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fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TTE.2016.2571783, IEEE
Transactions on Transportation Electrification
Performance Analysis of Current BEVs - Based on
a Comprehensive Review of Specifications
Emma Arfa Grunditz, Torbjörn Thiringer, Member, IEEE
Abstract—This paper aims to provide an analysis of BEV
performance that is based on a comprehensive collection of
specifications of over 40 currently globally available battery
electric vehicles (BEVs). The analysis comprise dimensional,
powertrain and performance data. The collected data is provided
in the paper to facilitate further academic studies. There is a wide
variety of BEVs from small to large as well as high performing
sedans and sport cars. It was found that all BEVs are using
Li-ion batteries with specific energy of 55-170 Wh/kg, and that
battery weights are representing 13%-37% of the vehicle weight.
Furthermore, the majority of the BEVs are using permanent
magnet motors, where some indicate power densities of 1.5-3.1
kW/kg. The specified NEDC driving range varies between 85-
528 km, and the energy consumption between 117-268 Wh/km.
A rough estimation indicates that the powertrain’s share of the
net energy consumption during NEDC may be up to around
40%-54%.
Index Terms—Electric vehicles, energy consumption, perfor-
mance, range, specifications.
I. I NTRODUCTION
D URING the last decade the interest in battery electric
vehicles (BEVs) has increased. Not only have many new
models reached the market, but BEV sales have seen increased
annual growth rates, lately as high as 54%-87% as for 2012-
2014 [1]. Additionally, there has been a steady increase in
the number of annually published academic papers regarding
BEVs with at least a five time increase from 2004 to 2014 [2].
In academic studies of BEV powertrains often new com-
ponent designs or system configurations are evaluated based
on factors such as performance, efficiency and lifetime. Then
various assumptions have to be made either regarding design
inputs or boundary conditions. In these cases, it is highly
desired that the assumptions are based on up-to-date and
relevant information, i.e. BEVs that are currently available on
the market. However, this type of data is generally spread out,
hence a tedious work has to be made to gather, compile and
analyze it.
Several interesting publications present BEV data. However,
apart from only including a few selected models and not being
up-to-date, either the list comprise only a single component
such as the battery in [3], [4], or it includes just a few key
E. Arfa Grunditz is with the Department of Electric Power Engi-
neering, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden, e-mail:
emma.grunditz@chalmers.se
T. Thiringer is with the Department of Electric Power Engineer-
ing, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden, e-mail: torb-
jorn.thiringer@chalmers.se
The financial support through Chalmers Energy Initiative (CEI) is gratefully
appreciated.
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1
parameters e.g. electric machine power, battery energy capac-
ity and driving range as in [5], [6]. Moreover, in [5], [7]–[9]
general electric vehicle (EV) powertrain technology overviews
are provided, still few vehicle specific data are presented. A
very interesting and rather technically detailed benchmarking
is presented in [10], yet only one BEV is included amongst the
otherwise hybrid electric vehicles. Additionally, fleet average
data regarding aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance and mass
are presented in [11], [12], still the data is not vehicle or
technology specific, which makes it difficult to use in studies
of single BEVs. The purpose of this paper is both to analyze
the performance and general characteristics of currently avail-
able highway capable BEVs, and to provide a comprehensive
compilation of their specifications hat are preferably based on
manufacturer data. This paper is proposed to serve as an up-
to-date reference for further academic studies related to BEV
component and drive system design, as well as evaluations of
performance and energy consumption. Furthermore, the aim is
to quantify both the typical and the spread of values regarding
the following:
• dimensional data such as mass and area;
• powertrain data like torque and power density of electric
machines (EMs);
• the relation between peak and continuous EM power;
• energy and power density of batteries;
• performance data of top speed and acceleration ability;
and
• energy consumption and range data.
II. T OP S ELLING BEV S 2014 AND START OF 2015
During 2014 about 65 million passenger cars were sold
world wide [13]. Out of these about 320,000 [14] or 0.5% are
estimated to have been electric vehicles (EVs), and 57% of
those are estimated to have been BEVs as opposed to PHEVs
[1]. That is about 180,000 BEVs or less than 0.3% of the
global total passenger car sales.
The same year the absolute majority, about 94%, of all EVs
(BEVs and PHEVs) were sold in the USA (37%), Europe
(31%), China (17%) and Japan (10%) [14], [15]. In the
USA and Japan about half of the sales were BEVs, whereas
the share was about 60% in China [1]. During 2014 the
largest number of BEVs in Europe were sold in Norway
(around 18,100), France (10,600), Germany (8,500) and the
UK (7,400) [15]. Together these four countries accounted for
about 77% of the total European BEV sales that year.
Top selling highway capable (≥110km/h) BEVs during
2014 and 2015 in USA, Europe and Japan are presented in
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Transactions on Transportation Electrification
2

120 000 25 000
2015
Japan 2015 Japan 2014
20 000 2014
100 000 Europe 2015 Europe 2014
15 000
80 000 USA 2015 USA 2014
10 000
60 000
5 000
40 000
0
BAIC E150/E200 BYD e6 Tesla Model S
20 000
(a) Top 3.
0
Nissan LEAF Tesla Model S BMW i3 Renault Zoe Volkswagen
3 500
e‐Golf 2015
3 000
(a) Top 5. 2 500 2014
2 000
1 500
9 000
8 000 Japan 2015 Japan 2014 1 000
7 000 Europe 2015 Europe 2014 500
6 000 0
5 000 USA 2015 USA 2014
4 000
3 000
2 000
1 000
0
(b) Top 4-14.
Fig. 2. Top 14 of highway capable BEV sales in China during 2014 and
2015, [20]–[22].

Electric Single Driving

(b) Top 6-22. Inverter machine speed wheel pair
gear
Fig. 1. Top 22 of highway capable BEV sales in USA, Europe and Japan
Battery
during 2014 and 2015, [16]–[19].
VDC M Differential

Fig. 1 and in China in Fig. 2. Many BEV models are available

both in the USA, Europe and Japan, whereas almost all of the
top selling BEVs in China are of Chinese brands which are
only available there. Still, there are exceptions such as Venucia
e30, which is based on Nissan Leaf.
It should be noted that found sales data is not complete
and differs somewhat between sources as some figures are
based on estimates, such as the Tesla data. Furthermore, it is
not clear whether the sales data for i3 adheres to the BEV
or the range extended version. Additionally, some top selling
models are here ignored due to their low top speed, e.g.
Renault Twizy. Additionally, a few 2-seat vans are omitted
since they are aimed for transport of goods rather than of
people. The same goes for several top selling BEVs in China
that are excluded due to top speed values around 60-100km/h
(Geely-Kandi Panda EV, JAC iEV, from Zotye: E20, Cloud
100, from Chery: eQ, QQ EV). Too little information is yet
available on th Chinese BYS e5 and BAIC EU 260, hence
they are excluded from further analysis. Moreover, the Fiat
500e and Chevrolet Spark EV are only for sale in California
and Oregon.
All of the 36 models mentioned in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 are
included in this paper (except the Chinese BYD e5 and BAIC
EU 260, since too little data is yet available). Toyota Scion iQ
EV, Volvo C30 Electric, and ten 2-seat sport models are also
included.
III. E VALUATION OF THE BEV P OWERTRAIN
In a BEV powertrain the battery serves as the main energy
buffer. It feeds its energy to an electric motor via a voltage
inverter as shown in Fig. 3. The motor is most often connected
to the front or rear driving wheel pair via a single transmission
(or gear) ratio and a differential.
Fig. 3. General component configuration in a BEV powertrain.
When calculating the energy consumption of a BEV the
charging and discharging modes must be handled separately.
The discharged battery energy can be found by dividing the the
energy consumed at the wheels with the powertrain’s efficiency
during propulsion mode. The charged battery energy, on the
other hand, is calculated as the energy gained at the wheels
during braking energy recovery or downhill driving multiplied
with the powertrain’s efficiency during this generative mode.
Energy is defined as the time integral of power, and the
instantaneous wheel power Pwheel (W) is the product of the
instantaneous wheel force Fwheel (N) and vehicle speed v
(m/s) (Pwheel = v Fwheel ).
The vehicle’s wheel force is often approximated as the sum
of the aerodynamic force, the rolling resistance of the tires on
the road, the road gradient and the acceleration force as
ρ dv
Fwheel = Cd A v 2 + Cr m g cosα + m g sinα + m (1)
2 dt
where Fwheel is the wheel shaft force from the powertrain, ρ
the air density (here 1.2 kg/m3 ), Cd the vehicle’s aerodynamic
drag coefficient, A (m2 ) the vehicle’s effective cross sectional
area, v (m/s) the longitudinal vehicle speed, Cr the rolling
resistance coefficient, m (kg) vehicle mass, g standard gravity
(9.81 m/s2 ) and α (rad) the road gradient [23]. For simplicity,
only longitudinal vehicle motions are here considered. The
term road load refers in this paper to the wheel force due to
only the sum of rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag.
In academic studies, when calculating the wheel force
of a vehicle information regarding speed, acceleration, road

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Transactions on Transportation Electrification
gradient, and air density are often already at hand for the type
of drive situation under study. The vehicle parameters, on the
other hand, must often be assumed or estimated. Therefore
they are the main focus in this paper.
The electric machine torque TEM (Nm) and speed nEM
(rpm) in motoring mode are related to the wheel force and
speed via the wheel radius r (m), the transmission gear ratio
kgear and transmission efficiency ηgear , as
r Fwheel
TEM =
ηgear kgear
and
v 60 60
nEM = kgear = kgear wwheel (3)
r 2π 2π
where the wheel rotational speed wwheel (rad/s) is the vehicle
speed over the wheel radius [23]. Note that wheel slip is here
ignored for the sake of simplicity
IV. D IMENSIONAL DATA
The needed vehicle parameters for the wheel force estima-
tion are thus m, Cd , A and Cr . Specification data regarding
these parameters, as well as some others related to vehicle
dimensions, is shown in Table V in the Appendix. For actual
vehicles so called coast down tests can be made in order to
approximate the speed dependency of the road load [24]–[26].
In this paper most BEVs are sorted into the four categories:
small, medium-large, high performing and sport, where the
former two are based on vehicle external volume calculation
while assuming a rectangular block. The sport category consist
of high acceleration capable 2-seat models. The high perform-
ing category also consist of high acceleration capable models,
but with five seats. In addition, a fifth category consist of the
Chinese BEVs for which less information is available (except
for BYD e6), hence treated separately.
A. Mass
Mass for vehicles are often given as curb weight. This type
of data is available for all BEV models. The curb weight is
usually defined as the mass of the specific model with standard
equipment and neither passengers nor extra cargo. However,
in manufacturer’s mass specifications it is not always evident
what is included in the presented value. It was found that the
mass of a BEV model often differ between different sources
by a few to some tens of kg, and in a few cases more. One
explanation can be that some values do include the mass of
a driver and perhaps some light cargo as for BEV models in
the EU. Then a 68 kg driver and 7 kg luggage (a total of 75
kg) are often included in the values, as according to regulation
92/21/EC version 95/48/EC [27]. Another factor may be that
the extent of standard equipment could differ between regions.
The small models have a curb weight around 900-1400
kg, whereas it is around 1200-1800 kg for the medium-large
models (where i3 is the lowest and RAV4 the highest), and
around 1200-2100 for the high performing and sport models.
Tesla’s Model S is noted to have a curb weight of around
2000 kg for the 60 kWh battery version and 2100kg for the
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TABLE I
F RONT AREA OVER HEIGHT×WIDTH AND OVER HEIGHT×TRACK WIDTH .
Model iQ iOn e-Up! i3 Zoe C30 e-Golf Leaf ModelS
A
wh
85% 90% 85% 85% 96% 85% 84% 83% 82%
A
tw h
97% 103% 98% 96% 110% 97% 99% 96% 96%
85 kWh version [28]. The weight of the Chinese models are
around 1100-2400kg where Roewe E50 is the lightest and e6
the heaviest.
(2)
Some manufacturers report work on lightweight design. As
an example BMW and Audi use carbon fibre reinforced plastic
(CFRP) as part of the body in i3 and R8 e-tron [29], [30]. The
body of SP:01 is also made of carbon fibre [31]. Other weight
saving techniques mentioned are: the use of lighter material
brake discs in AMG SLS (ceramic instead of cast iron) [32],
lightweight seats, aluminium chassis, hollow drive shaft, short
cables between electric machine and inverter (to name a few)
in i3 [29]. A general overview of mass reduction techniques
is presented in [12].
Table V also present data for about half of the BEVs on the
maximum allowed weight, which is rather coherent between
different sources. The max cargo is 150-385 kg for the small
models, 365-483 kg for the medium-large ones, 482 kg for
Modes S and around 250 kg for two of the sport models.
Still, data on maximum cargo, as with curb weight, showed
to vary a bit between sources.
The weight distribution of real BEVs may be interesting
from a vehicle dynamical stability point of view, hence it is
also included. Generally, the distribution is within 40%-50%,
where the largest part typically coincides with front or rear
drive (not valid for AWD). Tesla presents only one value for
mass distribution of Model S, even though it is likely to be
slightly different between the versions.
B. Area and Aerodynamic Drag Coefficient, Cd
The front area is seldom provided by manufacturers. Instead
it can be estimated as a fraction of the product of height
and width. However, as the shape differs between models a
single suitable value of this fraction is perhaps not applicable.
Nevertheless, various estimations can be found in literature;
79%-84% in [33], 81% in [34] and 90% of the product of
height and track width in [25].
Based on data for nine of the BEV models the fractions
between the area and the product of height and width, as well
as height and track width, are shown in Table I. Here the range
is 82%-96% of the height and width, and 96%-110% of the
height and track width (from the driving wheel pair), with
mean values of 86% and 99% respectively.
The Cd value is many times provided by manufacturers, and
in some cases even the Cd A value. Extraction of this parameter
is rather complex, and in practice wind tunnels and coast down
tests are often used for this purpose. Typical ranges depending
on general car body shapes can be found in literature, e.g.
in [23], [25]. It is, however, likely that these typical values
adhere to combustion engine vehicles (CEVs), and it is not
evident whether they are also relevant for BEVs. The reason
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Transactions on Transportation Electrification
4

Small Medium−Large High Perf. Sport low”) [41]–[50]. Only three references have been found that
3.5
mention a value: e-Up! 0.007 [51], e-Golf 0.0065 [52], and
Area (m2)
3
Tesla Roadster 0.011, whereas the next Roadster version (3.0)
2.5
will have 0.0089 [53].
2
Furthermore, few public sources of measured rolling re-
1.5 sistance data exist. Yet, in [54] data is presented which is
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
Curb weight (kg) provided by different actors such as the US EPA (Environ-
mental Protection Agency) and major tire manufacturers (e.g.
0.35 Michelin, Goodyear and Bridgestone). In one of the later and
largest data sets (from 2005) Cr range from 0.0065-0.0133
Cd

0.3

0.25 with a mean value of 0.0102. It is also mentioned that due

to different factors there is a tendency of higher average Cr
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
Curb weight (kg) values for groups of tires made for higher speed levels: 0.0098
for tires up to 180-190 km/h, 0.0101 for tires up to 210-240
1 km/h, and 0.0113 for tires above 240km/h. The tendency of
Cd A (m2)

0.8
0.6
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Curb weight (kg)
Fig. 4. Data on area, Cd and Cd A, as well as estimates of area and Cd A,
using Cd values and area estimates of 80-100% of height×width, all as
functions of curb weight.
is that many manufacturers report considerable improvements
regarding the aerodynamics in their BEV models compared
to their combustion engine models. This can for instance
be due to the changed need of frontal cooling air inlet and
the possibility of having a more flat underbody in BEVs,
as reported for iQ [35], RAV4 [36] and R8 e-tron [37].
Both Nissan and Tesla Motors elaborate on their aerodynamic
improvement work in the published papers [38], [39]
Data on area, Cd and Cd A relative to curb weight for small,
medium-large, high performing and sport BEVs is shown in
Fig. 4. The figure also shows estimates of area, ranging from
80%-100% of height×width, as well as resulting Cd A values
as lines where marked dots represent the case of using an
estimation factor of 86%. Low Cd values are more often seen
for medium-large models compared to small models, whereas
the small models are seen to have slightly lower area values.
The resulting Cd A values are thus rather similar for both small
and medium-large models, but they are the lowest for the high
performing Model S.
C. Rolling Resistance Coefficient, Cr
The rolling resistance depend on the tire and road material
as well as the tire operating conditions. Hence, Cr varies for
different tires and tire types. In the EU (European Union)
tires are subject to the fuel efficiency classification regulation
No. 1222/2009, where the classes are labeled A-G. Class A
represent tires with the lowest coefficients ≤0.0065, class B
0.0066-0.0077, C 0.0078-0.009, and up to G ≥0.0121 [40].
Still, neither original tire brand and model nor it’s rolling
resistance coefficient are generally provided in BEV model
specifications. Nevertheless, many manufacturers claim to use
low rolling resistance tires on their BEV models: 500e, iMiEV,
Spark EV, i3, Zoe, e-Golf, Fluence, Focus, and Soul (”super
lower Cr values for fuel economy focused vehicles and higher
for performance focused models is also reflected in [12] where
estimated Cr values are analysed.
2000 2200
D. Road Load Estimation
Given the found vehicle parameters of curb weight, Cd and
A or Cd A, the road load of 26 BEV models is estimated as
a function of speed up to top speed, as shown in Fig. 5. For
models where A or Cd A data is missing, A has been estimated
as 86% of height×width. Furthermore, it is here assumed that
all small and medium-large models use low rolling resistance
tires with a constant Cr value of 0.007, whereas Cr is 0.01 for
the high performing models and sport cars, which are expected
to use tires designed for higher speed and performance.
The upper part of Fig. 5 presents the road load force as a
function of vehicle speed. The forces on the small models are
generally amongst the lowest over the whole speed range. At
low speed levels below 80km/h it is the high performing and
sport models that have the highest road load levels, whereas
at higher speed it is the medium-large models. In the lower
part of Fig. 5 the road load is normalized with the curb
weight of each model. In this case the small models show the
strongest speed dependency, and the high performing models
the weakest. Hence at low speed levels the small models are
the most efficient per transported mass, whereas at high speed
levels it is instead the high performing models that are the
most efficient.
E. Wheel Radius Estimation from Tire Dimensions
Wheel (or tire) radius is usually not specified by manu-
facturers, but tire specifications are, at least for the original
equipment and sometimes also for the optional. Tire dimension
specifications are normally given in the format (width)/(aspect
ratio)R(rim diameter). The aspect ratio (or profile) is the ratio
between the tire height and the width in percent, where the
height is measured from the rim and outwards. The width is
typically specified in the unit of mm, and rim diameter in
inches. Based on tire dimension data, the wheel radius r (m)
is estimated as
25.4 rim[inch] + 2 asp.ratio[%]
width[mm]
100
r = 0.001 (4)
2

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Transactions on Transportation Electrification
5

2.2
Small
(N) 1500
wheel Med.−Lar. 2
High Perf.
1000 Sport 1.8

Pmax./Pcont.
Est. F

500
1.6
0 1.4
0 50 100 150 200 250
Small
Speed (km/h)
1.2 Medium−Large
Chinese
1
(N/kg)

1
0 50 100 150
Mass Norm.

EM P (kW)
max.
wheel

0.5
Est. F

Fig. 7. Max-to-continuous ratio of EM power vs. max power.

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Speed (km/h) A. Traction Electric Machine
It is here noted that the most dominating EM type in
Fig. 5. Estimated road load and mass normalized road load. Estimations
are based on: curb weight; area estimated as 86% of height×width for those current BEVs is the permanent magnet synchronous machine
models where data is missing; Cr values of 0.007 for small-large models, (PMSM), which can be found in at lest 26 models including
and 0.01 for high performing and sport models. four Chinese. In some models, like Soul EV [55] and Leaf
[56], it is specifically mentioned that interior mounted perma-
Small Medium−Large High Perf. Sport nent magnet machines (IPMSMs) are used. Five models; (B-
0.38 Class, RAV4, ModelS, ModelX and Roadster) utilize induc-
tion machines (IMs), however, these have all been provided
Est. wheel radius (m)

0.36
0.34
0.32
0.3
800 1000
Fig. 6. Tire radius estimation vs. curb weight.
Estimated wheel radius values for BEV tire data are shown
in Fig. 6 as function of curb weight. Generally the small cars
have a wheel radius below 0.3 m (with one exception: iQ),
and medium-large cars have a wheel radius between 0.31-0.37,
while most values are within 0.31-0.32 m. The spread is quite
large for the sport cars: 0.32-0.38 m. It should be noted that the
real tire radius naturally varies both by tire load and inflation
pressure. It also varies during driving since speed, acceleration
and deceleration all affect the load forces on the tires. The
presented data can thus be thought of as maximum values.
Data on the BEV powertrain has been gathered for the
electric machine (EM), transmission ratio and the battery
including it’s warranty and charging. In the Appendix data
regarding EMs is shown in Table VI, regarding batteries in
Table VII and partly in Table IV, and for the Chinese BEVs
in Table IX.
It was found that inverter data is seldom included in
vehicle specifications, hence too little data has been found
to be presented here. Instead a few academic references are
recommended for further reading on the subject [8], [9].
by Tesla Motors [57]–[59]. Renault’s two models Zoe and
Fluence are equipped with their wound rotor synchronous
machine (SM w.r.) [46], [60]. In i3 the in-house developed
hybrid permanent magnet synchronous machine (HPMSM)
is used, i.e. a synchronous reluctance machine with added
permanent magnets. A hybrid synchronous machine (HSM)
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
Curb weight (kg)
by Brusa is also used in Lampo3. Renovo claim to use an
axial flux machine in Coupé [61].
Data on maximum torque and power is presented for almost
all models while data on continuous power is presented for
14 models, including five of the Chinese BEVs. It is however
quite unclear under what circumstances these values have been
determined. The maximum and continuous torque is typically
strongly influenced by the machine’s cooling system design.
Additionally, the maximum power level changes with the dc
voltage level during driving. Some manufacturers refer to the
European type approval regulation UNECE R85 [62] in which
the motor power measurement over a time duration of 30
min. is regulated as is a full load test over a non specified
time duration of a motor that has first been run warm for
three minutes at 80% of full load. Still, the regulations leave
room for interpretation, and this should be kept in mind when
comparing data on BEV motors.
V. P OWERTRAIN DATA The range of maximum output torque levels are from about
130-1600 Nm (up to 440 Nm for single motors), and the
combined EM power range is 30-800 kW (up to 285 kW for
single motors). These are quite wide ranges. For the Chinese
BEVs the ranges are 144-510 Nm and 45-125 kW. In Fig. 7,
it is shown that the maximum power is about 1.2-2 times that
of the continuous power for 14 of the models.
Fig. 8 shows the power-to-weight ratios on a vehicle level
i.e. related to combined EM power and curb weight. As may be
expected, the values are notably higher for the high performing
and sport cars: 135-410 W/kg, whereas it is around 27-80
W/kg and 37-105 W/kg for the small and medium-large cars

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500 TABLE II
Sport
EM WEIGHT, AND CALCULATED TORQUE AND POWER DENSITIES .
400 High Perf.
Vehicle EM power−weight (W/kg)

300 Model EM mass Torque/mass Power/mass

BMW i3 49 kg [65] 5.1 Nm/kg 2.55 kW/kg
200 Volvo C30 El. 50 kg [66] 5.0 Nm/kg 1.78 kW/kg
Fiat 500e 32 kg [67] 6.3 Nm/kg 2.59 kW/kg
100 Mercedes SLS AMG 45 kg/EM [68] 5.6 Nm/kg 3.07 kW/kg
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
Curb Weight (kg) Nissan Leaf 54.1 kg [56] 4.7 Nm/kg 1.48 kW/kg
Renault Fluence 36 kg (active) [63] 6.3 Nm/kg 1.94 kW/kg
100 Med.−Lar. Toyota Camry 2007 42 kg [64] 6.5 Nm/kg 2.52 kW/kg
Small Lexus LS600h 2008 45 kg [64] 6.7 Nm/kg 3.69 kW/kg
80 Chinese Toyota Prius 2010 37 kg [64] 5.6 Nm/kg 1.36 kW/kg
60
1600 600
40 High Perf. Small
1400 Sport Med.−Lar.
500 Chinese
20 1200
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400

Motor torque (Nm)

Motor torque (Nm)

Curb Weight (kg) 400
1000

800 300
Fig. 8. Vehicle power-to-weight ratio vs. curb weight.
600
200
400
5 100
200

4 0 0
0 5000 10000 15000 0 5000 10000
nmax/nbase

Motor speed (rpm) Motor speed (rpm)

3 (a) Estimated EM output operating areas.

300
2 i−MiEV
i−MiEV data
250 i3
i3 data
1 Motor torque (Nm)
200
FIT
8 10 12 14 16 FIT data

nmax (k rpm) 150

100
Fig. 9. EM max-to-base speed ratio over max. speed. Legend as in Fig. 8.
50

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
respectively, and 33-63 W/kg for the Chinese. Motor speed (rpm)

(b) Estimates compared to manufacturer

The found data on electric machine maximum speed are
between 9,500-16,000 rpm while they are slightly lower for
the Chinese models: 7,000-10,000 rpm. The ratio between
maximum and base speed is 1.75-4.4 as is shown in Fig. 9.
Data on electric machine mass is presented for six BEV
models in Table II along with calculated torque and power
mass densities. The torque density is 4.7-6.3 Nm/kg and the
power density 1.5-3.1 kW/kg. Note that the included material
in the mass figures may differ between sources. As an example
it is mentioned that the mass of the Fluence motor only
includes active material [63] i.e. not parts such as the housing.
As a reference, a few examples of hybrid electric vehicle
(HEV) traction motor data are also included: Lexus LS600h
and Toyota’s Prius and Camry [64], which are indicating
similar values. Torque and power density of the Lexus LS600h
motor are the highest.
Most manufacturers utilize liquid cooling for the electric
machines (often stated as liquid or water) with a coolant
consisting of about 50% deionized water and 50% ethylene
glycol in order to prevent overheating, freezing and corrosion,
as in [69], [70]. (It was also seen for 500e, B-Class, i-MiEV,
Leaf and fortwo.) Two models are found that claim to use
air-cooling; iQ and Roadster, and one that use oil as cooling
medium; the high performing Concept One.
data.
Fig. 10. Estimated EM output torque-speed profiles, and a comparison of
three estimates with manufacturer data.
B. EM Torque-Speed Profile Estimation
By utilizing the maximum torque and power data the
operating area of the EMs are here estimated as an ideal case
of an initial constant torque followed by a constant power
region, as shown in Fig. 10. The figure further illustrates
the previously noted wide spread in both max torque and
power levels. The smallest operating areas are seen for the
small models and the largest for the sport models, as can be
expected. As a comparison in Fig. 10b, manufacturer torque
speed data are also presented for the three models: i3 [71], i-
MiEV [72] and Fluence [73], which all show a relatively good
coherence with the estimations. The exception is the notably
lower torque level from 300 rpm up to base speed for i-MiEV,
which is according to specifications.
C. Battery
As can be seen, all BEV models utilize lithium based
battery cells although various cell designs and material con-
figurations are used. Common types in specifications are:

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Transactions on Transportation Electrification
7

TABLE III 200

Energy Dens. (Wh/kg)

T OTAL AND USABLE BATTERY ENERGY.

Battery Pack
Model Total Energy Usable Energy % Usable Energy 150
i3 [77] 22 kWh 18.8 kWh 85%
C30 [78] 24 kWh 22.7 kWh 95%
B-Class [75] 36 kWh 28 kWh 78% 100
e6 [79] 61.4 kWh 57 kWh 93%
Data
RAV4 [76] 41.8 kWh 35 kWh 84%
Est.
50
0 20 40 60 80 100
100 SOCmax Energy (kWh)
SOCmax NEDC
FTP City
80 Fig. 12. Battery pack specific energy data as function of energy including
State of Charge (%)

FTP Highway
i3 estimated data. Additional legend as in Fig. 8.
60 B−Class

40 are also examples of voltage operating ranges of the battery,

20 SOCmin
0 during driving. To conclude, nominal voltages are typically
0 1 2 3
Discharge Time (h)
Fig. 11. Battery state of charge as an estimated function of time, for i3 and
B-Class.
cylindrical, prismatic, polymer (likely to be pouch), laminated
(Leaf), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) and lithium titanate
(Li-Ti) (Lightning GT [74]), which are noted as Cyl., Pri.,
Pol., Lam., LiFePO4 and Li-titan in Table IV. As can be seen,
LiFePO4 is used by at least 6 models in China, while polymer
and prismatic is used by at least 6 models each from the other
markets. Tesla Motors and their partners use the cylindrical
battery type.
The energy content varies between 12-90 kWh: 12-30
kWhs for the small models, 20-42 kWh for the medium-large,
60-90 kWh for the high performers, 30-90 kWh for the sport
models, and 18-61 kWh for the Chinese. The ModelS is now
also available with a 90 kWh battery [59]. Yet, in order to
sustain a long lifetime the whole battery energy capacity is
usually not utilized, as shown in Table III. It has been found
that between 78-95% of the full battery capacity is used in
five of the models. In B-Class and Rav4, however, a larger
part can still be utilized by the press of a button by the driver
[75], [76].
The battery state of charge (SOC) as an estimated function
of time is presented in Fig.11 for the i3 and B-Class models
during NEDC, FTP City and FTP Highway drive cycles (which
are further treated in section VII). It is here assumed that
both models have a minimum SOC level of 10%, but that
i3 has a slightly higher max SOC level (in accordance with
data in Table III). As shown, the rate of battery decline
naturally depend on the energy efficiency of the vehicle, but
also on the type of drive cycle. When driving with an energy
consumption value (Wh/km) according to the models’ FTP
Highway consumption, the batteries will be empty in around
1h and 20 min, whereas they will last 4-5 h when driving
according to NEDC, and slightly lower for FTP City.
Often the voltage level of the battery is specified, and
sometimes accompanied by the term: maximum, total, or
nominal, marked with the letters m, t or n in Table VII. There
e.g. 259-396 V for i3 [65], and 250-430 V for e-Golf [80] since
the voltage varies with both battery energy content and load
4 5 around 300-400 V and max voltages 380-430 V and even up
to 600-700 V for high performing sport cars.
Battery weight is presented for 17 models and range from
215-595 kg depending on energy content. Additionally, data
on battery specific energy (Wh/kg) is presented for 20 models.
For those models where either mass or specific energy but not
both is presented the other is calculated and also included in
the table. This adds 11 models in the mass and 8 models in the
specific energy category. Then the lowest battery mass is 145
kg. The percent of battery weight compared to curb weight
is 13%-37% when also including the estimated battery mass
data. Most ratios are within around 15%-25%.
For 9 of the models data on specific energy and battery
mass spring from independent references. By comparing the
specific energy data with the estimates it can be assumed
that the specific energy data refers to pack level. The specific
energy data ranges between 55-170 Wh/kg, but most data is
between around 70-130 Wh/kg, as is shown in Fig. 12. As
a reference, the specific energy on a cell level is said to be
around 157 Wh/kg for Leaf [81], and 200 Wh/kg in Soul [82].
Furthermore, additional specific energy data on cell level is
presented in [4] e.g.: Zoe 157 Wh/kg, fortwo 152 Wh/kg,
i-MiEV 109 Wh/kg, 500e 132 Wh/kg, ModelS 233 Wh/kg.
Hence, cell level specific energy values are about 27-52%
higher than pack level values for the mentioned models. It
should be noted that data on battery mass and specific energy
at times differed somewhat between sources.
The number of cells used range from around 80-7500
depending on battery energy content and cell type, and the
highest numbers are seen for the cylindrical cells due to their
lower energy content.
Data on the maximum battery power has been found
for 11 models, and in all cases but one (the Roadster) the
battery maximum power equals or surpasses that of the electric
machine. As for the electric machine, it is not always evident
for which time duration the maximum power refers. However
for Bluecar [83] and Rav4 [84] a time duration of 30s has
been specified, and for e6 a time duration of 10s at 5C has
been specified [79].
The specific power has been estimated for 12 models

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8

1200 warranty. It was noted that sometimes the equivalent range data
Power Dens. (W/kg) Data
1000 Est. varies between countries as it may be expressed in different
Battery Pack

800 units (miles or km), which are not always converted to the
600 same length (for example i3, Soul). Nine of the BEV models
400 have the same year and range limit for both the powertrain
200
and the battery, whereas for 6 models the time limit is higher
for the battery, and for 7 models the distance limit is higher
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 for the battery.
Energy (kWh)
Data for the year limit ranges between 4-10 years, but most
Fig. 13. Battery pack specific power data as function of energy including
models specify 5 years (10 models) for the powertrain and 8
estimated data. Additional legend as in Fig. 8. years (15 models) for the battery. Ranges used are often 50,60
or 100 thousand miles or 50,100 or 160 thousand km. For the
600
P/E: 15 P/E: 10 powertrain 7 BEV models specify 100kkm, 3 models specify
EM Power (kW)

P/E: 5
80kkm, and 4 models 160kkm. For the battery, as many as 12
400 BEV models come with a 160kkm range limit, and 6 models
with a 100kkm limit. Two models (ModelS and ModelX) are
200 P/E: 2 found to offer unlimited range for both the powertrain and
battery.
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Battery Energy (kWh) Some manufacturers don’t cover battery capacity loss in
the warranty (e.g. Focus [86] and Rav4 [87] ) while others
150
P/E: 10 P/E: 5 do. It is then often specified as a percentage of capacity loss
EM Power (kW)

100
50
0
10 20 30 40
Battery Energy (kWh)
Fig. 14. EM and battery power-to-energy ratio. Legend as in Fig. 8.
(including Concept One) and are between 150-1100 W/kg,
as is shown in Fig. 13.
The power-energy ratio of a battery can reveal whether
the cell has been power or energy optimized. For those cases
where no maximum battery power was available instead the
electric machine power is used in Fig. 14. The power-energy
ratios are between 1.5-13.1 W/Wh, but most models are
between 1.7-6.8 W/Wh, i.e. a very wide span.
Methods for battery cooling are not as coherent as for
electric machines. Three models are found to use none or
passive cooling, four models use air cooling, 12 models use
water or liquid cooling and one model (i3) use refrigerant
R134a as cooling [65]. In the B-Class the low temperature
battery coolant circuit can be complemented with the air
conditioning system at high ambient temperatures if needed
[57]. Both B-Class and SLS AMG also come with a battery
heater to be used during cold ambient temperatures [57], [85].
It is likely that the added coolant for liquid cooled batteries is
ethylene glycol based, as for EMs, and as stated for 500e in
[41].
D. Powertrain and Battery Warranty
Data regarding powertrain and battery warranty is shown
in Table IV in the Appendix. The warranty limit is usually
specified as a max vehicle driving range and a max number
of years in traffic. It is then the first of the two limits that is
reached that for each vehicle will determine the limit of the
P/E: 2
compared to a new battery. It is likely that a capacity loss
P/E: 1 has to be confirmed by an authorized service station. Several
Battery
manufacturers specify the the capacity loss level to below 70%
EM that of a new battery’s capacity, e.g.: i3 [88], e-Golf [47],
50 60 Fluence [60] and Zoe [46], however, for the later model a
level of 75% is specified if the battery is leased [46]. Nissan
specifies their capacity loss limit for Leaf and NV-200 as 9
out of 12 bars in the dashboard, which may translate to about
75% [89], [90].
E. Charging
Data regarding charging power is presented in Table VII.
BEV battery charging can be done using either ac or dc.
On-board ac chargers are used for the lowest charging power
levels. Some BEV models come with an ac charger of lower
power as standard and one of higher as optional. Furthermore,
external dc charging stations are most often used for the high-
est charging power levels. There are mainly three dc charging
systems: CCS (Combined Charging System), ChadeMo and
Supercharger (for Tesla’s cars only). Their maximum charging
power depend on the specific charger station, which today are
typically 50 kW for both CCS [91] and CHAdeMO [92], while
it is 120 kW for Tesla’s Supercharger [93]. BYD seems to
develop their own charger stations at 40 kW [94]. It should
also be noted that there is a CHAdeMO adapter for Tesla
Model S [95].
The time to fully charge the battery range between 0.5-12.5
h for the standard ac charger, however, for most batteries it is
around 2-6 h, as shown in Fig. 15. The gain of using the op-
tional higher power charger is about 3-5 h. Dc charging takes
14-53 minutes for batteries below 50 kWh, 30-43 minutes for
the ModelS models, and about 98 minutes for Concept One.
The maximum of 50 kW is here used for those models
that adopts the CCS and CHAdeMO systems, even though
some manufacturers claim higher power capabilities (e.g.
ConceptOne 120kW [96], R8 e-tron 150kW [37]).

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Transactions on Transportation Electrification
100
Battery Energy (kWh)
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time to fully charge (h)
Fig. 15. Time to fully charge the battery with max ac and dc charging power.
100
Battery Energy (kWh)
80
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
NEDC Range (km)
Fig. 16. Available NEDC driving range after charging forone hour with max
ac power, respective 20 min with max dc power.
After having charged the battery for 1 h the available NEDC
range is 20-60 km for most batteries below 30kWh, as shown
in Fig. 16. The exception is Zoe if charged at it’s max power
level of 43 kW, then the battery will be fully charged already
in 30 min., with a NEDC range of 240 km. For the larger
batteries one hour of standard charging gives about 50-110
km NEDC range. Using the optional ac charge power instead
will fully charge the smart fortwo in 48 min. and give a NEDC
range of 145 km. Dc charging for 20 min. gives about 100-
140 km for batteries below 30 kWh, and about 212-235 km
for the larger batteries.
VI. S PEED AND ACCELERATION DATA
Data on top speed is presented for all models, and accel-
eration time is presented for almost all models in Table VIII
and in Table IX. Top speed and acceleration time is shown
in Fig. 17 for both 0-100km/h and 0-60 mph (equivalent to
0-96.56 km/h). For the relation between top speed values and
0-100km/h acceleration time data a trend line is drawn and
the analytical expression is presented in the figure.
The top speed values varies between 114-305 km/h. It is
up to 160 km/h for the small and medium-large cars, and
170-305 km/h for high performing and sport cars. Also for
acceleration time there is a clear difference between small
and medium-large models compared to the high performing
models, as is shown in Fig. 17. For the first group acceleration
times are 7.2-15.9s, whereas for the second group they are
between 2.8-6.2s for 0-100km/h, and just slightly lower for
the 0-60mph values. The data indicate that the Chinese BEVs
do not belong to the high performing group. Additionally, data
regarding accelerations from stand still to a certain speed are
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9
20
0−100 km/h
0−60 mph
Acceleration Time (s)
15 Trend line 0−100km/h
−1.812
a=81750
2
v
R =0.8746
10
a: acceleration (m/s2)
v: speed (km/h)
AC Stand.
AC Opt. 5
DC
12 14 0
100 150 200 250 300 350
Top Speed (km/h)
Fig. 17. Acceleration time vs. top speed for both 0-100km/h and 0-60mph.
Additional legend as in Fig. 8.
1h − AC Stand. presented in Table VIII. This information can help to reveal a
1h − AC Opt. vehicle’s acceleration capability at low vs. high speed levels.
20 min. − DC
It should be noted that many BEV models report to have 2-3
different driving modes, which can be activated by the driver.
The modes likely affect the torque and power output from
powertrain and the degree of regenerative braking. Hence, the
300 350 top speed, acceleration time, and energy consumption will also
be affected. Some manufacturers have specified the change in
performance for the different modes, however, most have not.
For example, the Rav4 is specified to have a top speed in
Normal/Sport mode of 161/137 km/h [84], and an acceleration
time 0-60 mph in Normal/Sport mode of 8.6s/7.0s [58].
The gradeability of a vehicle is defined as the highest uphill
grade that the vehicle can overcome. This is often expressed
with grade in %. This parameter is seldom stated, yet some
data is here presented. The Soul is said to be able to climb
an inclination of 33% [97], the e6 30% [98], the BIAC E150
up to 20% [99], and the BAIC ES210 up to 25% [99]. It may
be expected that the specified grade can only be overcome at
very low speed levels as the road load increases with vehicle
speed.
A. Transmission and Powertrain Operating Area Estimation
The total transmission ratios found are in the range 6-10.
It is likely that these figures include a differential with a final
drive gear as was noted by a few manufacturers.
Given the found gear ratios and estimated wheel radii the
max wheel force over the vehicle speed range is calculated
via the max EM torque and power data. By dividing the max
wheel force with the curb weight the mass normalized max
wheel force is shown in Fig. 18. Also the estimated road load
is presented as a frame of reference. The vertical distance
between the max normalized force and the road load can be
seen as an acceleration reserve (m/s2 ). It can here be seen that
the small BEVs actually have a similar acceleration capability
as many of the medium-large models, especially up to base
speed. As expected, the high performing and sport models
have the largest acceleration capability.
VII. C ONSUMPTION AND R ANGE DATA
The specified range and energy consumption data which is
presented in Table VIII are measured during BEV model type
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Transactions on Transportation Electrification
10

14
Small NEDC
300

Energy/Dist.
Med.−Lar. EPA Comb. Adjust.

(Wh/km)
12 High Perf. EPA Comb. Unadjust.
Sport

10 200
Wheel Force (N/kg)
Mass norm.

8
100
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
6 Curb Weight (kg)

4 NEDC

Mass Normalized
EPA Comb. Adjust.

2
0
0 50 100 150
Speed (km/h)
Fig. 18. Estimated max mass normalized wheel force and road load as
function of car speed.
approval under certain testing circumstances and standardized
load profiles (so called drive cycles). The data presented here
adhere to the European UNECE (United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe) regulation 101 [24], and to the US
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) regulation, which
follows the recommendations in the standard SAE J1634 test
procedure [100].
The test vehicle is then driven inside a laboratory on a
dynamometer according to a predefined drive cycle, which is
NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) in Europe and the FTP
(Federal Test Procedure) or ”City” cycle as well as the HFEDS
(Highway Fuel Economy Driving Schedule) ”Highway” in the
US [101]. The dynamometer should be set up to provide a road
load force which should include the sum of the aerodynamic
drag and rolling resistance as a function of vehicle driving
speed. The speed dependence may be determined by a coast-
down test as described in [24] (p.61). The mass of the tested
vehicles should be the curb weight with an additional 100 kg
in Europe [24] (p.5) and 136kg (300 lbs) in the US [102].
In both regulations the on-board AC charger efficiency
is included in the energy consumption values [24] (p57-57)
[101] (p.39501). Furthermore, in the US regulations both the
energy consumption and range values are adjusted with a
”correction factor” in order to give results which are closer
to those reached in real world driving, as described in [100].
The adjustment factor can be decided by the manufacturer
using different methods, however, it was here found in [103],
[104] that the EPA suggested factor of 0.7 is used on most
BEVs. This means that the presented energy consumption in
specifications is adjusted to be 43 % higher than the measured
value. Furthermore, it was noticed in [103] that Tesla Model
S use the factors: 0.74 on the P85D, 0.75 on the 85D and 0.80
on the 60kWh and 85kWh models, while Model X use 0.73
for both versions [104]. This corresponds to increased energy
consumption values of about 25-36%. In Table VIII it is the
adjusted values that are presented.
Data on Energy Consumption during NEDC is between
117-166 Wh/km for the small-large models, where e-Up! has
the lowest and B-Class the highest. For the high performing
and sport models the consumption is 160-268 Wh/km, where
Roadster has the lowest and SLS AMG the highest. For the
Energy/Dist.
(Wh/km,kg)
0.2
EPA Comb. Unadjust.
0.15
200 250 0.1
0.05
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
Curb Weight (kg)
Fig. 19. NEDC and EPA energy consumption vs. curb weight, and mass
normalized energy consumption vs. curb weight. Additional legend as in Fig.
8.
US EPA values it can be noted that the energy consumption
during highway (188-322 Wh/km) is larger than during city
(151-341 Wh/km) for most models. However, the highway
consumption is slightly lower for e6, ModelS and ModelX.
The EPA combined energy consumption is a weighted average
considering 55% of the city consumption and 45% of the
highway consumption. The specified energy consumption dur-
ing NEDC and combined EPA (both unadjusted and adjusted)
is shown in the upper part of Fig. 19. Furthermore, in the
upper part of Fig. 19 it is some of the smaller models that
have the lowest energy consumption. In the lower part of
Fig. 19 the energy consumption is normalized with the curb
weight, thus presenting the energy consumed per km and per
transported kg. Then it is instead some of the heaviest models
that are the most efficient, which can be expected from the
mass normalized road load in Fig. 5.
It can be seen that the adjusted EPA values are higher than
the NEDC values, but the unadjusted EPA values are most
often lower. In those cases where there is energy consumption
data for both NEDC and EPA, the adjusted EPA values are
16%-50% higher than the NEDC values, for the same model,
whereas the unadjusted values are between 5%-14% smaller.
However, in two cases the unadjusted values are still around
5% higher than the NEDC data, and in one case about the
same.
Due to the higher energy consumption for the EPA com-
bined compared to NEDC the longer NEDC driving Range
is expected. The lowest official NEDC range is 85 km, and
the highest 528 km, whereas it is 61-435 km for the EPA
combined. The driving range as a function of battery energy
is shown in Fig. 20 along with two separate linearly fitted
lines for both the NEDC and EPA combined data. It can be
seen that, while assuming today’s battery technology, a battery
capacity of around 150 kWh is necessary in order to have
a driving range of 800 km. Most BEV models have ranges
of around 100-250 km, while there are some top performing
models with up to 300-500 km.

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Transactions on Transportation Electrification
11

800 100
Charger
90

of Energy Consumption
PT prop

Estimated share (%)

80
600 PT Brake

during NEDC
70 Aero.
Range (km)

60 Roll.
50
400
40
NEDC 30
200 EPA Comb. 20
NEDC − linear fit 10
EPA Comb. − linear fit 0
0

5D
e

f
iQ

i3

e− 0

Mo lS 60

lS 85
!
n

lf
a
Up

Mo enc
Zo
C3
iO

Go
0 50 100 150

Le

P8
Mo delS
e−
Battery Energy (kWh)

Flu
de

de
Fig. 20. Battery energy vs. range. Additional legend as in Fig. 8.

A. Estimation of the Powertrain’s Share of the Consumed
Energy During NEDC
A rough estimation of the charger’s and the powertrain’s
share of the total losses for 12 BEV models during NEDC
is here made by comparing projected energy consumption per
distance with the one specified in Table VIII.
The wheel energy consumption is thus projected during
NEDC (as defined for BEVs in [24]) according to section
III, and 100 kg is added to the curb weight in accordance
with the European regulations [24]. It is assumed that the 9
small-large BEV models use tires with a Cr value of 0.007,
and that the high performing use tires with a Cr of 0.01.
To find the net battery energy consumption the same fixed
powertrain efficiency is used both in propulsion and braking
mode. It is also assumed that all of the braking is applied by
the electric powertrain. Then the charged energy is estimated
via an assumed average efficiency of 94% for the on-board
charger, since according to [105] the efficiency of on-board
chargers are typically 90%-95%. Finally, by looping different
values of the powertrain efficiency until the projected and
specified energy consumption per driven distance are equal an
estimation of the powertrain’s average efficiency is reached.
The powertrain’s resulting share of the total consumption
during NEDC is thus roughly estimated to around 40%-54%
for the different models, as is shown in Fig. 21. The average
amongst the models is 45%. Average assumed powertrain
efficiencies are about 60%-73%, with a mean value of 67%.
Energy consumed due to: aerodynamic drag and rolling resis-
tance; losses in the powertrain during propulsion and braking;
and to charging from the ac grid, are considered to be part of
the total energy consumption. If instead a charger efficiency
of 90% is assumed the powertrain’s share of the total energy
consumption decreases to around 35%-50%.
VIII. F UTURE T RENDS AND S UGGESTIONS OF F UTURE
BEV R ESEARCH
The main motive to increase vehicle electrification in society
today is to reduce the stress on the environment from road
transport that is caused by toxic and green-house gas emis-
sions. These type of emissions from the tailpipe of vehicles
are therefore legally regulated. However, so far, in order not
to impair the increased interest in electric vehicles, there is
no legislation regarding limiting the energy consumption of
BEVs. This is in spite that increased electric vehicle usage, at
Fig. 21. Estimated share of net consumed energy during NEDC. Cr is 0.007
for the small-large models, and 0.01 for ModelS, and a charger efficiency of
94% is assumed.
least in the short term, very well may lead to increased fossil
fuel burning to mitigate a marginally higher electric energy
consumption in society. This legal status will undoubtedly
change in the future. Already, the efforts conducted in industry
in order to increase the driving range, and thus energy effi-
ciency, of current BEVs can be identified as intense. Progress
is made on a vehicle level with various aerodynamic, tire
rolling resistance and mass reduction techniques. The later
comprise the use of new lightweight material in various vehicle
parts, as well as component integration e.g. inverter, motor
and transmission, which is seen in some BEV models. In
order to improve the driving range, also the efficiency of
cabin heating and cooling are considered, by for example
utilizing the losses from the powertrain as in the Kia Soul
EV [97]. With a probable more stringent regulations regarding
BEV energy consumption, is likely that research aiming for
improved energy efficiency of BEVs will further intensity in
the future.
Until the day that electricity production is fully fossil-free,
a much valuable research area could be to investigate in which
type of vehicle applications or cases that it is most beneficial
to electrify.
In a larger perspective, the energy consumption of the
personnel transport system as a whole could greatly benefit
from research on how the number and size of vehicles could
be reduced by better utilization of each vehicle.
Another extremely important future research direction is the
charging infrastructure as well as the usage of car batteries
for grid reinforcing applications, as a part of the upcoming
smart-grid concept. In this area there are a number of research
questions to investigate further, e.g.: can all vehicles charge
when they want?; where shall charging stations be placed?;
what charging power levels should be used?; do we need local
storage at the charging stations?; what price model is needed
so that the stored electrical energy in cars can be used for grid
reinforcing applications?
Cost-effective production is mainly an industrial topic but
a very important future research direction to reduce the price
of electric cars on the market and thereby widen the customer
base. One suggestion is then to strive to utilize the same com-
ponents in different BEV types and brands. As an example, the

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TTE.2016.2571783, IEEE
Transactions on Transportation Electrification
same stator and rotor laminations could be used, whereupon
the electric motor stack length could be varied in order to reach
desired power levels. With this approach, it will be possible
to investment in high-quality punching tools that cause less
degradation to the stator and rotor laminations. This would
lead to higher energy efficiency on a large scale, as well as
lower long term costs thanks to mass production. Research on
how to achieve this target is a clear future topic.
Naturally, more research for improvement of battery tech-
nology is still needed. Recent years battery development has
both led to lower prices and longer life-time, a feature that is
still on the rise. This development will thus continue however,
however, a big leap towards new successful chemistries seems
a bit remote. Therefore, the authors do not dare to speculate in
how much efforts that will be put into this topic in the future.
But definitely, if one of the new chemistries seems promising,
there will be a huge research effort put into this subject.
Finally, a trend that is on the rise today that is likely to
increase is LCA (life cycle assessment) studies on vehicles.
Material that is toxic, rare and that is difficult to recycle
should be avoided. Even though the result may very well be
performance degradation of some components compared to
todays solutions, the choice of material must be put in relation
to the environmental improvement in a life cycle perspective.
IX. C ONCLUSIONS
This paper presents a performance analysis of over 40
currently globally available BEVs. It includes the most sold
models in USA, Europe, Japan and China during 2014 and
2015, as well as a large number of two-seated electric sport car
models. The analysis is based on a comprehensive gathering
and analysis of specification data of which the majority is
from manufacturer specifications. All treated data is clearly
presented to facilitate further academic studies, and all refer-
ences are provided.
Amongst the studied BEV models it was found that there
is a substantial spread in the vast majority of specification
data in categories regarding: vehicle dimensions and mass;
electric motor performance; battery capacity, mass and charg-
ing power; vehicle performance and energy consumption, as
well as battery and powertrain warranty limits. Yet, a trend of
more common performance measures is seen when dividing
the models into the five subgroups: small, medium-large, high
performing (Tesla Model S and Model X), sport (two-seated)
and Chinese. Still, a significant spread is noted within each
subgroup.
Generally models in the small subgroup have lower: curb
weight; wheel radius; electric motor torque, power and motor
overload capability; and battery energy capacity, compared to
models in the other groups. Consequently their top speed, en-
ergy consumption and driving range values, are also amongst
the lowest. On the other hand, models in the small and
medium-large group have similar: aerodynamics (Cd A of 0.59-
0.86); vehicle power-to-weight ratio (27-105 W/kg); motor
max-to-base speed ratio (2.3-4.4); battery energy density (55-
126 Wh/kg), power density (150-620 W/kg), and power-to-
energy ratio (1.5-6.7 W/Wh); as well as acceleration perfor-
mance (7-16s for 0100km/h).
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12
The models in the high performing and sport groups have
the largest: vehicle power-to-weight ratios (100-400 W/kg);
motor torque and power ratings (150-600 kW); battery energy
capacity ratings (30-90 kWh); battery energy density (90-170
Wh/kg), power density (460-1100 W/kg), and power-to-energy
ratio (3.4-13 W/Wh). Consequently, the top speed (170-305
km/h), acceleration (2.8-6.2s for 0100km/h) and driving range
(200-600 km) performance of these models are significantly
higher than of the small and medium-large models. The only
performance measure where the high performing and sport
models do not excel is energy consumption, which during
NEDC is 160-267 Wh/km, whereas it is 117-166 Wh/km for
the small and medium-large models.
The Chinese BEV models performance is in parity with
that of the small and medium-large models for all possibly
compared categories.
Most models have an 8 year warranty limit on the battery,
and a 5 year limit for the powertrain.
Full ac charging of an empty battery takes up to 5h for most
models. Charging the battery for one hour with ac gives about
20-100 km driving range with NEDC, and 20 min charging
with dc gives 100-150 km.
Additionally, a few interesting measures are here presented.
Electric motor torque and power densities for six models are
estimated to 4.7-6.3 Nm/kg, and 1.5-3.1 kW/kg respectively.
The max-to-continuous EM power-ratio is 1.2-2 for 14 models.
This value is generally lower for small models and higher for
medium-large models. Moreover, between 78%-95% of the
batteries full energy capacity is used in five of the models.
Furthermore, a rough estimation indicates that the powertrain’s
share of the net energy consumption may be around 40%-54%.
In short, many different highway capable BEV models are
available on the global market. The most sold models belong
to the here defined two groups: small and medium-large. For
these models it can be noted that their driving range is still
shorter than it is for a combustion engine vehicle. Also their
top speed values are lower compared to those of combustion
engine vehicles. Still the BEV top speed values are well in
line with common road speed limits around the world.
One vehicle manufacturer, however, stand out: Tesla. Their
high performing models have not only moved the limits in
the public eye of what an electric (family sedan) car can do
and be, with a driving range that can already compete with
combustion engine vehicles (not to mention their acceleration
performance). They have also showed the industry what can
be successful on a global market, despite a higher price. This
leaves quite a large performance gap between the Tesla models
and the rest of the top selling models on the current market.
A PPENDIX A
S PECIFICATION BEV DATA
The gathered BEV specifications are presented in the fol-
lowing tables. The vast majority of the data springs from
vehicle manufacturer specifications, advertising brochures and
media information, as well as governmental organisations such
as EPA. A small part of the data are found in car magazines
and similar web sites. These figures are printed in gray color
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TTE.2016.2571783, IEEE
Transactions on Transportation Electrification
in the tables, which indicates a somewhat lower level of
confidence. SI units are used throughout the tables, hence unit
conversions have been made for some of the data.
Through a deal between Mitsubishi Motors (Japan) and
PSA Peugeot Citron (France) Mitsubishi is manufacturing both
Peugeot iOn and Citroen C-Zero similarly as Mitsubishi i-
MiEV. Therefore, the three BEVs can be expected to have
similar specifications. It was however found that advertised
specifications differ between countries on the manufactures’
websites even for the same model. The deviations regard: the
curb weight (1065-1185 kg), the motor maximum torque (180
Nm or 196 Nm), the speed at which maximum torque and
power is reached (4 and 5 different data respectively), and
the battery energy capacity (14.5kWh or 16kWh). In contrast,
data of the top speed and time to accelerate 0-100km/h does
not differ. The here presented data is assumed to be fairly
representative for the latest models.
A. Brand, Model and Miscellaneous Data
Available data regarding: brand, model, model year, number
of seats, drive, standard tire size on driving wheel pair,
powertrain and battery warranty and battery type is shown
in Table IV, including a yes or no to whether or not the BEV
model is derived from an existing combustion engine vehicle
(CEV) model under the same brand.
B. Dimensional Specifications
Dimensional data regarding weight, track width, external
measures, area and aerodynamic drag coefficient is presented
in Table V. The curb weight is here presented as without driver
and extra cargo whenever possible. The average track width
is the average between front and rear. The width is without
side mirrors, when data was available. For C30 Electric the Cd
value is assumed to be the same as for c30 DRIVe and for the
Ford Focus Electric the Cd value is assumed to be the same
as for Ford Focus. The Nissan Leaf is said to have different
Cd values depending on tire rim: 0.291 for 16”, and 0.289 for
17” [127]. The coming updated Tesla Roadster 3.0 will have
a Cd value of 0.31 for the version that comes with a ”retrofit
aero kit” [53].
C. Powertrain Specifications
Specifications found regarding the electric machine and
battery are shown in Table VI and Table VII.
The Roadster has a max voltage of 420V [144]. The coming
Roadster 3.0 will be fitted with a 70kWh battery energy
capacity [53]. The Japanese version of Honda Fit EV comes
with a CHAdeMO connection [179]. According to [180], the
Lightning GT is currently undergoing a major powertrain
update.
D. Performance Specifications
Specifications found regarding the performance such as
top speed and acceleration, and also energy consumption
and range according to type approval tests in the US and
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13
Europe is presented in Table VIII. The presented EPA energy
consumption and range data adhere to the adjusted values.
According to [127], the Nissan Leaf top speed is 140km/h
on the 16” tire rims and 144km/h on the 17” rims.
E. Chinese BEV models
All data on the Chinese BEVs in Table IX have been
gathered from [99]. Data regarding driving range were found
to be about 130-260 km, however, the driving conditions
are seldom clearly specified hence further details are here
excluded.
F. Terminated and Coming BEV models
BEV models that are no longer on the market for new sales
and models that are expected to be introduced to the market
or as concepts shortly, are presented in Table X.
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Transactions on Transportation Electrification
14

TABLE IV
B RAND , MODEL , DRIVE , TIRE , WARRANTY AND BATTERY TYPE DATA .

Standard Powertrain Battery

Conv. Tire size Warranty Warranty
Model from on driving Distance/ Distance/ Battery
Brand Model year CEV? Seats Drive wheel pair Years Years Type
Smart fortwo 2014 [106] Yes 2 [106] Rear [106] 175/55R15 [106] 50kmi/4yrs [107] 50kmi/4yrs [107] Li-ion [106]
el.dr. Coupe 2015 [108] Pol. [4]
Smart fortwo BRABUS 2014 [109] Yes 2 [109] Rear [109] 225/35R17 [109] Li-ion [109]
El.Dr. Coupe
Toyta Scion iQ EV 2012 [35] Yes 4 [110] Front [35] 175/60R16 [111] Li-ion [35]
Fiat 500e 2015 [112] Yes 4 [112] Front [112] 185/55R15 [112] 50kmi/4yrs [41] 100kmi/8yrs [41] Li-ion [112] Pri. [4]
Citroën C-ZERO 2014 [113] Yes 4 [113] Rear [113] 175/55R15 [113] 100kkm/8yrs [114] Li-ion [113]
Peugeot iOn 2014 [115] Yes 4 [115] Rear [115] 175/55R15 [115] 50kkm/5yrs [115] 50kkm/5yrs [115] Li-ion [115]
Mitsubishi i-MiEV 2014 [42] Yes 4 [42] Rear [116] 175/60R15 [117] 100kkm/5yrs [117] 160kkm/8yrs [117] Li-ion [117] Pri. [4]
Volkswagen e-up! 2013 [118] Yes 4 [119] Front [118] 165/65R15 [118] 160kkm/8yrs [120] Li-ion [118]
Chevrolet Spark EV 2015 [43] Yes 4 [43] Front [43] 185/55R15 [43] 100kmi/5yrs [43] 100kmi/8yrs [43] Li-ion [43]
Bollore Bluecar 2015 [83] 4 [83] Li-ion Pol. [83]
Mitsubishi MiniCab MiEV 2014 [121] Yes 4 [121] Rear [122] 145R12 [121] Li-ion [122]
BMW i3 2014 [77] No 4 [77] Rear [77] 155/70R19 [77] 50kmi/4yrs [88] 100kmi/8yrs [88] Li-ion [77] Pri. [4]
62kmi/8yrs [29]
Renault Zoe 2015 [46] No 5 [46] Front [123] 185/65R15 [46] 100kmi/5yrs [46] 60kmi/5yrs [46] Li-ion [46] Pol. [4]
Volvo C30 Electric 2013 [78] Yes 4 [78] 205/55R16 [124] Li-ion [78]
Volkswagen e-Golf 2015 [125] Yes 5 [125] Front [125] 205/55R16 [125] 60kmi/5yrs [47] 100kmi/8yrs [47] Li-ion Pri. [47]
160kkm/8yrs [126]
Nissan Leaf (Visia) 2015 [127] No 5 [127] Front [127] 205/55R16 [127] 100kkm/5yrs [89] 100kkm/5yrs [89] Li-ion Lam. [81]
Nissan Leaf (Acenta,SV) 2016 [128] No 5 [128] Front [128] 205/55R16 [128] 160kkm/8yrs [128] Li-ion Lam. [129]
Honda FIT EV 2014 [130] Yes 5 [130] Front [130] 185/65R15 [130] 60kmi/5yrs [131] 60kmi/5yrs [131] Li-ion [130] Pri. [4]
Renault Fluence Z.E. 2012 [60] Yes 5 [60] Front [132] 205/55R16 [60] 100kkm/5yrs [60] Li-ion [60]
Ford Focus EV 2015 [133] Yes 5 [133] Front [133] 225/50R17 [49] 100kmi/8yrs [86] 100kmi/8yrs [86] Li-ion [133]
Kia Soul Electric 2015 [134] Yes 5 [55] Front [134] 205/60R16 [134] 100kmi/10yr [50] 100kmi/10yrs [50] Li-ion Pol. [134]
150kkm/7yrs [134]
Mercedes-Benz B-Class El. Dr. 2015 [135] Yes 5 [135] Front [135] 205/60R16 [135] 100kkm/8yrs [57] Li-ion [135] Cyl. [136]
BYD e6 2015 [137] No 5 [137] Front [116] 235/65R17 [137] 10yrs [138] LiFePO4 [139]
Nissan e-NV200 (Evalia) 2015 [90] Yes 5 [90] Front [90] 185/65R15 [90] 100kkm/5yrs [90] 100kkm/5yrs [90] Li-ion [140]
Toyota RAV4 EV 2014 [84] Yes 5 [84] Front [84] 225/65R17 [84] 60kmi/5yrs [84] 100kmi/8yrs [84] Li-ion [84] Cyl. [141]
Tesla Model S 2015 [59] No 5 [59] Rear/AWD [59]245/45R19 [59] unlim./8yrs [59] unlim./8yrs [59] Li-ion [59] Cyl. [4]
Tesla Model X 2015 [142] No 6/7 [142] AWD [142] unlim./8yrs [142] unlim./8yrs [142]
Tesla Roadster 2012 [143] No 2 [143] Rear [144] 225/45R17 [143] 100kmi/7yrs [143] Li-ion [145] Cyl. [4]
Rimac Concept One 2015 [96] No 2 [96] AWD [96] F:245/35R20 [146] LiFePO4 [96]
R:295/30R20
Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG El.Dr. 2015 [68] Yes 2 [68] AWD [68] F:265/35R19 [32] Li-ion [85]
R:295/30R20
Lightning Lightning GT 2015 [74] No 2 [74] Rear [74] 245/45R20 [147] Li-titan [74]
Detroit Electric SP:01 Pure 2015 [31] No 2 [31] Rear [31] 225/45R17 [31]
Detroit Electric SP:01 Perf. 2015 [31] No 2 [31] Rear [31] 225/45R17 [31]
Venturi Fetish 2015 [148] 2 [148] Li-ion Pol. [148]
Venturi America 2014 [149] 2 [150] Rear [150] 275/45R20 [149] Li-ion Pol. [150]
Renovo Coupe 2015 [61] Li-ion [61]
Audi R8 e-tron 2015 [30] Yes 2 [151] Rear [37] 275/40R19 [37] Li-ion [37]
Protoscar LAMPO 3 2011 [152] 2+2 [152] AWD [152] F:245/40R18 [152] Li-ion Pri. [152]
R:295/35R18

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TTE.2016.2571783, IEEE
Transactions on Transportation Electrification
15

TABLE V
D IMENSIONAL DATA .

Weight Average
Curb Max. Max. Front/ Track Front Air drag
weight cargo Weight Rear Width Width Height Length Area coeff. A*Cd
Model (kg) (kg) (kg) (%) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (m2 ) Cd (m2)
fortwo 900 [106] 250 [106] 1150 [106] 1334 [106] 1559 [106] 1565 [106] 2695 [106] 0.29 [131]
BRABUS 925 [109] 150 [109] 1150 [109] 1317 [109] 1559 [109] 1565 [109] 2727 [109]
iQ EV 1100 [110] 1468 [111] 1680 [35] 1505 [35] 3120 [35] 2.15 [153] 0.299 [153] 0.64 cal.
500e 1355 [112] 57/43 [112] 1402 [112] 1627 [112] 1527 [112] 3617 [112] 0.311 [112]
C-ZERO 1065 [113] 385 [113] 1450 [113] 44/56 [113] 1290 [113] 1475 [113] 1608 [113] 3475 [113]
iOn 1065 [115] 310 [115] 1450 [115] 1290 [115] 1475 [115] 1610 [115] 3480 [115] 2.14 cal. 0.33 [115] 0.706 [115]
i-MiEV 1085 [42] 365 cal. 1450 [42] 46/54 [117] 1290 [42] 1475 [42] 1615 [117] 3675 [117] 0.35 [154]
e-Up! 1139 [118] 361 cal. 1500 [118] 1426 [118] 1645 [118] 1489 [118] 3540 [118] 2.09 cal. 0.308 [80] 0.644 [51]
Spark EV 1300 [43] 52/48 [155] 1401 [43] 1627 [43] 1590 [43] 3720 [43] 0.326 [156]
Bluecar 1120 [83] 230 [83] 1350 cal. 1700 [83] 1610 [83] 3650 [83]
MiniCab MiEV 1110 [121] 200 [121] 1310 cal. 1303 [121] 1475 [121] 1810 [121] 3395 [121]
i3 1195 [77] 425 [77] 1620 [77] 47/53 [77] 1573 [157] 1775 [77] 1578 [77] 3999 [77] 2.38 [77] 0.29 [77] 0.69 [44]
Zoe 1468 [46] 475 cal. 1943 [46] 59/41 [46] 1511 [46] 1730 [46] 1562 [46] 4084 [46] 2.59 cal. 0.29 [158] 0.75 [46]
C30 El. 1725 [78] 1546 [159] 1782 [160] 1447 [160] 4266 [160] 2.18 [159] 0.28 [159] 0.61 cal.
e-Golf 1510 [125] 422 [125] 1960 [125] 1528 [125] 1799 [125] 1450 [125] 4270 [125] 2.19 cal. [52] 0.27 [125] 0.59 cal. [52]
Leaf’15 1474 [127] 471 cal. 1945 [127] 1538 [127] 1770 [127] 1545 [127] 4445 [127] 2.27 [161] 0.291 [127] 0.66 cal.
Leaf’16 1516 [128] 454 cal. 1970 [128] 58/42 [129] 1537 [129] 1770 [128] 1550 [128] 4445 [128] 0.29 [128]
FIT EV 1475 [130] 55/45 [130] 1474 [130] 1721 [130] 1579 [130] 4114 [130] 0.34 [162]
Fluence Z.E. 1535 [163] 388 cal. 2023 [60] 46/54 [60] 1546 [60] 1809 [164] 1458 [60] 4748 [60] 0.67 [164]
Focus EV 1642 [133] 365 [165] 2007 cal. 1525 [133] 1823 [133] 1478 [133] 4391 [133] 0.295 [166]
Soul Electric 1490 [167] 470 cal. 1960 [134] 1582 [97] 1800 [134] 1593 [134] 4140 [134] 0.35 [168]
B-Class El. Dr. 1650 [135] 445 [135] 2170 [135] 1548 [135] 1812 [135] 1599 [135] 4358 [135] 0.28 [135]
e6 2380 [137] 375 [137] 2755 cal. 1573 [137] 1822 [137] 1645 [137] 4560 [137]
e-NV200 1571 [140] 483 [90] 2220 [90] 48/52 [90] 1530 [90] 1755 [90] 1858 [90] 4560 [90]
RAV4 EV 1828 [84] 1559 [84] 1816 [84] 1684 [84] 4574 [84] 0.30 [84]
ModelS 2108 [59] 482 cal. 2590 [28] 48/52 [59] 1680 [59] 1963 [59] 1445 [169] 4978 [59] 2.34 [170] 0.24 [171] 0.56 cal.
ModelX 0.24 [142]
Roadster 1235 [143] 249 cal. 1484 [172] 35/65 [173] 1482 [143] 1851 [143] 1126 [143] 3939 [143] 0.36 [53]
Concept One 1950 [174] 42/58 [96] 1997 [174] 1198 [174] 4548 [174]
SLS AMG El.Dr.2110 [85] 250 [85] 2435 [85] 47/53 [175] 1667 [85] 1939 [85] 1262 [85] 4638 [85]
Lightning GT 1850 [176] 1668 [177] 1940 [176] 1200 [176] 4445 [176]
SP:01 Pure 1155 [31] 1751 [31] 1117 [31] 3880 [31]
SP:01 Perf. 1175 [31] 1751 [31] 1117 [31] 3880 [31]
Fetish 1200 [148]
America 1525 [150] 2060 [150] 1450 [150] 4125 [150]
Coupe 1474 [61]
R8 e-tron 1841 [37] 40/60 [37] 1617 [178] 1929 [178] 1252 [151] 4431 [151] 0.28 [30]
LAMPO 3 1700 [152] 1998 [152] 1307 [152] 4687 [152]

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TTE.2016.2571783, IEEE
Transactions on Transportation Electrification
16

TABLE VI
E LECTRIC M OTOR DATA

EM EM EM EM Speed EM Speed EM
EM Max. Max. Cont. at max. at max. Max.
Motor Torque Power Power Torque power Speed EM Transm.
Model type (Nm) (kW) (kW) (rpm) (rpm) (rpm) Cooling Ratio
fortwo PM [106] 130 [106] 55 [106] 35 [106] Water [108] 9.922 [181]
BRABUS PM [109] 135 [109] 60 [109] 35 [109]
iQ EV PMSM [110] 163 [35] 47 [35] Air [35]
500e PMSM [182] 200 [112] 83 [112] 12,800 [67] Water [67]] 9.59 [112]
C-ZERO PMSM [113] 196 [113] 49 [113] 300 [113] 4,000-8,800 [113]
iOn PMSM [115] 196 [115] 49 [115] 35 [115] 300 [115] 4,000-8,800 [115] 9,500 [115]
i-MiEV PMSM [117] 196 [117] 49 [117] 300 [117] 4,000-8,800 [117] 9,900 [117] Water [117] 7.065 [117]
e-Up! PMSM [118] 210 [118] 60 [118] 2,800 [118] 2,800 [118] 12,000 [118] 8.162 [119]
Spark EV PMSM [43] 444 [43] 105 [43] Liquid [43] 3.87 [43]
Bluecar 50 [83] 35 [83]
MiniCab PMSM [122] 196 [121] 30 [121] 25 [121] 3,000 [122] 2,500-6,000 [122] 7.065 [121]
i3 HPMSM [29] 250 [77] 125 [77] 75 [77] 5,000 [65] 11,400 [29] Liquid [65] 9.7 [77]
Zoe SM, w.r. [46] 220 [46] 65 [46] 2,500 [46] 3,000-11,300 [46] 11,300 [46] 9.32 [183]
C30 El. 250 [78] 89 [78]
e-Golf PMSM [125] 270 [125] 85 [125] 50 [184] 3,000 [185] 3,000 [185] 12,000 [125] 9.747 [125]
Leaf’15 IPMSM [56] 254 [127] 80 [127] 3,008 [127] 3,008-10,000 [127] 10,500 [127] Water [56] 8.1938 [127]
Leaf’16 SM [128] 254 [128] 80 [128] 3,008 [128] 3,008-10,000 [128] 10,500 [128] 8.1938 [128]
FIT EV PMSM [130] 256 [130] 92 [130] 3,056 [130] 3,695-10,320 [130] 10,320 [130] 8.058 [130]
Fluence. SM, w.r. [60] 226 [60] 70 [60] 35 [63] 2,500 [164] 3,000-8,900 [164] 11,000 [48] 9.34 [60]
Focus EV PMSM [103] 250 [133] 107 [133] 5,500 [155] Liquid [49] 7.82 [155]
Soul El. IPMSM [55] 285 [134] 81.4 [97] 2,730 [134] 2,730-8,000 [134] Liquid [97] 8.206 [134]
B-Class El.Dr. IM [135] 340 [135] 132 [135] 65 [135] 9,900-12,500 [135] Liquid [57] 9.73 [136]
e6 PMSM [137] 450 [137] 90 [137] 7,000 [186] Liquid [98] 6.844 [186]
e-NV200 IPMSM [140] 254 [90] 80 [90] 10,500 [140] 7.938 [90]
RAV4 EV IM [84] 370 [84] 115 [84] Liquid [70] 9.73 [84]
ModelS 60 IM Cu. [187] 430 [188] 283 [189] 5,000 [188] 5,000-8,000 [190] 16,000 [28] Liquid [28] 9.73 [187]
ModelS 70 2 IM Cu. [59] 441 [59] 285 [59] Liquid [59]
ModelS 70D 2 IM Cu. [59] 525 [59] F,R:193 [59] Liquid [59]
ModelS 85 2 IM Cu. [59] 441 [59] 285 [59] 5,800 [188] 6,000-9,500 [190] 16,000 [28] Liquid [59] 9.73 [187]
ModelS 85D 2 IM Cu. [59] 658 [59] F,R:193 [59] 5,800 [188] 16,000 [28] Liquid [59] 9.73 [187]
ModelS P85D 3 IM Cu. [59] 967 [59] F:193 [59] 5,100 [188] 5,000-8,600 [190] 16,000 [28] Liquid [59] 9.73 [187]
R:375
ModelX 90D F,R: 193 [142]
ModelX P90D F:193 [142]
R:375 [142]
Roadster IM [143] 370 [143] 225 [143] 5,400 [143] 5,000-6,000 [143] 14,000 [143] Air [143] 8.28 [143]
Concept One 4 PMSM [96] 1600 [96] 800 [96] 6,500 [96] 12,000 [96] Oil [96] 3.5 [174]
SLS AMG El.Dr. 4 PMSM [68] 1000 [68] 552 [68] 13,000 [68] Liquid [85]
Lightning GT 2 EM [74] 4000 [74] 300 [74] 5.5 [176]
SP:01 Pure 280 [31] 150 [31]
SP:01 Perf. 280 [31] 210 [31]
Fetish PMSM [148] 380 [148] 220 [148]
America 2 PMSM [149] 480 [150] 300 [150] 6,000 [149] 10,500 [149]
Coupe 2 Ax.Flux [61] 1355 [61] 368 [61]
R8 e-tron 2 EM [37] 920 [30] 340 [30]
LAMPO 3 3 HSM [152] 900 [152] 420 [152] 4,500 [152] Water [152] 6.4 [152]

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TTE.2016.2571783, IEEE
Transactions on Transportation Electrification
17

TABLE VII
BATTERY AND C HARGING P OWER DATA

Battery Standard DC Fast

Battery Battery (Cont.) Battery (Optional) Charging
Energy Charge Battery Max. Battery Specific AC Charge Method/
Capacity Capacity voltage Power Number weight Energy Battery Power Peak Power
Model (kWh) (Ah) (V) (kW) of cells (kg) (Wh/kg) Cooling (kW) (kW)
fortwo el.dr. 17.6 [106] 52 [191] 339 [191] 93 [106] 178 cal. 98.9 [191] Liquid [192] 3.3 [108]
(22) [193]
fortwo BRABUS 17.6 [109] 93 [109] 3.3 (22) [109]
iQ EV 12 [35] 43 [191] 277.5 [35] 150 [35] 220 [110] 54.7 [191] Air [35] 3 [35] CHA [194]
500e 24 [112] 63 [103] 364 [112] 97 [112] 291 [182] 88 [103] Liquid [112] 6.6 [112]
C-ZERO 14.5 [113] 300 [113] 80 [113] 3.2 [113] 50 [113]
iOn 14.5 [115] 80 [115] 221 [115] 66 cal. 3.2 [115] 50/CHA [115]
i-MiEV 16 [117] 50 [116] 330 [117] 145 cal. 110 [104] Air [195] 3.7 [42] CHA [42]
e-Up! 18.7 [118] 374n [118] 75 [196] 204 [118] 230 [118] 81 cal. Passive [196] 3.6 [118] 40/CCS [118]
Spark EV 18.4 [43] 54 [43] 400t [43] 120 [43] 192 [43] 215 [43] 85 [104] Liquid [43] 3.3 [197] CCS [43]
Bluecar 30 [83] 410n [83] 45 [83] 300 [83] 100 cal.
MiniCab 16 [121] 330 [121] 3 [122] CHA [198]
i3 22.0 [77] 60 [103] 360n [65] (40) [65] 96 [199] 233 [200] 93 [103] Refrig. [65] 7.4 [45] 50/CCS [45]
147 [200]
Zoe 22 [46] 400n [46] 192 [46] 290 [46] 76 cal. 43 [201]
C30 El. 24 [78] 330 [78] 73 cal. 22 [202]
e-Golf 24.2 [125] 75 [104] 323n [125] 264 [125] 318 [125] 76.1 [104] Passive [47] 7.2 [80] 50/CCS [80]
Leaf’15 24 [127] 66 [103] 360 [127] 90 [203] 192 [127] 273 cal. 87.9 [103] Passive [81] 3.6 (6.6) [127] 50/CHA [127]
Leaf’16 30 [128] 83 [104] 360 [104] 192 [128] 294 cal. 102 [103] 3.6 (6.6) [128] 50/CHA [128]
FIT EV 20 [130] 20 [116] 330 [116] 100 [130] 224 cal. 89.3 [116] 6.6 [130] CHA [179]
Fluence 22 [60] 65 [60] 398 [60] 192 [164] 280 [164] 79 cal. 3.5 (43) [132]
Focus EV 23 [133] 75 [103] 350 [103] 287 cal. 80.2 [103] Liquid [133] 6.6 [133]
Soul El. 27 [134] 75 [103] 360 [134] 90 [97] 192 [55] 274.5 [55] 98.4 [82] Air [50] 6.6 [134] 50/CHA [134]
B-Class El.Dr. 36 [75] 120 [103] 367 [103] 222 cal. 125.9 [103] Liquid [57] 10 [136]
e6 61.4 [137] 200 [116] 307 [116] (162) [79] 624 cal. 98.4 [116] Air [79] 40 [94] 100 [138]
270 [79]
e-NV200 24 [90] 360 [140] 192 [140] 3.6 (6.6) [90] CHA [90]
RAV4 EV 41.8 [84] 130 [116] 386m [84] 129 [84] 4500 [58] 383.5 [84] 110.3 [116] Liquid [87] 10 [84]
ModelS 60 60 [189] 245 [103] 400 [103] 353 cal. 170 [103]
ModelS 85 85 [189] 245 [189] 400 [103] 500 cal. 170 [103] Liquid [28] 10 (20) [187] 120/Spr [93]
ModelX 90 [142] 250 [104] 350 [104] 600 cal. 150 [104]
Roadster 56 [145] 366n [144] 215 [145] 6 831 [143] 450 [145] 121 [145] Liquid [145] 16.8 [172]
Concept One 82 [96] 650n [96] (1000) [96] 1 400 [174] Liquid [96] 22 [96] 50/CCS [96]
SLS AMG El.Dr. 60 [68] 400 [68] 600 [32] 864 [85] 548 [32] 109 cal. Liquid [85] 22 [32]
Lightning GT 44 [74] 450 [74] 9 [74] 50 [74]
SP:01 37 [31] 7.7 [204]
Fetish 54 [148]
America 53 [150] 22 [149]
Coupe 30 [205] 740 [61] CHA [206]
R8 e-tron 90.3 [37] 385n [37] 7488 [37] 595 [37] 152 [37] Liquid [37] 7.2 [37] 50/CCS [37]
LAMPO 3 32 [152] 80 [152] 400n [152] 216 [152] 360 [152] 89 cal. Water [152] 22 [152] CHA [152]

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TTE.2016.2571783, IEEE
Transactions on Transportation Electrification
18

TABLE VIII
P ERFORMANCE DATA .

Energy Energy Energy Energy Range

Top Acc. Time Acc. Time Acc. Time p. dist. p. dist. p. dist. p. dist. Range EPA
speed 0-100 km/h 0-60 mph (0-X) km/h NEDC EPA City EPA Highw. EPA Comb. NEDC Comb.
Model (km/h) (s) (s) (s) (Wh/km) eq.(Wh/km) eq.(Wh/km) eq.(Wh/km) (km) eq.(km)
fortwo Coupe 126 [106] 11.5 [106] 4.8 (60) [106] 151 [106] 172 [103] 225 [103] 196 [103] 145 [106] 109 [191]
BRABUS Coupe 130 [109] 10.2 [109] 163 [109] 145 [109]
iQ EV 125 [35] 14 [35] 13.4 [111] 134 [35] 151 [191] 200 [191] 173 [191] 85 [35] 61 [191]
500e 137 [112] 8.9 [182] 171 [103] 194 [103] 181 [103] 140 [103]
C-ZERO 130 [113] 15.9 [113] 5.9 (50) [113] 126 [113] 150 [113]
iOn 130 [115] 15.9 [115] 126 [115] 150 [115]
i-MiEV 130 [42] 15.9 [42] 125 [42] 166 [116] 212 [116] 187 [116] 160 [42] 100 [116]
e-Up! 130 [118] 12.4 [118] 8.1 (80) [118] 117 [118] 160 [118]
Spark EV 145 [43] 7.2 [156] 3 (48) [43] 163 [103] 192 [103] 176 [103] 132 [103]
Bluecar 120 [83] 6.3 (60) [83]
MiniCab MiEV 114 [207]
i3 150 [77] 7.2 [77] 7.0 [157] 3.7 (60) [44] 129 [77] 152 [103] 188 [103] 168 [103] 190 [77] 130 [103]
Zoe 135 [46] 13.5 [46] 4 (48) [46] 133 [201] 240 [46]
C30 El. 125 [78] 10.7 [78] 5.9 (70) [78] 175 [78] 163 [78]
e-Golf 140 [185] 10.4 [185] 6.9 (80) [185] 127 [185] 167 [103] 199 [103] 181 [103] 190 [185] 134 [103]
Leaf’15 140 [127] 11.5 [127] 150 [127] 166 [103] 207 [103] 184 [103] 199 [103] 135 [103]
Leaf’16 144 [128] 11.5 [128] 150 [127] 170 [104] 207 [104] 186 [104] 250 [128] 172 [104]
FIT EV 148 [208] 8.5 [155] 3.1 (48) [155] 159 [116] 200 [116] 177 [116] 132 [116]
Fluence Z.E. 135 [60] 13.7 [60] 140 [209] 185 [60]
Focus EV 137 [210] 11.4 [165] 154 [165] 190 [103] 211 [103] 200 [103] 162 [210] 122 [103]
Soul Electric 145 [134] 11.2 [134] 10.8 [55] 147 [134] 175 [134] 228 [103] 199 [103] 212 [134] 150 [103]
B-Class El. Dr. 160 [135] 7.9 [135] 3.9 (60) [135] 166 [135] 245 [103] 256 [103] 250 [103] 200 [135] 140 [103]
e6 140 [137] 9.2 [211] 7.7 (60) [138] 341 [116] 322 [116] 333 [116] 204 [116]
e-NV200 / Evalia 122 [140] 14 [90] 165 [140] 170 [140]
RAV4 EV 161 [84] 7.0 [58] 267 [116] 285 [116] 275 [116] 166 [116]
ModelS 60 190 [189] 6.2 [189] 5.9 [187] 188 [188] 222 [103] 217 [103] 219 [103] 390 [189] 335 [103]
ModelS 70 225 [59] 5.8 [212] 5.5 [59] 442 [212] 386 [59]
ModelS 70D 225 [59] 5.4 [212] 5.2 [213] 420 [212] 370 [59]
ModelS 85 225 [59] 5.6 [212] 5.4 [59] 170 [188] 238 [103] 232 [103] 235 [103] 502 [212] 426 [103]
ModelS 85D 249 [59] 4.4 [212] 4.2 [59] 170 [188] 220 [103] 198 [103] 210 [103] 528 [212] 435 [103]
ModelS P85D 249 [59] 3.3 [212] 3.1 [59] 188 [188] 234 [103] 215 [103] 225 [103] 491 [212] 407 [103]
ModelX 90D 249 [142] 5.0 [214] 4.8 [142] 232 [104] 222 [104] 227 [104] 414 [104]
ModelX P90D 249 [142] 4.0 [214] 3.8 [142] 236 [104] 233 [104] 235 [104] 402 [104]
Roadster 201 [143] 3.9 [143] 160 [215] 340 [215] 393 [216]
Concept One 305 [146] 2.8 [96] 600 [174]
SLS AMG El.Dr. 250 [68] 3.9 [68] 268 [217] 250 [68]
Lightning GT 209 [74] 5 [74] 241 [74]
SP:01 Pure 170 [31] 5.6 [31] 5.3 [31] 288 [31]
SP:01 Perf. 250 [31] 3.9 [31] 3.7 [31] 288 [31]
Fetish 200 [148] 4 [148]
America 220 [150] 4.5 [150] 14 (200) [150]
Coupe 193 [61] 3.4 [61]
R8 e-tron 250 [37] 3.9 [30] 450 [30]
LAMPO 3 220 [152] 4.5 [152] 200 [152]

TABLE IX
C HINESE HIGHWAY CAPABLE TOP SELLING BEV S , [99].

Acc. EM
(0-50) EM EM (Base) Battery Battery
Curb Top 0-100 EM Max. Cont. Max. Energy Charge
Model Weight Speed km/h EM Torque Power Power/ Speed Capacity Capacity Battery
Brand Model year Seats (kg) (km/h) (s) type (Nm) (kW) Torque (rpm) (kWh) (Ah) Type
BAIC E150 EV 2013 5 1 370 125 (6.6) 144 45 64 Nm (3 000) 23.04 72 Li-ion
20 kW 9 000 Phosphate
BAIC EV200 2014 5 1 295 125 (5.0) 180 53 102 Nm 30.4 Li-ion
13.0 30 kW
BAIC ES210 2014 5 1 760 130 (5.3) PMSM 255 80 127 Nm (3 000) 38 106 Li-ion
(Senova EV) 40 kW 9 000
BMW Brillians Ziniro 1E 2014 5 1 970 130 (5.5) 250 125 LiFePO4
BYD Daimler DENZA EV 2014 5 2 090 150 (4.5) 290 86 177 Nm 47.5 LiFePO4
14.0 68 kW
Changan Eado EV 2015 5 1 610 150 280 90 80 Li-ion
SAIC Roewe E50 EV 2012 4 1 080 130 (5.3) PMSM 155 52 28 kW (3 000) 18 LiFePO4
14.6 8 000
Shanghai-GM Springo EV 2012 5 1 385 130 10.4 PMSM 510 85 21.4 LiFePO4
(Chevy Sail EV)
Venucia E30 EV 2015 5 1 494 144 (4.4) PMSM 254 80 (3 008) 24 Li-ion
(from Leaf) 10 000 Mg
BAIC EU 260 2015 5 140 (4) 260 100 41.4 Ternary
9 Litium
BYD e5 2015 130 310 160 65 LiFePO4

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TTE.2016.2571783, IEEE
Transactions on Transportation Electrification
TABLE X
T ERMINATED AND COMING BEV MODELS .
Terminated Coming
Scion iQ EV Chevrolet Bolt EV
Renault Fluence Z.E. Porsche Concept Study Mission E
RAV4 EV Audi e-tron Quattro Concept
Tesla Model S 60kWh Tesla Roadster 3.0
Tesla Roadster 2.5 Renovo Coupe
Detroit Electric SP:01
Tesla Model 3
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19
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Transactions on Transportation Electrification
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