weight. The net thrust of the power plant may be inclined relative to the flight
path but this effect will be neglected here for the sake of simplicity. Although
97

the weight of the airplane acts vertically, a component of weight will act
rearward along the flight path (Fig.52).
If it is assumed that the airplane is in a steady climb with essentially a
small inclination of the flight path, the summation of forces along the flight path
resolves to the following:
Forces forward = Forces after
The basic relationship neglects some of the factors which may be of
importance for airplanes of very high climb performance. (For example, a more
detailed consideration would account for the inclination of thrust from the flight
path, lift not being equal to weight, a subsequent change of induced drag, etc.)
However this basic relationship will define the principal factors affecting climb
performance.
This relationship means that, for a given weight of the airplane, the angle
of climb depends on the difference between thrust and drag, or the excess thrust
(Fig.53). Of course, when the excess thrust is zero, the inclination of the flight
path is zero and the airplane will be in steady, level flight. When the thrust is
greater than the drag, the excess thrust will allow a climb angle depending on
the value of excess thrust. On the other hand, when the thrust is less than the
drag, the deficiency of thrust will allow an angle of descent.
Fig 16.3 Thrust vs Climb angle
98

16.3.1 RATE OF CLIMB
[ × – × ]
Rate of climb = [16.7]
[ × . ]–[ . × . ]
=
.
=8.92 m/s [16.8]
16.4 MANOEUVRES / TURNING

An aircraft is capable of performing many different types of turns and
manoeuvres.
Three of the more common turns will be considered here in simplistic terms:
 Constant altitude banked turn.
 Vertical pull-up manoeuvre.
 Vertical pull-down manoeuvre
In the case of a commercial transport aircraft, it is capable of
performing only a constant altitude banked turn and not any vertical pull-up or
pull-down manoeuvre.
16.4.1 CONSTANT ALTITUDE BANKED TURN
steady condition:
T=D
Force balance gives:
W = mg = Lcos θ
Fr = MV2 /r = Lsin θ
tan θ = V2 /(Rg)
So for given speed and turn radius there is only one correct bank angle
for a coordinate (no sideslip) turn. Maneuverability equations simplified
99

through use of normal load factor (n) = L/W. In the turn, n = L/W = sec >1
and is therefore determined by bank angle. Turn radius (R) and turn rate (θ) are
good indicators of aircraft maneuverability.
W = L cos [16.9]
0
let, θ = 30
W = 23001.7 × cos (30)

W = 19920.05 Kg [16.10]
n= [16.11]
apply (16.12) in (16.13)

.
n=
.
= 1.1547 [16.12]
Turn Radius, RT=
.
RT = [16.13]
. ( . )
RT = 3797.65 m
16.5 GLIDING
Similar to the steady un accelerated case but with T = 0.
Fig 16.4 Gliding Performance
100

Force balance gives:
Ø = tan [16.14]
Ø = tan
Ø= . [16.15]
16.6 LANDING PERFORMANCE

APPROACH & LANDING
Consists of three phases:
 Airborne approach at constant glide angle (around 30) and constant

speed.
 Flare - transitional manoeuvre with airspeed reduced from about
1.3 Vstall down to touch-down speed.
 Ground roll - from touch-down to rest.
Ground roll landing distance (s3 or sl) estimated from:
.
SLO = [16.16]
{ [ ( ]}
Where, Vav may be taken as 0.7 x touch-down speed (Vt or V2) and Vt is
assumed as 1.3 x Vstall.
μr is higher than for take-off since brakes are applied – use μr = 0.4
for paved surface.
If thrust reversers (T r) are applied, use:
Landing Runway distance = 1718.10 m [16.17]
101

16.7 ENDURANCE:
E= ln
Where,
W0 is the gross weight of the aircraft
W1 is the weight if aircraft without fuel
Ct is the specific fuel consumption = 0.7
E=4.495hrs [16.18]
102

Chapter-17
THREE-VIEW DIAGRAM
Fig:17.1 Three View Diagram
103

17.1 SURFACE MODEL OF 50 SEATED AIRCRAFT
Fig:17.2 Surface View Of Aircraft
104

SPECIFICATION DATA FOR DESIGNED AIRCRAFT
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Max. Takeoff Weight : 23001.74 Kg

 Tank Capacity : 1933.29 Gal
 Required Engine : ROLLS ROYCE AE3007A
 Fuel Weight : 4928.87 Kg
AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
 Wing Span (b) : 23.9m

 Root Chord (Cr) : 2.989
 Tip Chord (Ct) : 1.79m
 Sweep Angle At
Leading Edge (Ʌ) : 2.87°
 Dihedral Angle ( Γ ) : 3.5°
 Wing Position : Low Wing
 Airfoil Selection CLcruise : 0.972
 t/c ratio : 0.12
 Selected Airfoil : NACA 65(1)-412
 Selected Flap : Double Flower Slotted
105

FUSELAGE CHARATERISTICS
 Cabin Diamete : Internal -2.10 m

External -2.235 m
 Cabin Length : 18 m
 Total Fuselage Length : 27.93 m
 Selected Tail : T-Tail
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
 Center Of Gravity : 14.4 m

 Landing Gear : Fixed Retractable
 Lift At Takeoff : 77024.66 N
 Lift At Landing : 41263.38 N
 Drag Estimation (Take-off) : 5764.86 N
Landing : 3442.48 N
 Take-off Runway Distance : 1769.36 m
 Rate Of Climb : 8.9 m/s
 Landing Runway Distance : 1718.10 m
 Endurance : 4.495 hr.
106

Chapter-18
CONCLUSION
After all analysis and design the first part of the aircraft design project has
came for landing. The result of the output specifications tells about features,
advantages, disadvantages, future requirements and all amenities in and about the
aircraft.
The overview of the TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT aircraft are very need-of
hour for today corporate and entrepreneurs who are travelling across trans-
continent and domestically with less span of time with hassle-free.
The main advantage of this class aircraft is pacifying from commercial jet
operators, less-operating cost and fuel consumption, less purchase cost and least
time of total travel time enveloped. Since it takes fraction of kilometer for landing
it can operate at any airport rather large aircraft whose need mile and more run for
take-off.
And always there will be existence of negative if present of positive. Thos
disadvantages are it cannot fly inter-continental. Since it design for short range.
Design is a fine blend of science, creativity, presence of mind and the
application of each one of them at the appropriate time. Design of anything needs
experience and an optimistic progress towards the ideal system.This involves the
strong fundamentals in science and mathematics and their skilful applications,
which is a tough job endowed upon the design. We have enough hard work for this
design project. A design never gets completed in a flutter sense but it is one step
further towards ideal system. But during the design of this aircraft, we learnt a lot
about aeronautics and its implications when applied to an aircraft design.
107

Chapter-19
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Introduction to Flight by J.D.Anderson
2. Aerodynamics by Clancy
3. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by J.D.Anderson
4. The Design of the Aeroplane by Darrol Stinton
5. Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft
6. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach by Daniel. P. Raymer
WEBSITE REFERENCES
1. www.wikipedia.org
2. www.naca/aerofoil.gov
3. www.worldaircraftdierctory.com
4. www.dutchops.com
5. www.aerospace-technology.com
6. www.airliners.net
7. And other websites related to design of aircrafts.
108

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AN AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT REPOR - I

RENJITH.R - (7219111 1015)

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degre

BAC ELOR OF ENGINEERING

DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN COLLEGE OF EN INEERING

ANNA U IVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 025

50 SEATED TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT

ANNA UNIVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 0 5

Certified that this pro ject report on "DESIGN OF A 50 SEATED

Submitted for the Aircraf Design Project – I Viva – Voce held n ..................

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

The aim of this design project is to design a 50 Seated Transport

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

LIST OF FIGURES vii

1.1 Preliminary Design 2

1.2 Project Design 3

1.3 Detail Design 4

3.1 Graphs for Comparison of Contemporary 19

3.2 Mean Design Parameter 28

4.1 First Weight Estimation 29

4.2 Estimation of We/Wo 30

4.3 Estimation of Wf/Wo 31

4.4 Mission Profile 32

05 POWER PLANT SELECTION 40

5.1 Required Engine 41

5.2 Engine Specification 43

06 FUEL WEIGHT VALIDATION 45

7.2 Wing Geometry Design 47

7.3 Wing Chord Design 49

8.2 Estimation of the Critical Performance 54

8.3 Airfoil Geometry 57

9.2 Types of Flaps 62

9.3 Selected Flap 65

10.2 Fuselage Layout 68

10.3 Fuselage Sizing 69

10.4 Passenger Cabin Layout 71

10.5 Rear Fuselage 73

11.1 Tail Surface 75

11.3 Horizontal and Vertical Tail Calculation 77

12.1 Center Of Gravity 79

13.2 Landing Gear Design Requirement 81

13.3 Landing Gear Configuration 82

13.4 Retractable Landing Gear 83

13.5 Tyre Sizing 85

13.6 Landing Gear Height 85

13.7 Landing Gear Attachment 86

14.2 Lift Coefficient [CL] 87

14.3 Generation of Lift 87

15.2 Drag Coefficient 91

15.3 Drag Calculation 93

16.1 Takeoff Performance 95

16.2 Ground Roll Takeoff Distance 95

16.3 Climbing Performance 96

16.4 Manoeuvres/Turning Performance 99

16.5 Gliding Performance 100

16.6 Landing Performance 101

16.7 Endurance Calculation 102

17 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM OF AIRCRAFT 103

17.1 Surface Model 104

18.1 Design Data 108

TABLE NO. TABLE PAGE

4.1 FUEL FRACTION 33

4.2 LIFT/DRAG RATIO 34