Lecture # 06

RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

Dr. Muzaffar Ali

PV Systems
Photovoltaics

 Photovoltaics (PV) literally means "light-

electricity"
 • direct conversion of light into electricity based
on the photovoltaic effect
 • advanced semiconductor device: solar cells
 (do not confuse with solar collectors)
 • the main energy source for the "post-fossil-era"
Photo - voltaics

Solar radiation
Solar module

Sun
Photovoltaic solar energy
 Advantages:
• environmentally friendly • PV operates even in
• no noise, no moving parts cloudy weather
conditions
• no emissions
• modular “custom-made”
• no use of fuels and water energy can be sized for
• minimal maintenance any application from watch
requirements to a multi-megawatt
power plant
• long lifetime, up to 30 years
• electricity is generated
wherever there is light, solar or
artificial
Photovoltaic solar energy

 Limitations:
• PV cannot operate without light
• high initial costs that overshadow the low maintenance
costs and lack of fuel costs
• large area needed for large scale applications
• PV generates direct current special DC appliances or an
inverter are needed
• in off-grid applications energy storage is needed
Solar cell operation

 Solar cell operation is based on the photovoltaic effect:

 The generation of a voltage difference at the junction of two
different materials in response to visible or other radiation.
 Solar cell external parameters
 I-V measurement
 Standard test conditions:
 • AM1.5 spectrum
 • irradiance 1000 W/m2
 • temperature 25°C
 External parameters:
 • Short circuit current Isc [A]
 • Open circuit voltage Voc [V]
 • Fill factor ff
 • Maximum (peak) power Pmax [Wp]
 • Efficiency η
 Theoretical efficiency as a function of
semiconductor band gap

 Main energy losses:

• Non-absorption of
low-energy photons
• Thermalization of
excess photon energy
• Voltage factor
• Fill Factor
• Collection efficiency
Solar cell operating principles

 Solar cell operation is based on the photovoltaic effect:

 The generation of a voltage difference at the junction of
two different materials in response to visible or other
radiation.

 1. Absorption of light - Generation of charge carriers

 2. Separation of charge carriers
 3. Collection of the carriers at the electrodes
Semiconductor based solar cells

 p-n junction
Solar cell materials

 p-n junction

 Anti Reflecting Coating

Semiconductors

 Solid materials
 crystalline (regular atomic structure: long range order)
 amorphous (amorphous network: short range order)
 Electrical conductivity based upon mobile electrons
 conductors (σ > 104 Ω-1 cm-1)

 semiconductors (104 Ω-1 cm-1 > σ > 10-8 Ω-1 cm-1)

 insulators (σ < 10-8 Ω-1 cm-1)

 Thermal behavior of electrical conductivity

 Control of electrical conductivity by doping
Important properties for a solar cell:
 Optical properties
 band gap
 absorption coefficient
 index of refraction
 Carriers concentration
 Concentration of dopant atoms
 Transport properties
 mobility of carriers (drift)
 diffusion coefficient (diffusion)
 Recombination
 lifetime of minority carriers and diffusion length
 distribution of density of energy states
Silicon
Atom Crystal

Atomic number: 14 Covalent bond

Atomic weight: 28.08 Basic unit: 5 Si atoms
Ground state Crystal lattice:
electron configuration: • diamond lattice unit
4 valence electrons • lattice constant 5.4 Å
Silicon

Unit cell
 Silicon
Bonding model Bonding model
 Doping
 It is possible to shift the balance of electrons and holes in a silicon
crystal lattice by "doping" it with other atoms.
 Atoms with one more valence electron than silicon are used to
produce "n-type" semiconductor material. These n-type materials
are group V elements in the periodic table, and thus their atoms
have 5 valence electrons that can form covalent bonds with the 4
valence electrons that silicon atoms have. Because only 4 valence
electrons are needed from each atom (silicon and n-type) to form
the covalent bonds around the silicon atoms, the extra valence
electron present (because n-type materials have 5 valence
electrons) when the two atoms bond is free to participate in
conduction. Therefore, more electrons are added to the conduction
band and hence increases the number of electrons present.
 Doping
 Atoms with one less valence electron result in "p-type" material.
These p-type materials are group III elements in the periodic
table. Therefore, p-type material has only 3 valence electrons
with which to interact with silicon atoms. The net result is a hole, as
not enough electrons are present to form the 4 covalent bonds
surrounding the atoms. In p-type material, the number of electrons
trapped in bonds is higher, thus effectively increasing the number
of holes. In doped material, there is always more of one type of
carrier than the other and the type of carrier with the higher
concentration is called a "majority carrier", while the lower
concentration carrier is called a "minority carrier."
Silicon
Doping

n-type p-type

Introducing Phosphorus Introducing Boron

Phosphorus atom: Boron atom:
5 valence electrons 3 valence electrons
Silicon
Bonding model
Important properties for a solar cell:
 Band gap
 The band gap of a semiconductor is the minimum energy
required to excite an electron that is stuck in its bound state
into a free state where it can participate in conduction. The
band structure of a semiconductor gives the energy of the
electrons on the y-axis and is called a "band diagram".
 The lower energy level of a semiconductor is called the
"valence band" (EV) and the energy level at which an
electron can be considered free is called the "conduction
band" (EC). The band gap (EG) is the gap in energy between
the bound state and the free state, between the valence
band and conduction band. Therefore, the band gap is the
minimum change in energy required to excite the electron so
that it can participate in conduction.
Important properties for a solar cell:
 Intrinsic (undoped) Carrier Concentration
 The thermal excitation of a carrier from the valence band to
the conduction band creates free carriers in both bands. The
concentration of these carriers is called the intrinsic carrier
concentration, denoted by ni.
 Semiconductor material which has not had impurities added
to it in order to change the carrier concentrations is called
intrinsic material.
 Knowledge of intrinsic carrier concentration is linked to our
understanding of solar cell efficiency, and how to maximize
it.
Important properties for a solar cell:
 Equilibrium Carrier Concentration
 The number of carriers in the conduction and valence band
with no externally applied bias is called the equilibrium
carrier concentration. For majority carriers, the equilibrium
carrier concentration is equal to the intrinsic carrier
concentration plus the number of free carriers added by
doping the semiconductor. At equilibrium, the product of the
majority and minority carrier concentration is a constant, and
this is mathematically expressed by the Law of Mass Action.
Silicon
Energy band diagram
A plot of the allowed electron energy states in a material as
a function of position along pre-selected direction.

T is the absolute temperature and k is Boltzmann's constant

Silicon
Energy band diagram
Semiconductors
Band gap (EG)

About 55% of solar energy is not usable by PV cells-

spectrum mismatch
Semiconductors
Band gap (EG)
 Transport

 Transport due to the movement of carriers due to the presence of an

electric field is called "drift transport". Drift transport is the type of
transport that occurs not only in semiconductor material, but also in
metals.
 In condensed matter physics and electrochemistry, drift current is the
electric current, or movement of charge carriers, which is due to the
applied electric field, often stated as the electromotive force over a
given distance. When an electric field is applied across a
semiconductor material, a current is produced due to flow of charge
carriers.

 The drift velocity is the average velocity of the charge carriers in

the drift current. The drift velocity, and resulting current, is
characterized by the mobility.
 Semiconductors
Drift: Charged-particle motion in response to electric field

where J is the current density in the x-direction, ξ - electric field applied in the x-direction, q -
electron charge, n and p - electron and hole concentrations, µn and µp - electron and hole
mobilities.
Semiconductors
Transport
Diffusion: A process whereby particles tend to spread out from
regions of high particle concentration into regions of low particle
concentration as a result of random thermal motion.
Semiconductors
Recombination: Any electron which exists in the conduction band
is in a meta-stable state and will eventually stabilize to a lower
energy position in the valence band. When this occurs, it must
move into an empty valence band state. Therefore, when the
electron stabilizes back down into the valence band, it also
effectively removes a hole. This process is called recombination.

Types are:

• Radiative recombination
• Auger recombination
• Shockley-Read-Hall recombination
Semiconductors
Radiative recombination:
• In radiative recombination, an electron from the conduction
band directly combines with a hole in the valence band and
releases a photon; and
• The emitted photon has an energy similar to the band gap and
is therefore only weakly absorbed such that it can exit the
piece of semiconductor.
Semiconductors
Auger recombination:
• Auger Recombination involves three carriers. An electron and a
hole recombine, but rather than emitting the energy as heat or
as a photon, the energy is given to a third carrier, an electron
in the conduction band. This electron then thermalizes back
down to the conduction band edge.
Semiconductors
Shockley-Read-Hall recombination
The two steps involved in SRH recombination are:

• An electron (or hole) is trapped by an energy state in the

forbidden region which is introduced through defects in the
crystal lattice. These defects can either be unintentionally
introduced or deliberately added to the material, for example
in doping the material; and
• If a hole (or an electron) moves up to the same energy state
before the electron is thermally re-emitted into the conduction
band, then it recombines.
Lifetime and Diffusion Length
• The lifetime of a semiconductor is contingent upon the
recombination rate, which is dependent upon the concentration
of minority carriers.
• The lifetime of the material takes into account the different
types of recombination.
• Lifetime is an indicator of the efficiency of a solar cell, and
thus is a key consideration in choosing materials for solar cells.

• The second related parameter to recombination rate, the

"minority carrier diffusion length," is the average distance a
carrier can move from point of generation until it recombines.
Semiconductors
Recombination: A process whereby electrons and holes (carriers)
are annihilated or destroyed.
Generation: A process whereby electrons and holes are created.
Available Cell Technologies
 Single-crystal or Mono-crystalline Silicon

 Polycrystalline or Multi-crystalline Silicon

 Thin film
 Ex. Amorphous silicon or Cadmium Telluride
Monocrystalline Silicon Modules

 Most efficient commercially

available module (11% -
14%)
 Most expensive to produce
 Circular (square-round) cell
creates wasted space on
module
Polycrystalline Silicon Modules

 Less expensive to make

than single crystalline
modules
 Cells slightly less efficient
than a single crystalline
(10% - 12%)
 Square shape cells fit into
module efficiently using the
entire space
Amorphous Thin Film
 Most inexpensive technology
to produce
 Metal grid replaced with
transparent oxides
 Efficiency = 6 – 8 %
 Can be deposited on flexible
substrates
 Less shading problems
 Better performance in low
light conditions that with
crystalline modules
Voltage and Current of PV cell ( I-V Curve )
P •Voltage on normal operation point
A 0.5V (in case of Silicon PV)
•Current depend on
N
(A) - Intensity of insolation
Short Circuit
- Size of cell

High insolation
Normal operation point
Current(I)

(Maximum Power point)

Low insolation P
V
IxV=W N
Open Circuit
(V)
Voltage(V)
about 0.5V
(Silicon)
 Typical I-V Curve
(A) Depend on cell-size

5.55A Depend on
Solar insolation
4.95A

Depend on
type of cell or cell-
Current(I)

material
( Si = 0.5V )

(V)
Voltage(V)
0.49 V 0.62 V
Various type of PV cell
 Types and Conversion Efficiency of Solar Cell
Conversion Efficiency
of Module

Single crystal 10 - 17%

Crystalline
Silicon Poly crystalline 10 - 13%
Semiconductor
Non-crystalline Amorphous 7 - 10%
Solar Compound
Cell Semiconductor
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) 18 - 30%

Dye-sensitized Type 7 - 8%
Organic
Semiconductor Organic Thin Layer Type 2 - 3%

Electric Energy Output

Conversion Efficiency = x 100%
Energy of Insolation on cell
46
 Three generations of solar cells

The maximum theoretically possible conversion efficiency for sunlight is given by a Carnot heat
engine operating between the temperature of the Sun (5800K) and ambient conditions on earth (300K),
which is 95%. The conversion efficiency for sunlight, while extracting maximum work, is 86% due to
the entropy of the photons emitted by the sun's surface.
3rd generations of solar cells
 What is Up and Down-conversion for Solar Cells?
Up-conversion is the process by which two or more low energy (long
wavelength) photons, which are transmitted by the photovoltaic cell,
are converted into one high energy photon. The up converted photon
has sufficient energy to bridge the solar cell band gap and can be
absorbed. Down-conversion is the process by which one high energy
photon, which is inefficiently absorbed by the photovoltaic cell due to
thermalization losses, is converted into two or more lower energy
photons. These photons all have sufficient energy to be absorbed by
the photovoltaic cell, with negligible thermalization loss.
 Up and down-conversion material is fabricated in layers which are
independent of the photovoltaic cell. Therefore the optimized
electrical properties of the cell are maintained. The up-conversion
layer lies between the photovoltaic material and the back reflector,
whereas the down-conversion layer lies on top of the photovoltaic
material.
 Solar cell technologies

HIT: These solar cell consist of thin amorphous silicon layers on monocrystalline silicon wafers///
CIS Copper Indium Selenide///CdTe Cadmium Telluride///DSSC dye-sensitized solar cells.
Bulk materials for solar cells

Bulk Crystalline Silicon

Thin-film materials for solar cells
 Thin-film Silicon
 Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H)
 Hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon (μc-Si:H)
PV systems
PV system

 Solar cell
 semiconductor device
 Solar panel (PV module)
 different than collector
 Solar array
 Solar system:
 solar panel
 battery
 inverters
 electrical components
 appliance
Components of a PV system

 PV device
- cell, panel, array
 - dc electricity

 Balance of system (BOS)

- mounting structures
 - storage devices

 - power conditioners

 Load (dc or ac electricity)

From a solar cell to an array:
modularity

 Cell (c-Si 10×10 cm2 η=15% P=1.5Wp V=0.5V I=3A)

 Solar panel (36 c-Si cells P=54Wp I=3A V=18V )
 Solar array
Various type of PV cell
 Hierarchy of PV
Volt Ampere Watt Size
Cell 0.5V 5-6A 2-3W about 10cm
Module 20-30V 5-6A 100-200W about 1m
Array 200-300V 50A-200A 10-50kW about 30m
Array
10 - 50 kW

Module,Panel
100 - 200 W

Cell
2–3W

6x9=54 (cells) 100-300 (modules)

Specifications of PV modules
 c-Si PV module
 Electrical parameters
 (1000W/m2, 25 °C, AM1.5)

 Rated power 150 Wp

 Cells per module: 72
 Cell dimension: 12.5×12.5 cm
 Configuration: 12/24 V
 Rated current: IMPP 8.8/4.4 A
 Rated voltage: VMPP 17.0/34.0 V
 Short circuit current: ISC 9.4/4.7 A
 Open circuit voltage: VOC 21.5/43.0 V SolarWorld SW 150 module
 PV Module (Single crystal, Poly crystalline Silicon)

Single crystal Poly crystalline

128W 120W
(26.5V , (25.7V
4.8A) 4.7A)

1200mm 1200mm
(3.93ft) （3.93ft）

800mm （2.62ft） Same size 800mm (2.62ft)

Efficiency is higher Efficiency is lower

Components of a PV system

 Storage devices (batteries)

 Advantages:
 reliable energy source available at night or on cloudy
days
 Drawbacks:
 decrease the efficiency of the PV system
 about 80% of the energy channeled into them can be
reclaimed
 add to the expense of the overall system
 replacement every five to ten years
 floor space, safety concerns, periodic maintenance
Components of a PV system

 Power conditioners (inverters)

 Limit current and voltage to maximize power output
 Convert dc power to ac power
 Match the converted ac electricity to a utility's electrical
network
 Safeguard the utility network system and its personnel from
possible harm during repairs
Types of PV systems
Simple DC Small DC
- direct powering of the load - home and recreational uses
- no energy storage
Types of PV systems
Large DC Large AC/DC
- home and recreational uses - both AC and DC loads used
- and industrial applications
Types of PV systems
Utility grid-connected Hybrid system
- no on-site energy storage - supplemental generator
Grid-connected PV system
Grid-connected large PV system (1 MWp a-Si PV solar power plant)
Components:
PV applications
PV applications

PV with Battery Storage:

• PV modules are connected to a battery and the battery to
the load
• can be designed to power dc or ac equipment
• lights, sensors, recording equipment, switches, appliances,
telephones, televisions, and even power tools
• charge controller (properly charged battery)
• battery maintenance
• optimal design of PV system size required to balance the
costs
Solar cell applications

 GaAs (Gallium Arsenide)

 CIGS (Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide)
 CdTe (Cadmium Telluride)
 a-Si:H (Hydrogenated amorphous silicon)
PV applications

 1. Off-grid (stand alone) residential power systems

 (solar home systems for individual household)
 2. Grid connected PV systems
 (roofs and outer walls of buildings, noise barriers along the
motorways)
 3. Off-grid industrial power systems
 (water management, lighting, and telecommunication)
 4. Consumer products
 (watches, calculators, and lanterns)
 5. Space applications
PV system design rules
1. Determining the total load current and operating time requirements
in Ampere-hours

2. Taking care of system losses and safety factors

3. Determining the worst case (wintertime) Equivalent Sun Hours (ESH)

4. Determining total solar array current requirements

5. Determining optimum module arrangement for solar array

6. Determining battery size for recommended reserve time

PV system design rules
1. Determining the total load current and operating time
requirements in Ampere-hours
 PV system design rules
2. Taking care of system losses and safety factors

PV cells have a single operating point where the values of the current (I) and Voltage (V) of the cell
result in a maximum power output. This operating point is calles Maximum Power Point (MPP). The MPP
tracker in a solar inverter ensures that the PV panels are always operating at MPP.
PV system design rules
3. Determining the worst case (wintertime) Equivalent Sun
Hours (ESH)
PV system design rules
4. Determining total solar array current requirements
PV system design rules
5. Determining optimum module arrangement for solar array
PV system design rules
6. Determining battery size for recommended reserve time
PV system design rules
PV system design rules

Power consumption
PV system design rules
Solar irradiation
PV system design rules
PV system design rules
Primary challenge for PV
 Cost reduction of factor 5 : to become competitive with
conventional electricity
 Today PV module price: 0.36-1.0€/Wp (Wp = Watt peak)
 Integral approach:
 Reducing module costs

 ↓ raw materials & labor, investments

 ↑ efficiency, lifetime

 Optimizing systems integration

 ↓ area and power related costs

 Note: overall optimum ≠ highest efficiency

Cost reduction of PV systems
 Requirements:
 • low cost solar energy material
 • high efficiency and good stability
 • low manufacturing cost with good yield
 • environmental safety and short energy pay back time

 Energy pay back time: the time required for an energy

conversion system or device to produce as much energy as is
consumed for its production
Assignment
 How big area of a roof must be covered with how many PV modules
(mono crystalline and poly crystalline) and system cost in order to
generate an average household annual use of electricity?

 Given: The efficiency of PV modules that comprise the PV system is 12% and
the lifetime of the modules is 20 years. Take any PV cell rated power available
in Pakistan market. The PV system is located (location at which you calculated
irradiance in your previous assignment) where the average price for
conventional electricity is ----- per kWh and the average energy per unit area
delivered by sunlight during one year is -------- kWh/(m2 year). The household
average electricity use is --------- kWh per year.

 2 weeks submission time

Roughly size of PV Power Station.
How much PV can we install in this conference room?
Please
1 kW PV need 10 m2 remember
(108 feet2)
20m(66feet)

Conference
Our room has about 200 m2
Room (2,178 feet2)
(We are now)

We can install about

20 kW PV in this room

10m(33feet)
Self Study: 3rd generations of solar cells
THANKS