i

GEEC 111:
GENDER & SOCIETY

MODULE III

THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION

OF GENDER

Lesson 1 Social Constructionism

and Gender Stereotypes

Lesson 2 Gendered Early Years

Lesson 3 Gendered Media

Lesson 4 Gendered Workplace

GEEC 111 MODULE III: Social Construction of Gender

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PRELIMINARY PAGES

Title Page ............................................................................ 1

Table of Contents .................................................................. 2

MODULE III. The Social Construction of Gender .............................. 3

Introduction .............................................................. 3
Objectives ............................................................... 3
Directions/ Module Organizer ......................................... 3

LESSON 1. Social Constructionism and Gender Stereotypes........... 4

Learning Activity for Lesson 1 ......................................... 6

LESSON 2. Gendered Early Years (Family) ................................ 7

Learning Activity for Lesson 2 ....................................... 10

LESSON 3. Gendered Media .................................................. 12

Learning Activity for Lesson 3 ....................................... 14

LESSON 4. Gendered Workplace ............................................ 16

Learning Activity for Lesson 4 ....................................... 17

MODULE SUMMARY ............................................................. 18

SUMMATIVE TEST ............................................................... 19
REFERENCE LIST ................................................................ 21

GEEC 111 MODULE III: Social Construction of Gender

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MODULE III

THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER

 INTRODUCTION

Rather than understanding gender in terms of fixed dichotomies (e.g.

male/female, masculinity/femininity), sociologists and anthropologists see it as
a complex social phenomenon that changes over time and varies across
cultures.

This module explores the ways in which gender is conceptualized as a

social construct viewing it not as a fixed or static identity but as a product
that is constructed and performed in interaction at given contexts. Moreover, it
is argued that in the process of social construction of gender, social institutions
play vital role. These institutions include the family, education, workplace and
media among others.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this module, students should be able to:

• explain the social construction of gender.

• understand prevailing societal norms related to gender and recognize the
influence of socialization in constructing gender stereotypes.
• articulate the role of social institutions such as the family, education,
workplace and mass media in the social construction of gender.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

Specifically, this module revolves around the ways to which gender is

socially-constructed.

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities (four learning activities and a summative test)
to find out how much you have benefited from it. Work on these exercises
carefully and submit your output to your instructor in the agreed time-frame of
submission.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor via online
platforms.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

 Social Constructionism and

Gender Stereotypes.

Social Constructionism

The social construction of gender comes out of the general school of

thought entitled social constructionism. Social constructionism proposes that
everything people “know” or see as “reality” is partially, if not entirely, socially
situated. To say that something is socially constructed does not mitigate the
power of the concept. Take, for example, money. Money is a socially constructed
reality. Paper bills are worth nothing independent of the value individuals ascribe
to them. The dollar is only worth as much as values as Americans are willing to
ascribe to it. Note that the dollar only works in its own currency market; it holds
no value in areas that don’t use the dollar. Nevertheless, the dollar is extremely
powerful within its own domain.

These basic theories of social constructionism can be applied to any issue

of study pertaining to human life, including gender. Is gender an essential
category or a social construct? If it is a social construct, how does it function?
Who benefits from the way that gender is constructed? A social constructionist
view of gender looks beyond categories and examines the intersections of
multiple identities and the blurring of the boundaries between essentialist
categories. This is especially true with regards to categories of male and female,
which are viewed typically as binary and opposite. Social constructionism seeks
to blur the binary and muddle these two categories, which are so frequently
presumed to be essential.

Judith Butler and Gender Performativity

Judith Butler is one of the most prominent social theorists currently

working on issues pertaining to the social construction of gender. Butler is a
trained philosopher and has oriented her work towards feminism and queer
theory. Butler’s most known work is Gender Trouble: Feminism and the
Subversion of Identity, published in 1991, which argues for gender
performativity. This means that gender is not an essential category. The
repetitious performances of “male” and “female” in accordance with social
norms reifies the categories, creating the appearance of a naturalized and
essential binary.

“Gender is never a stable descriptor of an individual, but an individual is

always ‘doing’ gender, performing or deviating from the socially accepted
performance of gender stereotypes”, Butler says. Doing gender is not just about
acting in a particular way. It is about embodying and believing certain gender
norms and engaging in practices that map on to those norms. These performances
normalize the essentialism of gender categories. In other words, by doing gender,

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we reinforce the notion that there are only two mutually exclusive categories of
gender. The internalized belief that men and women are essentially different is
what makes men and women behave in ways that appear essentially different.
Gender is maintained as a category through socially constructed displays of
gender.

Doing gender is fundamentally a social relationship. One does gender in

order to be perceived by others in a particular way, either as male, female, or
as troubling those categories. Certainly, gender is internalized and acquires
significance for the individual; some individuals want to feel feminine or
masculine.

Social constructionists might argue that because categories are only

formed within a social context, even the affect of gender is in some ways a social
relation. Moreover, we hold ourselves and each other for our presentation of
gender, or how we “measure up.” We are aware that others evaluate and
characterize our behavior on the parameter of gender. Social constructionists
would say that gender is interactional rather than individual—it is developed
through social interactions. Gender is also said to be omnirelevant, meaning that
people are always judging our behavior to be either male or female.

Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are the beliefs that people have about the
characteristics of males and females. The content of stereotypes varies over
cultures and over time. These expectations are often related to the roles that
the sexes fulfill in the culture. Children learn some aspects of stereotypes at a
very young age. By the age of 2 to 3-years, children show evidence of having
some rudimentary knowledge of the activities and objects associated with each
sex. Children’s gender stereotypes of activities and occupations develop quickly
during the preschool years, reaching a very high level by kindergarten. During
the elementary school years, gender stereotypes broaden to include sports,
school subjects, and personality traits. With age, children become increasingly
knowledgeable about gender stereotypes and yet the rigidity of their stereotypes
declines as they increasingly recognize the cultural relativity of these norms.
Some evidence suggests that boys hold more rigid gender stereotypes than girls
and are held to more rigid ideals than girls.

In adolescence, flexibility in stereotypes fluctuates in response to two

opposing forces—increasing cognitive flexibility tends to increase adolescents’
flexibility in applying stereotypes whereas increasing pressure to conform to
stereotypes in preparation for sexual roles and adult status increases adherence
to stereotypes.

Children use gender stereotypes to make inferences about others at a

young age. When making judgments of other people, children and adults will
apply their gender stereotypic expectations to them. Even more than adults,
children will rely on a person’s sex to make judgments and they are less likely to
consider other relevant information about the person than adults are.

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Lesson 2

 Gendered Early Years

The making of a man or a woman is a never-ending process that begins

before birth– from the moment someone begins to wonder if the pending child
will be a boy or a girl. And the ritual announcement at birth that it is in fact one
or the other instantly transforms an “it” into a “he” or a “she”, standardly
assigning it to a lifetime as a male or as a female. This attribution is further made
public and lasting through the linguistic event of naming. Thus the dichotomy of
male and female is the ground upon which we build selves from the moment of
birth.
These early linguistic acts set up a baby for life, launching a gradual process
of learning to be a boy or a girl, a man or a woman, and to see all others as boys
or girls, men or women as well.

Dichotomous beginnings: It’s a boy! It’s a girl!

By the time children reach pre-school years, they become increasingly

interested in finding out the differences between boys and girls both physically
and in terms of what activities are acceptable for each. While two-year-olds can
identify some differences and learn whether they are boys or girls, preschoolers
become more interested in what it means to be male or female. This self-
identification, or gender identity, is followed sometime later with gender
constancy, or the understanding that superficial changes do not mean that gender
has actually changed. For example, if you are playing with a two-year-old boy and
put barrettes in his hair, he may protest saying that he doesn’t want to be a girl.
By the time a child is four-years-old, they have a solid understanding that putting
barrettes in their hair does not change their gender.

Children learn at a young age that there are distinct expectations for boys
and girls. Cross-cultural studies reveal that children are aware of gender roles by
age two or three. At four or five, most children are firmly entrenched in culturally
appropriate gender roles. Children acquire these roles through socialization, a
process in which people learn to behave in a particular way as dictated by societal
values, beliefs, and attitudes.

Children may also use gender stereotyping readily. Gender stereotyping

involves overgeneralizing about the attitudes, traits, or behavior patterns of
women or men. A recent research study examined four- and five-year-old
children’s predictions concerning the sex of the persons carrying out a variety of
common activities and occupations on television. The children’s responses
revealed strong gender-stereotyped expectations. They also found that children’s
estimates of their own future competence indicated stereotypical beliefs, with
the females more likely to reject masculine activities.

Children who are allowed to explore different toys, who are exposed to
non-traditional gender roles, and whose parents and caregivers are open to

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allowing the child to take part in non-traditional play (allowing a boy to nurture
a doll, or allowing a girl to play doctor) tend to have broader definitions of what
is gender appropriate, and may do less gender stereotyping.

Gendered Styles of Communication

According to Julia T. Wood (1995), professor of Communication at

University of North Carolina, from childhood men and women are conditioned to
have differing communication styles, to talk differently. This is so because
individuals grow differently with distinct speech communities, referred to as
“group of people who share norms about communication”. Accordingly, gendered
early years’ speech communities are derived from children’s play (i.e. boy’s
games and girl’s games).

In general, boys’ games are usually competitive, involving physically rough

play. In most instances these games are played in large groups with clear goals,
specific rules and roles. As a result of this dimensions, communication among boys
developed early as a means to assert ideas, opinions and identity, achieve
something (i.e. solving problem, strategies) and attract and maintain other’s
attention and compete for the “talk stage” (building authority and shutting
others).

Girls’ games on the one hand tend to be cooperative (pairs or small groups),
does not necessarily require physical strength with no pre-set goals, roles and
rules. In the case of young girls, communication is developed early as a means to
create and maintain relationship, establish egalitarian (equal) relationships,
inclusive of others (i.e. bring them to conversations, respond to them) and tend
to show sensitivity to others.

Due to the differing speech communities to which boys and girls grow,
subtle rules governing gender roles were adapted. Julia Woods identify these
tenets of manhood and womanhood as follows:

Themes of Manhood:
1. Don’t Be Feminine: anti female directive.
2. Be Successful: men are expected to achieve status in their
professions.
3. Be Aggressive: men should be powerful and dominating.
4. Be Self Reliant

Growing up Feminine:
1. Appearance Still Counts: women are judged by their looks.
2. Be positive and caring: cultural expectation of women.
3. Be Superwomen: women are expected to do it all.

Communication plays a primary role in shaping our gendered identities.

Through interaction with others, we come to understand how society defines
masculinity and femininity. But we need to remember that socialization is not as
deterministic as it may seem. Clearly, we are influenced by the expectations of
our culture, yet these expectations endure only to the extent that individuals and
institutions sustain them. Through our own communication and the ways we act,

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we reinforce or challenge existing views of gender. As we do so, we contribute to

forming social views that affect the extent to which each of us can define
ourselves and live our lives as we choose.

Parental Modeling

Another factor to which early years is being gendered, that most people
point to is parental modeling. Generally understood, gender parental modeling
quite literally means modeling the parent’s own behavior to provide a consistent,
positive example for a child, that is, the way parents communicate gender
through modeling masculinity, femininity, for heterosexual parents, male-female
relationships. As have been discussed earlier, cognitive development theory tells
us that, once children have gender constancy, they actively look for role models
of their sex and use those models to develop masculine or feminine qualities,
behaviors, and so forth. For most children, parents are the single most visible and
available models of masculinity and femininity. By observing parents, children of
heterosexuals often learn the roles socially prescribed for women and men. In
heterosexual families that adhere to traditional sex roles, children of both sexes
are likely to learn that women are supposed to nurture others, clean, cook, and
show emotional sensitivity, and that men are supposed to earn money, make
decisions, and be emotionally controlled.

Not all families, however, adopt traditional sex roles; in fact, families in
our era are highly diverse. We've already noted one family form that departs from
the traditional image of nuclear families: many children have a single parent, at
least for part of their lives. Single mothers provide children with more-
multifaceted models of women's roles, and single fathers provide children with
more-multifaceted models of manhood. A major reason for changes in forms of
families is that most women now work outside the home.

Another departure from traditional families has to do with the breadwinner

role. Women who work outside the home are no longer necessarily making "a little
extra" to help the family, but rather become the breadwinner of that family.
There are households wherein women in dual-worker families make more money
than their male partners (Coontz, 2005b).

Gay and lesbian parenting is another form of family that is becoming more
visible. The 2000 U.S. Census indicated that more than half a million households
were headed by same-sex partners, representing 1 % of all coupled households;
33% of women and 22 % of men in same-sex partnerships live with children.
Whereas some same-sex partners have children through technology or adoption,
many same-sex partners tend to parent older children from former heterosexual
unions.

Blended families, too, have become very common. Because divorce is

common, many children live either with a single parent or in a family that formed
when one or both parents remarried or cohabited. Additional step-parenting
occurs when single mothers marry for the first time. Being part of more than one
family and being able to observe multiple models of gender gives these children
more diverse ideas about how families can work and how gender can be embodied.

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Parents also model attitudes about gender and physical appearance.

Fathers who work out and engage in vigorous physical activities and who
encourage their sons to play sports may impart the message that physical strength
is masculine. Mothers who make disparaging remarks about their weight or about
eating communicate that to be feminine is to be thin and that daughters should
strive for thinness.
Although the first few years are important in shaping gender, they are not
absolute determinants of our gender across the life span. Our understanding of
gender and of our personal gender identity changes over time as we develop
personally and as we interact with diverse people who embody alternative
versions of masculinity and femininity.

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Lesson 3

 Gendered Media

Of the many influences on how we view men and women, media are the
most pervasive and one of the most powerful. Woven throughout our daily lives,
media insinuate their messages into our consciousness at every turn. All forms of
media communicate images of the sexes, many of which perpetuate unrealistic,
stereotypical, and limiting perceptions. Three themes describe how media
represent gender. First, women are underrepresented, which falsely implies that
men are the cultural standard and women are unimportant or invisible. Second,
men and women are portrayed in stereotypical ways that reflect and sustain
socially endorsed views of gender. Third, depictions of relationships between men
and women emphasize traditional roles and normalize violence against women.
We will consider each of these themes in this lesson.

Underrepresentation of Women

A primary way in which media distort reality is in underrepresenting

women. Whether it is prime-time television, in which there are three times as
many white men as women, or children’s programming, in which males outnumber
females by two to one, or newscasts, in which women make up 16% of newscasters
and in which stories about men are included 10 times more often than ones about
women (“Study Reports Sex Bias,” 1989), media misrepresent actual proportions
of men and women in the population. This constant distortion tempts us to believe
that there really are more men than women and, further, that men are the
cultural standard.

The lack of women in the media is paralleled by the scarcity of

women in charge of media. Only about 5% of television writers, executives,
and producers are women (Lichter, Lichter, & Rothman, 1986). Ironically, while
two-thirds of journalism graduates are women, they make up less than 2%
of those papers and in corporate management of news-only about 5% of
newspaper publishers (“Women in Media,”1988). Female film directors are even
scarce, as are executives in charge of MTV. It is probably not coincidental that so
few women are behind the scenes of an industry that so consistently portrays
women negatively. Some media analysts (Mills1988) believe that if more women
had positions or authority at executive levels, media would offer more positive
portrayals of women.

Stereotypical Portrayals of Women and Men

In general, media continue to present both women and men in stereotyped

ways that limit our perceptions of human possibilities. Typically men are

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portrayed as active, adventurous, powerful, sexually aggressive and largely

uninvolved in human relationships. Just as’ consistent with cultural views of
gender are depictions of women as sex objects who are usually young, thin
beautiful, passive, dependent, and often incompetent and dumb. Female
characters devote their primary energies to improving their appearances and
taking care of homes and people. Because media pervade our lives, the ways they
misrepresent genders may distort how we see ourselves and what we perceive as
normal and desirable for men and women.

According to J. A. Doyle (as cited in Wood, 1994), whose research focuses

on masculinity children’s television typically shows males as “aggressive,
dominant, and engaged in exciting activities from which they receive rewards
from others for their ‘masculine’ accomplishments.” Relatedly, recent studies
reveal that the majority of men on prime-time television are independent,
aggressive, and in charge. Television programming for all ages disproportionately
depicts men as serious confident, competent, powerful, and in high-status
‘positions. Media, then reinforce long-standing cultural ideals of masculinity:’
Men are presented as hard, tough, independent, sexually aggressive, unafraid,
violent, totally in control of all emotions, and-above all in no way feminine.

Women on the other hand are portrayed as significantly younger and

thinner than women in the population as a whole, and most are depicted as
passive, dependent on men, and enmeshed in relationships or housework (Wood,
1994). The requirements of youth and beauty in women even influence news
shows, where female newscasters are expected to be younger, more physically
attractive, and less outspoken than males.

Stereotypical Images of Relationships Between Men and Women

Given the general stereotypical portrayals of men and women in media,

images of their relationship most often are depicted as follows:

1. Women’s dependence/men’s independence: the male

dominance/female subservience pattern that permeates mediated
representations of relationships (i.e. ‘little mermaid’).

2. Men’s Authority/ Women’s incompetence: These stereotypical

representations of males and females reinforce a number of harmful
beliefs. They suggest, first, that men are more competent than women.
Compounding this is the message that a woman’s power lies in her looks
and conventional femininity since that is how females from Sleeping Beauty
to Judy Jetson get males to assist them with their dilemmas. Third, these
stereotypes underline the requirement that men must perform, succeed,
and conquer in order to be worthy.

3. Women as primary caregivers/ men as breadwinners: we see women

devoting themselves to getting rings off of collars, gray out of their hair,
and serving meats on the table. Corresponding to this is the restatement
of men’s inability in domestic and nurturing roles.

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4. Women as victims and sex objects/ men as aggressors: The irony of this
representation is that the very qualities women are encouraged to develop
(beauty, sexiness, passivity, and powerlessness) in order to meet cultural
ideals of femininity contribute to their victimization. Men on the other
hand develop a sense of domination, legitimizing their aggressive behavior
in some instances (i.e. cat-calling).

In sum, we have identified basic stereotypes and relationships between the

two. Individually and in combination these images sustain and reinforce socially
constructed views of the genders, views that have restricted both men and women
and that appear to legitimize destructive behaviors ranging from anorexia to
battering.

One of the most damaging consequences of media’s images of women and

men is that these images encourage us to perceive normal bodies and normal
physical functions as problems. Not only do media induce us to think we should
measure up to artificial standards, but they encourage us to see normal bodies
and bodily functions as pathologies.

As we have seen, media play important roles in society. They report on

current events, provide frameworks for interpretation, mobilize citizens with
regard to various issues, reproduce predominant culture and society, and
entertain. As such, the media can be an important actor in the promotion of
gender inequality, both within the working environment (in terms of employment
and promotion of female staff at all levels) and in the representation of women
and men (in terms of fair gender portrayal and the use of neutral and non-gender
specific language). What is left to the audience is to critically examine the
information provided by mediated forms of communication, most importantly the
proliferation of stereotypes of men and women in social media. By being critical
means being vigilant to what media platforms feed the immediate audience.
Digging deeper about the myths behind media representation of femininity and
masculinity is a starting point for both men and women to be educated about
gender equality which all must learn to uphold.

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Lesson 4

 Gendered Workplace

At the start of this module, we have argued that there are social
expectations that come with each gender and these social expectations influence
how we behave, act, and treat others. In our society there are many stereotypes
that we assume for men and women. Communication professor Julia Wood argues
that there are different context as to where gender roles and stereotypes are
learned, developed thereby influencing the way we behave. Two of these contexts
have been so far discussed: close relationships during early years in the family
and the virtual world of media as we grow older. Alongside these contexts,
another important avenue to which gender stereotypes are overwhelmingly
highlighted is the workplace.

Gender Stereotypes in the Workplace

According to Julia Wood (1994), in the context of the workplace, women

are categorized into four different roles, which reflect gendered stereotypes.
These four roles are: sex object, mother, child and iron maiden.

1. Women as sex object: Women are constantly being judged for their
appearance and body image. Our culture tends to judge women’s work off
of appearance.

2. Women as ‘mother’: refers to a women’s caring nature. Society often

believes that women should always take care of and support others. This
stereotyped role also refers to a mother’s want to have children. Women
in the work force are normally taken less seriously if they have children or
plan to have children.

3. Women as ‘child’: reflects a view of women as less knowledgeable and

capable of certain jobs and that they should not be taken seriously in
certain fields of work.

4. Women as ‘iron-maiden’: reflects a view of women that are independent

and tough; these women are normally seen as unfeminine.

Wood goes on to discuss the three gendered stereotypes of men. These

three stereotyped roles are: sturdy oak, fighter, and breadwinner.

1. Man as the ‘sturdy oak’: the sturdy oak is a self-sufficient pillar of strength
who is never weak or reliant on others. This role reflects the gendered
stereotype that men are always emotionally strong and never need to be
supported by others. This stereotype is in contrary to the view that women
are the ‘clingy vines’.

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2. Men as fighter: reflects how men are expected to act like “brave warriors”
in society. This displays how men are expected to be aggressive and
competitive at all times.

3. Men as breadwinner: reflects how our society expects men to bring home
more money than their wives and be the main supporter of their families.

The “Glass Ceilings” and “Glass Walls”

An interesting part about Wood’s analysis of gender in the workplace is her

discussion about the ‘glass ceiling’ and ‘glass walls’. Wood defines the glass
ceiling, “as an invisible barrier that limits the advancements of women and
minorities”. Wood argues that there is a subtle discrimination against women in
the work place that prevents women and minorities from receiving a promotion
or raise. Women are stereotyped to prioritize taking care of children and
household chores instead of their careers. This leads men and others to believe
that women cannot advance in their careers. Wood then defines the glass wall as,
“a metaphor for sex segregation on the job, in which women are placed in ‘pink
collar’ positions that require skills traditionally associated with women”. Both
the glass ceiling and wall are subtly preventing women from acquiring certain jobs
because of the stereotypes of women within our society. This discrimination
makes it harder for women to get hired, get paid fairly, and receive promotions
in the work force. Although efforts have been made in order to promote equal
opportunities in the work place for men and women, women are still having
difficulties being taken seriously in certain places of work.

A discussion about gender issues in the workplace raises very interesting

arguments about gendered stereotypes of men and women and about equal
opportunities in the work force. There are so many social expectations that come
with each gender which affect how one acts in society.

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 MODULE SUMMARY

In Module III, you have learned about the ways in which gender is socially-
constructed in different social environments.

There are four lessons in Module I. Lesson 1 laid down social

constructionism set forth by Judith Butler that explains how society helps in
molding our views of gender,

Lesson 2 dealt primarily with the crucial role of the family in forming our
views about gender.

Lesson 3 revolved around the influence of media in amplifying further our

concept and usage of gender frameworks.

Lastly, lesson 4 provided a brief discussion on how the workplace can also
be an avenue where gender stereotypes are developed and how gender inequality
can evolve and can also be addressed.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module III. Now, you are ready to
evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading by answering the
summative test. Good Luck!!!

GEEC 111 MODULE III: Social Construction of Gender

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 REFERENCES & FURTHER READING

BOOKS:

Else-Quest, N. and Hyde, J. (2018). Women and Gender. Half the Human
Experience, 9th ed. SAGE Publishing: United States.

Ray, R. et al (2018). The Social Life of Gender. SAGE Publications: United

States.

ONLINE SOURCES:

Boundless. (2016). “The Social Construction of Gender.” Sociology – Cochise

College. Accessible at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cochise-
sociology-os/chapter/the-social-construction-of-gender/

Boundless. (2016). “The Social Construction of Gender.” Sociology –

Cochise College. Accessible at:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cochise-sociology-
os/chapter/the-social-construction-of-gender/

Davtyan-Gevorgyan, A. (2014). Women and Mass Media. Accessible at:

http://feminism-boell.org/en/2016/04/08/women-and-mass-media

Eckert, P. and McConnell, S. (2013). Language and Gender. Second

Edition. Cambridge and New York Cambridge University Press
https://web.stanford.edu/~eckert/PDF/Chap1.pdf

Heilman, M. (2012). Gender stereotypes and workplace bias. Accessible

at:
https://icos.umich.edu/sites/default/files/lecturereadinglists/Heilm
an

Pahlke, E., & Goble, P. (2015). Gender and Education. International

Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 682–688.
doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.92151-2 https://sci-
hub.tw/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.92151-2

Silverio, S. (2017). Review: National Geographic – Gender Revolution

Special Issue: The Shifting Landscape of Gender. Accessible at:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317689276_Review_Natio
nal_Geographic_-
_Gender_Revolution_Special_Issue_The_Shifting_Landscape_of_Gend
er_January_2017

Woodward, K. and Woodward, S. (2015). Gender Studies and

Interdisciplinarity. Palgrave Commune 1. Accessible at:
https://www.nature.com/articles/palcomms201518

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Wood, J. (2018). Gendered lives: Communication, Gender and Culture.

Australia: Wadsworth/ Cengage Learning. Accessible at:
https://www.slideshare.net/locucuha91706/2018-gendered-lives-
pdf-by-julia-t-wood-cengage-learning

World Bank. (2014). Gender at Work: A Companion to World Development

Report. Executive Summary (pp. 1-4).
https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/Event/Gender
/GenderAtWork_web2.pdf

GEEC 111 MODULE III: Social Construction of Gender