Definition

Let u be a unit vector and let v be any arbitrary vector. The orthogonal
projection of v along the vector u is defined as Pu (v ) = ⟨u, v ⟩u. If u is
u
any non-zero vector Pu (v ) = ⟨ ∥u∥ u
, v ⟩ ∥u∥ = ⟨u,v ⟩
⟨u,u⟩ u

Note: The vector v − Pu (v ) is called the component of vector v

orthogonal to u.
Observe that v = Pu (v ) + v − Pu (v )

Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 1 / 13

Example
Let y = [7 , 6] and u = [4 , 2]. Find the orthogonl projection of y onto u.
Also write y as the sum of 2 orthogonal vectors one in span{u} and one
orthogonal to u.

Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 2 / 13

Answer:
  y = P + (y − Pu (y ))
u (y ) 

7 8 −1
 = + 
6 4 2
What is the distance from vector y to span{u}
p √
Ans= ∥y − Pu (y )∥ = (−1)2 + 22 = 5

Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 3 / 13

Theorem
Any orthogonal set in an inner product space V is linearly independent

Proof.
Let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } be an orthogonal set of non-zero vectors. Assume that
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + ck vk = 0 , ci ∈ R.
Then ⟨(c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + ck vk ), vj ⟩ = 0 for 1 ≤ j ≤ n and thus
Pk
i=1 ci ⟨vi , vj ⟩ = 0

Since ⟨vi , vj ⟩ = 0 for i ̸= j, the only term not vanishing is cj ⟨vj , vj ⟩. Since
vj ̸= 0, we have ⟨vj , vj ⟩ =
̸ 0. This implies cj = 0. As j is arbitrary, we see
that cj = 0 for all j.

Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 4 / 13

Definition
A basis {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } of V is said to be orthonormal if
⟨vi , vj ⟩ = 0, for i ̸= j
= 1 for i = j.
This means that {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } are pairwise orthogonal and the length of
each vector is unity.

Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 5 / 13

Example
• The standard basis of R n is an orthonormal basis.

• The basis { e1√+e2 , e1√−e2 } is an orthonormal basis of R 2

2 2

Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 6 / 13

Show that (R 2 , ⟨, ⟩) has an orthonormal basis.
Proof.
It is enough to produce an orthogonal basis for (R 2 , ⟨, ⟩). Let {v1 , v2 } be a
basis for (R 2 , ⟨, ⟩). Let u1 = v1 . We have to find a non zero vector u2
which is orthogonal to u1 .
Let u2 = v2 − Pu1 (v2 ). We shall show that u1 ⊥ u2 .
⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ = ⟨u1 , v2 − Pu1 (v2 )⟩ = ⟨u1 , v2 ⟩ − ⟨u1 , Pu1 (v2 )⟩
⟨u1 ,v2 ⟩ ⟨u1 ,v2 ⟩
= ⟨u1 , v2 ⟩ − ⟨u1 , ⟨u 1 ,u1 ⟩
.u1 ⟩ = ⟨u1 , v2 ⟩ − ⟨u1 ,u1 ⟩ ⟨u1 , u1 ⟩

= ⟨u1 , v2 ⟩ − ⟨u1 , v2 ⟩
=0

Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 7 / 13

Problem

⟨v1 ,v2 ⟩
Further u2 ̸= 0. Suppose u2 = 0 then we get v2 = Pu1 (v2 ) = ⟨v1 ,v1 ⟩ .v1 .

This implies v2 is a scalar multiple of v1 . A contradiction to {v1 , v2 } is a

basis of R 2 . This proves that {v1 , v2 } is an orthogonal basis of (R 2 , ⟨, ⟩).

Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 8 / 13

Gram-Scmidth Orthogonalization Process

Theorem
Let V be any inner product space. Then V has an orthonoral basis

Proof.
It is enough to produce an orthogonal basis of V . Let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be a
basis of V . Let u1 = v1 . In case of R 2 we have already proved that
⟨v2 ,u1 ⟩
u2 = v2 − ⟨u1 ,u1 ⟩ .u1 and u2 ⊥ u1 . Thus ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ = 0. Also u2 ̸= 0. For if
⟨v2 ,u1 ⟩
u2 = 0 then v2 = ⟨u 1 ,u1 ⟩
.v1 , will imply {v1 , v2 } is linearly dependent, a
⟨v3 ,u1 ⟩ ⟨v3 ,u2 ⟩
contradiction. Let u3 = v3 − ⟨u 1 ,u1 ⟩
.u1 − ⟨u2 ,u2 ⟩
.u2 . Then we see that
⟨u3 , u1 ⟩ = 0 = ⟨u3 , u2 ⟩ = 0 . Also u2 ̸= 0. For otherwise, v3 is a linear
combination of u1 and u2 , a contradiction to the independedent set.
Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 9 / 13
 Pk−1 ⟨vk ,ui ⟩
Proceeding as above, by induction, we define uk = vk − i=1 ⟨ui ,ui ⟩ .ui .

Then ⟨uk , ui ⟩ = 0 for all 1 ≤ i ≤ k − 1 and as before uk ̸= 0. We have

ui
thus produced an orthogonal basis {u1 , u2 , . . . , un } of V . Then ∥ui ∥ is an
orthonormal basis of V .

Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 10 / 13

Gram-Scmidth Orthogonalization process

Given a basis {v1 , v2 , . . . vn }.

Set u1 = v1
⟨v2 ,u1 ⟩
u2 = v2 − ⟨u1 ,u1 ⟩ .u1
⟨v3 ,u1 ⟩
⟨v3 ,u2 ⟩
u3 = v3 − − ⟨u
⟨u1 ,u1 ⟩ .u1
2 ,u2 ⟩
.u2 .
Pk−1 ⟨vk ,ui ⟩
In general uk = vk − i=1 ⟨ui ,ui ⟩ .ui
Then {u1 , u2 , . . . , un } is an orthogonal basis.

Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 11 / 13

Problems

• Construct an orthogonal basis for R 3 from the set

{v1 = [3 , 0 , 4], v2 = [−1, 0, 7], v3 = [2, 9, 11]}

• Construct an orthogonal basis for R 3 from the set

S = {(1, −1, 0), (2, −1, −2), (1, −1, −2)}

Dr. Sabitha D’Souza September 22,2022 12 / 13