An Introduction To Sōseki

Harvard-Yenching Institute
An Introduction to Sseki Author(s): Edwin McClellan Source: Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 22 (Dec., 1959), pp. 150-208 Published by: Harvard-Yenching Institute Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2718542 . Accessed: 07/05/2011 12:14
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AN INTRODUCTION TO SOSEKI
EDWIN MCCLELLAN
OF CHICAGO UNIVERSITY
I.
THE
NOVELIST'S
BACKGROUND
Natsume Soseki 914i*i5 was born on February 7, 1867 in " S6seki" is his Tokyo.' His givenname was Kinnosuke*;L4. townsNaokatsu AA, was a well-to-do pen name. His father, post of nanushi tAE administrative man holdingthe hereditary or " ward chief." The nanushiwerenot of the samuraiclass, but and of theywereamongthe moreprivileged the towncommoners were regardedwith some awe by their neighbors.The family however, had apparentlydeclinedbeforeSoseki reached fortune, his boyhood. was His childhoodwas unhappy. He was bornwhenhis father mother,forty-one.There were already five and fifty-four his childrenin the family,and the birth of another son was not increasingly positionbecoming welcome.Not onlywas the family but Naokatsu and his wifefeltsome disgracein having insecure, put a child at theirage.2 It is said that the boy was immediately out to nurse with a shopkeeper'swife in a nearby village. Alto thoughsoon returned his parents,he was not kept at home forlong. In 1869, when he was only two, he was adopted by a childlesscouple named Shiobara 1W. They were not unkind arose betweenthemwhicheventuallyled to him,but difficulties to a divorce. The youngboy was forcedto witnessmany sordid scenesin his adopted home. In his ninthyear,he was once more sentback to his parents. No wonderthenthat S6seki later wrote had " a cold and sad shadow over that his childhoodmemories them."3 That his sense of lonelinesswhichso markedhis adult
" Two biographicalworks have been most useful to me: Komiya Toyotaka ii' Natsume Soseki (3 vols.; Toyko, 1953); and Natsume Kyoko AI 5fi, , Soseki no Omoide ,;j@,0g a i [Memoriesof S5seki] (Tokyo, 1929). 2 Komiya, Natsume Soseki, I, 23. 3 S5seki Zenshit ; [Complete Works of S5sekil,ed. Soseki ZenshfiKank6a kai hereafterabbreviated as Zenshii, (20 vols.; Tokyo, 1928), XIII, 399.
1
150
151
we in lifehad its beginnings earlychildhood, can guess fromthe beforehis death: following passage, whichhe wroteshortly
I was born to my parentsin theireveningyears. I was theiryoungestson. The storythat my motherwas ashamed of having a child at her age, I hear even now. . . . I do not know when I was taken away fromthe home of my to wet nurse. At any rate, I was sent soon afterwards a certain couple as theiradopted son. . . . I was with them until the age of eight or nine, when one begins to understandthings. There was some trouble in my adopted family,so it was arrangedthat I should be returnedto my parents. After I had moved fromAsakusa to Ushigome,I did not know that I had come as back to my own home and I kept on thinking I did beforethat my parents I were my grandparents.Unsuspectingly, continuedto call them " grandma" perhaps that it would be strange and " grandpa." They on theirpart,thinking to change thingssuddenly,said nothingwhen I called them this. They did particularly not pet me as parentsdo theiryoungestchildren.. . . I remember incident that my father treatedme ratherharshly.. . . One night,the following took place: I was sleepingalone in a room when I was awakened by someone crouching I callingmy name in a quiet voice. Frightened, looked at the figure by my bedside. It was dark, so I could not tell who it was. Being a child, I lay still and listenedto what the personhad to say. Then I realized that the into my ear: the maid whispered voice belongedto our maid. In the darkness, " These people that you thinkare yourgrandfather grandmother really are and I your fatherand mother. I am tellingyou this because recently heard them saying that you must in some way have sensed that they were your parents, this house to the otherone. They were sayinghow since you seemedto prefer strangeit was. You mustn'ttell anybodythat I told you this. Understand?" All I said at the time was " All right,"but in my heart,I was happy. I was happy not because I had been told the truth,but because the maid had been so kind to me.4
Not much is knownof Soseki's early schooling. The modern organized,and at that school systemhad not yet been properly and one state high time Tokyo possessed only one university school. There were, however,a few private academies which standard. At any rate, offered educationup to thecollegeentrance middle-class for it was apparently verydifficult an intelligent, not educationin those days. good boy to acquire a moderately " When I was at high school," Soseki tells us, " my specialty interwas idling: I did verylittlework." He was, nevertheless, his ested enoughin pursuing studiesto the extentof leaving the state high school and enteringa private academy where,he
5
' Ibid., pp. 416-18.
' Zenshul, XX, 530.
152
EDWIN McCLELLAN
believed,he would be able to learn more English. He did not study English fromchoice. He liked the Chinese classics much better,but he had to know English if he wanted to get into college." It would be almost true to say that then,English was to morenecessary the collegestudentthan Japanese,forJapanese had not yet had time to writetextbooksin theirown educators language. ' He enteredthe collegeof the university in 1884, whenhe was at seventeen. The college curriculum that time took five years to complete. It was while he was at college that he decided to he specializein English. Earlier,whenhe was about fifteen, had been keenly interestedin literatureand had said to an elder had brother that he mightone day becomea writer.The brother but a was not a profession him,sayingthat writing admonished mereaccomplishment.8 would seem that he succeededin conIt for career, two or three of S6seki of the frivolity a literary vincing years later, we findthe youngman tellinga college friendthat an he was toying withthe idea of becoming architect.The reason that Soseki himselfgives us for wantingto be an architectis strange. He knew that he was a littleodd, he says, and decided that would not only afford he would have to choose a profession hima livingbut would allow himto remainan oddity. His friend however,and told him that was not so practical as his brother, as in therewas no gloryin beingan architect such a poor country of Japan,wheretherewould neverarise the opportunity building a great monument the orderof St. Paul's. This time,Saseki of he was encouraged become a writer.Even in a poor country, to career.9Once literary was told,a man could have a distinguished on more he was convinced.He decidedto concentrate the study for of English literature, he guessed that that was the best way writer. of to learnthe craft themodern to he It is not clearwhether meanteventually becomea novelist did scholar. Probablyhe himself not know. It must or a literary
'I have translated k5t5-gakk' g$4$
6 Ibid.,
pp. 440-41.
" in Soseki's youth) and daigaku }CZ? as " college" and " university respectively. 8 Ibid., p. 507. 9 Ibid., pp. 507-508.
(or yobi-mon *{)f9,
as it was called
153
have been difficult a youngJapaneseof that period to know for what sort of careerwould suit him best. In a time when a great part of the educated populationof Japan was engagedin indisit Western, is not criminateand aimless imitationof everything thatthe youngS6seki shouldhave been so vague about surprising his future.Besides,Japan was then shortof trainedmen,and it graduate to find a was relativelyeasy for a young university he of decentpost,regardless theprofession had chosenforhimself. It was duringSoseki's studentdays that therebegan to appear against excessiveEuropeanization. Nationalisticsomovements cieties and magazines were foundedforthe purpose of extolling affected Japanesevirtues.To whatextentthisnationalism purely to it college students, is difficult say, but it would seem that it studentsat Soseki's was not popular among the more intelligent ones there college."0There must have been enoughunintelligent to form a society, however,for Soseki tells us that he once addressedsuch a group,pointingout the obvious shortcomings as ofpatriotism a basis forone's actions. " Do we go to the toilet or wash our faces for our country?" he asked them.1"He was for to retainhis hatredofnationalism the restofhis life. In 1911, in Soseki said to a gathering a small provincialtown: " Nowaseem to days, people who boast about Mt. Fuji to foreigners have disappeared. But sincethe war,one can hear the boast that power. One can only marvel at the Japan is now a first-class of optimism such people." 12 Again,in a lecturedeliveredat the Peers' School in 1914, he declared: " It seems to me that the morality of nationalism belongs to a lower sphere than the 13 of morality individualism." was Soseki claimsthat the teachingofEnglishat the university very dull. He obviouslyexpectedmuch more in the way of exJ. citingideas than the English lecturer, M. Dixon-author of such books as Dictionaryof IdiomaticEnglish Phrases,Specially Designed for the Use of JapaneseStudents and English Letter* l Komiya Toyotaka, ShirarezaruSoseki s0n e (Tokyo, 1951), p. 57. 11Zenshui, XIV, 379.
12
* [The UnknomnS5sekil JT
1 Ibid., p. 379.
Ibid.,p. 280.
154
EDWIN McCLELLAN
Writing-couldprovide. Exactly what it was he wishedto hear S6seki does not say, except that he wanted to in the classroom, was all about. He complainsthat know what English literature to he was forced learnwhenvariousauthorswereborn,whentheir facts.14One books firstappeared, and other such unimportant approaching to suspectsthathe hoped to be introduced something and that what he objected of philosophy literature, a systematic point the from purelyhistorical of to was the treatment literature Mori Ogai 14 contemporary, of view. Unlike his distinguished X, or his disciple, Akutagawa Ryuinosuke F)I[R4"4, Soseki showedlittlepatiencewithhistory.There seems to be a connecprejudiceofSoseki'sand his insistence thisparticular tionbetween Was not his own isolation, on his independenceas an artist.15 of or whether voluntary not,in some way a reflection his general dislikeof the past? at WhateverS6seki's opinionof the quality of instruction the been,thereis no doubtthathe had attained have might university of a surprising mastery theEnglishlanguageby thetimehe graduated. He was able to read English withease, and he could write that must have been far beyondthe abilityof it with a fluency is the average student. The following the openingpassage of his Japanesepiece, in translation, written 1891,ofthe twelfth-century Hojo-ki Ji3t:
Incessant is the change of water here where the stream glides on calmly: the spray appears over a cataract, yet vanishes without a moment'sdelay. Such is the fate of men in the world and of the houses in which they live. these Walls standingside by side, tilingsvyingwith one anotherin loftiness, town. But past the abodes of high and low in a mighty are fromgenerations work of time. Some stand in ruins: none of themhas resistedthe destructive others are replaced by new structures.Their possessorstoo share the same fate with them. Let the place be the same, the people as numerousas before, yet we can scarcelymeet one out of every ten with whom we had long ago a chance of comingacross. We see our firstlight in the morningand return to our long home next evening. Our destinyis like bubbles of water. Whence do we come? Whitherdo we tend? What ails us, what delightsus in this unreal world? It is impossibleto say....16
I lbid., p. 362. This is seen in his contemptuousrefusal to be identifiedwith any school of writers(Zenshi, VII, 6). 16 Zenshu,XX, 261.
1
155
He triedhis hand at writing English verse too, but here he was that he had no ear remarkably unsuccessful.He once confessed the subtletiesof its music eluded for English poetry,and that whenone rememhim.17 This statement all the moresignificant is of bers that he was a respectedwriter haiku. Here is a poem by him,probablywritten around the turnof the century: Lonely I sit in my lonesomechamber And cricketchirps. My lamp lies lonelyhalfin slumber And cricketchirps. Soul, in dim consciousdelight In cricket chirps, and bright forlorn Lost and forlorn, With cricket chirps. Is it my soul or onlycricket That chirpsso lonelyin my chamber? Still cricket chirps, Chirping
18 Chin- chi- ro-rin.1
in 1893. He had entered He graduatedfrom university July, the the courseat the college. He it in 1890,aftercompleting five-year had had a distinguished recordand was soon appointedto a post at the Tokyo Normal College. It would seem that he was not flattered the appointment. Perhapshe was disappointed overly by made earlierby the college of the unithat the tentativeoffer versity had not materialized;but it is morelikelythat he could and that no academic as not visualizehimself a dedicatedteacher, would have pleased him. lectureship, offer, shortof a university to Some yearslaterhe wrote: " It was suggested me that I should teach. I had no desire to teach, or not to teach." All through his life,we see this strange,passive streakin S6seki. " When I the thinkabout it,I am surprised.I entered literature department of the university because a friendencouragedme to do so. I
17
Ibid.,p. 552.
18 Zenshut, XV, 243.
156
EDWIN McCLELLAN
became a teacher because someone told me to become one. I I upon my return, joined wentabroad,I taughtat the university the staff the Asahi Newspaper,I wrotenovels,all for similar of what I am is what people made reasons. In a sense, therefore, me 19 fromthe high Two years later, in 1895, he accepted an offer schoolin Matsuyama; in April,he leftTokyo forthe small castle explanation town in Shikoku. There seems to be no satisfactory thing. It was no trivial of why he did such an extraordinary matterfora man born and bred in Tokyo, and a distinguished at graduate of the university that, to become a teacher in an unimportant provincialhigh school. A college post would have been different-andindeed,the college at Yamaguchi did make himan offer about thistime-for it wouldhave been in keeping at withhis academic qualifications.There is a storythat the cause of his voluntary-it could hardlyhave been otherwise-exilewas to disappointment love. One findsit difficult believe this of in on Komiya ToyoSoseki; besides,the authority Soseki,Professor taka 'J'S^t*, who knewhimwell,says that thereis no truthin this rumor. Apparently, Soseki once told him that he had left of and goneto Matsuyama" in the spirit renouncing everyTokyo a his thing."20 Perhaps it was an act of defiance, way of showing held criteriaof success. Or perhaps contemptforthe commonly there was some spiritualsignificance the self-inflicted exile, in forthat veryyear he visiteda Zen templein Kamakura. His early novel Botchan tP (translatable as "little of ") master,"thoughit has also the connotation " greenhorn is about Matsuyamaand itshighschool. The picture drawsofthe he town and of the teachers and students at the school is quite not to say insulting.There is no question that in unfavorable, for the novel,the barbarism the schoolis exaggerated dramatic of young an and not too intelligent effect. The protagonist, innocent man fromTokyo, eventuallyleaves Matsuyama, disgustedwith the crudeness the studentsand the intrigues his colleagues. of of The readernot unreasonably that the novel is forthe conjectures
19 Zenshu, XX, 510.
20
Komiya, Natsume Soseki, I, 254.
157
at and that the author'sexperiences most part autobiographical the school were not unlike those of the protagonist.Actually, S6seki was not so unhappy there. He was apparentlyrespected quite fond of his students." by his colleagues,and was himself Some ten yearslater,he stated that Botchan was in no way autobiographical.22 While he was at Matsuyama, he became engaged to Nakane Ky6ko f44AT, the eldest daughterof the then chiefsecretary heard of S6seki of the House of Peers. The Nakane familyfirst Her father a chess companionof the girl'sgrandfather. through in becamemoreinterested S6sekiwhena younglawyerwithwhom he met by chance on a train told him that Soseki's reputation at the university been good. had
" Look here, youhappen know product theliterature department a of to do he whatsortof a fellow is?" I Kinnosuke? wonder by thenameofNatsume " I don'tknowmuchabouthim,but he was rather of wellthought at the university." " Well, him is between and mydaughter." there talkofmarriage " Oh,in thatcase,I'll find more abouthim. I can do it quiteeasily." out becamequite keen,and My veryfavorable. father The report was indeed I of be there should an exchange photographs. had a newphotograph decided from other the arrived a and it was sent. Soon afterwards,photograph taken, party. had already age, I was thennineteen old. Beingofmarriageable there years but I had by then withthem, I beenoffers. do not say thatI was flooded up I Of seenquitea fewphotographs. course, had beenbrought in the oldaccepted way fashioned of thosedays,and no doubtI wouldhave obediently wished an offer I whether likedthelooksof themanor not,had myparents me had me to do so. But noneof the photographs impressed so favorably to Besides,it wouldseemthat as to induceme to commit myself marriage. aboutany of the suitors.But thisparwas not too enthusiastic my father pleasedme verymuch. Therewas ticular party, whenI saw thephotograph, and settled about him. His eyesweresteady, air a gentlemanly quietly and . expression.. . Thenone day there was on his facea calmand trustworthy The day was the twenty-eighth wearing frockcoat. a he suddenly appeared 23 1895." of December,
Kyoko liked Soseki despite his eccentricways, and S6seki took bride because " thoughshe had bad teeth, a likingto his future
" Ibid., p. 271.
22 28
Zenshuj, 479. XX,
Natsume Kyoko, op. cit., pp. 13-14.
158
EDWVIN McCLELLAN
she made no attemptto hide them fromview."24 They became officially engaged. In the following year,S6seki accepted an offer fromthe Fifth National College in Kumamoto. He had enjoyed a privileged position in Matsuyama-his monthlysalary of eightyyen was more than that of the headmaster-but he had made no friends there. At Kumamoto,he wouldhave colleagueswithan academic backgroundsimilarto his own. Moreover,his salary would be increasedto a hundredyen a month,a fact not to be ignoredby a man about to get married. His fianceewas also froma family and he must have feltobliged to better of some social standing, his position. " My fathershowed some insight,"writesKyoko, to "in agreeing marry daughter him,who was thena someto his what unfashionable highschool teacher."25 In June of that year, Mr. Nakane escortedhis daughterto almost comical in Kumamoto,and therethe marriageceremony, its haphazard arrangement, took place. One of S6seki's first remarksto his new bride was: " I am a scholar and therefore muststudy. I have no timeto fussover you. Please understand seemsto have life this."26 Theirmarried in Kumamoto,however, been happy. One suspects that his four years there were the happiest in his life. Ky6ko, thoughhopeless as a housekeeper, was cheerful patient,and S6sekiseemsto have enjoyedhaving and friends he a homeofhis own,where couldplay hostto his eccentric and students.That Ky6ko couldnothave foundit easy to manage the house, we may gatherfromthe fact that out of his monthly salary of a hundredyen, a tenthof it was taken away by the 27 government " war expenditure," seven and a half yen went for ten towards the paymentof his debts to the university,28 yen were sent to his fatherin Tokyo, three yen to his elder sister, It and twenty yen werespenton books.29 was whiletheywereat that theirfirst child,a girl,was born. Kumamoto
24Ibid., p. 17. 20. 251Ibid.,p. Ibid.,p. 27. 27 All government officials had to pay this tax; and S5seki, being on the staffof a official. state college,was a government 28 As a student, to he had borrowed moneyfromthe university pay forhis education.
2a
29
Natsume Ky5ko, 29. p.
159
to In June, 1900, he was ordered by his government go to England for two years to study the English language. He first told his superiorsat the college that he did not want to leave, who would in sincehe believedthat therewereothers the country be betterable to take advantage of a stay in England. But he convincedthat he should go.30 Besides, he was more was finally had for to or less duty-bound accept thescholarship, the offer been He morein thenatureofan orderthanan invitation.81 sailed from leaving his pregnantwifebehind,and Yokohama in September, month. reachedEngland at the end of the following scholarwas eighteenhunHis yearlystipendas a government dredyen. This was by no means a smallsum in Japan,but it was in not enoughto enable Saseki to live as respectably London as and thirty-three on the staffof he would have wished. He was a good Japanese college; he was not unknownin his country's behind graduateswithgood records academicworld, university for arisknit intellectual in them formed those days a fairlytightly tocracy. He had never been rich,it is true,but it did not take in much money to live tastefully Japan. It must have been a for experience him,then,to have to live the lifeof a poor terrible city,in small,darkroomsin shabbyboarding studentin a strange thathe hated his stay in England,and houses. It is not surprising for that it remaineda bittermemory him forthe rest of his life. " Years later,in Michikusa tG [literally grasson the side of the "], as road " but bettertranslated " loitering his one purelyautonovel,he wrote: biographical
32 he At roomas wellas a bedroom. night, would His friend had a sitting fire the wearhis embroidered dressing gownof satin,and sit before glowing
been squeezedintoit, he and which made himfeelas though had somehow enviedhis friend's happycondition. secretly how too, This Kenzoremembered withsadnessand self-pity, he had somea on times economized hislunch. Once,he bought sandwich hisway back on in about aimlessly a it houseand munched as he wandered to the boarding withwhichhe triedto ward largepark. In one hand he held his umbrella
80 Zenshuz, XX,
81
with a book. Kenz6
--,33
who lived in a tiny room whichfaced the north
508. Komiya, Natsume So5seki, 54. II, 82 AnotherJapanese who had more money than he. 88 The protagonist of the novel; i. e., S5seki himself.
160
EDWIN McCLELLAN
offthe rain that blew toward him at a slant; in his other hand he held the slices of bread with the thinlycut meat betweenthem,which he would bite into fromtime to time. It was a hard thingforhim to do. More than onlce he hesitated beforea bench, wonderingwhetheror not he should sit down. But the benches were all soaking wet fromthe rain. Sometimes would eat meagreone-course he meals in questionablerestaurants
patronized by cabmen and laborers....
had not been washed fordays.34
Their faces looked as though they
Unfortunately, Sosekiwentto England underthe misconception thathe wouldbe freeto studyat any university his choice. The of remarkable thingis that the Japanese government should have sent him withoutexplicitinstructions to how he should conas duct his studies. Of course,theysent him abroad forthe purpose of studyingthe English language ratherthan literature, and it may well have been theiropinionthat so long as Soseki spent two yearsin the country, would be able to learn the language he satisfactorily. But he already had a reasonable command of spoken English and he could hardlybe expectedto learn much from cockneylandladiesand such. He had no lettersof introduction,and he could not-or wouldnot-associate withmembers of the Japanesediplomaticor businesscommunities London who in might have introduced to educatedEnglishmen, the simple him for reasonthat he was too poor. As a result, was forcedto spend he the twoyearsin a foreign cityin almostcomplete isolation. " The two years I spent in London were most unpleasant,"he writes. "I was like a shaggydog amongstEnglish gentlemen." Of England and Englishmen, then,he had hardly one happy memory.Perhaps he was too proud and too ready to denounce the people that the more superficial his countrymen of were so eagerto emulate.
3
The first thingI had to do afterlandingwas to decide whereI should study. I was inclinedto go to eitherOxfordor Cambridge,since they were centers of learningwell-known even to us. Fortunately, had a friend Cambridge I at who invitedme to visit him. And so I took the opportunity going there of to see what sort of a place it was. Besides my friend, met two or three I Japanesethere. They wereall sons and younger brothers wealthymerchants, of who were prepared to spend thousands of yen per year in order to become
"'
Zenshtz, IX, 399-400.
85
XI, 10. Zenshui,
161
' gentlemen.'My allowance fromthe government was 1,800 yen a year. In I a place wheremoney controlledeverything, could hardly hope to compete withthesepeople.... I thought:my purposein comingto England is different from that of these easygoing people; I do not know if the gentlemenof England are so impressiveas to make it worth my while to imitate them; besides, having already spent my youth in the Orient,why should I now who are start learninig how to conduct myselffromthese English gentlemen
younger than I am....
?
36
he Correctly guessingthat Oxfordwould be no different, did not or botherto go there. He thoughtof goingto Edinburgh Dublin, but decidedagainstit. Here he showedtheprejudiceofthe Tokyo cities. He was afraidthat the English Japaneseagainstprovincial would not be " pure," and that he would spoken in those cities run the risk of pickingup a provincialaccent if he went there. He could hardlybe expectedto knowthat Dublin and Edinburgh were,in theirsmall way, capital cities,and that they were not or citiesof the orderof,say,Birmingham Leeds exactlyprovincial or,one mightadd, Matsuyama or Kumamoto. And so he decidedto stay in London. He attendeda courseat the university but was not impressedby it. Finally, he began W. takingprivate lessonsfrom J. Craig, the editorof the Arden that Soseki learnedmuch fromhim, Shakespeare. It is doubtful forCraigwas the typicalabsent-minded scholar, whoseemedoften his mattersnot directly concerning work. He was an unawareof Irishman,however,and he seemed to share Soseki's lack of enthusiasmforEnglishmen. Saseki writes: " Once, he stuckhis head out of the window, and looked down and said to me: ' Of busilyalong the street at thepeople walking would that largecrowdofpeople,not morethan one in a hundred understandpoetry. What a pitifullot. You know,Englishmen poetry.When it comes as a wholeare incapableof understanding to that, the Irish are quite admirable. They are far superiorto the Englishin this respect." was such that towardsthe end of his stay in His unhappiness to showdefinite signsof a nervousbreakdown. England,he began He had spentmostofhis timealone in his room, readingfuriously.
3
" Ibid., pp. 3-4. Zenshii,XIII, 121.
1692
EDWIN McCLELLAN
seemsto have lefta permaand overwork Two yearsofloneliness man, to nent markon Saseki, forhe returned Japan an irritable thanever. and moreeccentric of proneto suddenoutbursts temper in He must have behaved strangely London, forit began to be amonghis fellowJapanesetherethat he had gone mad; rumored indeed,it would seem that one of them went to the troubleof of his reporting " madness" to theMinistry Education in Tokyo.38 that his lonelystay in England There can be no doubt,however, as benefitedhim tremendously a prospectivenovelist. It was therethat he despairedof ever graspingthe essence of a foreign traditionand decided that in the futurehe would have literary to findhis raison d'etre not as a student of anothercountry's whoseopinions his but literature, as a pioneerwithin own culture, or original not,wereat least the resultof whether and standards, inquiry. In those days, Soseki tells us, honestand independent had said it; but so Japanesebelievedanything longas a Westerner what as an independent Japanese,he had to findout forhimself was good and what was bad. "It was the honestthingto do." what He realized that what nation A liked was not necessarily a nation B should like. In order,then,to give himself basis for judgment,he startedreadingworkson subjects far independent suchas scienceand philosophy.39 literature, removed from He admits that therewas a certainamount of naivete in his in decision. But therewas great sincerity this personal declaraand if we are to judge a personnot by the tion of independence; that leads of complexity his ideas but by the depth of experience him to them,thensurelySoseki commandsour respect. to We would be wrongto assume that he returned Japan a not hater of the West. He declaredhis independence, confirmed so much as a Japanesebut as an individual,and this sense of his his to throughout own integrity whichhe gave voice constantly because of his visit to England, was in life,thoughnot acquired of freedoin a largemeasuredue to his understanding whatpersonal meant to Englishmen.In a lectureon individualism given some not as selfishness years later,in whichhe definedindividualism
8 S
Komiya, Natsume Soseki, II, 112-13. XIV, 363-64. Zenshut,
163
but as a pointof view whichrespectedthe freedom othersand of whichconsidered rightand wrongof a situationwhatever the the crowdmightsay, he declared: ". . . England is a countrywhere freedom very sacred, as you all know. However, thoughshe is loves freedom, thereis no countrythat respectsordermore. To tell the truth, have no liking England. But I mustbe honest, I for whether like the country not. I do not thinkthereis a place I or in the worldso freeor so orderly." 40 What one likesabout Soseki'sattitudetowardsthe West is that while he hated jingoistsin his own country, dislikedjust as he much those Japanese who saw nothinggood in thingsJapanese. He wrotein 1905: " It seems to be the fashionthese days to imitateuncritically theworksofanyonewhohas made a name forhimself theWest. in There is muchthat is questionablebeingwritten there. It would be a pityto lose one's own and one's country's special characteristicsthrough much adorationof the West. . . . I admireour too soldiers. With weapons borrowedfromthe West, theirpurpose has been to fight Russia. . . . Writersmust imitateliterary techniques simplyto develop those qualitiespeculiarto ourselves." On the other hand, he points out, as a reaction against indiscriminate imitation, therehas been also a tendency indiscrimto inate espousal of Japanesetraditions." Unfortunately, literain ture,I do not thinkwe possess anything our past that we can in proudlycomparewiththe literature the West." 42 of These viewsare so reasonablethat we may underestimate their importancein our understanding Saseki's developmentas a of novelist. They indicate why it is so difficult characterize to the influence him of the Westernnovel. It was of so general,yet on so profound, naturethat we can hardlydetectits precisequality. a He did not owe his technique to any one English, French, or Russian novelist;rather, what he did was to graspthe vast range of the European novel and moldit to becomeJapanesein essence. When asked whetherMeredithhad had any influence him, on
4
41 Zenshui,
40Ibid., p. 373. XX, 422-23. 42 Ibid., pp. 425-426.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
he answered: " There is hardlya book that I have read that has on not had some influence me." 4 Had he been a man of lesser mighthave been lost in the course of his individuality stature, his voraciousreadingof Westernliterature.Instead, once having seen what the European masterscould do with the novel form, novels that were characterhe set himselfthe task of writing has a responsithe istically Japanese;foras he once wrote, novelist naturalby the societyin bilityto be aware of what is considered to whichhe lives and must not violate its sense of propriety; say does not mean that therefore, import, that the novel is a Western of thecharacters a Japanesenovelcan behave as do the characters and flexibility of a Westernnovel." In addition,the tremendous of preciseness the Englishlanguagewas a challengeto Soseki,and he proceededto increasethe analyticalpowerof his stylewithout its destroying beauty. Such, then,was the natureof his debt to the West. He arrivedin Japan in January,1903. He did not returnto Kumamoto but was appointed in April to the First National in College in Tokyo. He was also given the lectureship English beforehim that Lafeadio Hearn had held immediately literature at the Imperial University. We are told that he complained sayingthat it was wrong about the latter appointment, bitterly that he shouldsucceedsuch an able man as Lafcadio Hearn.45 He did not enjoy teaching,but being shortof money,he had under whichhe had been to earn a living. Besides, the condition to awardedthe scholarship England was that he would teach for fouryears afterhis return. He remainedin the academic world until1907,whenhe became an employeeof the Asahi Newspaper, him a monthlysalary of two hundredyen with which offered bonuses,providedhe would publish his novels in serial formin that newspaper. He had by this time establishedhis reputation the publicationof Wagahai Wa Neko De as a novelistthrough Kusa[1 Am a Cat], Botchan Ktus,, 1S Cb Aru Wind]. makluraMt [Pillowof Grass],and Nowaki!tfY [Auttumn
"4 Ibid., p. 547. "Ibid., pp. 469-75. '" Natsume Kyoko, p. 106.
165
From then untilhis death he remaineda professional writer and neverreturned the university. to How drastica step thiswas, we can well imagine;he was being considered a professorship the university about thistime, for at at and it was no small matter for a man of his age to leave a promising careerat the most distinguished university Japan to in become a writerwhose livelihood depended on his ability to produceat least one novel a year.46 That he was well aware of the riskhe was takingis shownin a letterhe wroteto a friend March, 1907, the year he resigned in from the university. it he admitsthat he does not know how In muchor how well he willbe able to writein the future, and that a professorship the university at wouldhave meantgreatprestige and security.But, we gather fromthe letter,he was disgusted by the vanitydisplayedby his colleagues,and the gloryattached to beinga professor was, forhim,a meaningless thing.47 course, Of we must not overlookthe economicfactor, he then had four for daughters, and anotherchild,a son,was soon to be born. He had on found that he could not support his familycomfortably a lecturer'ssalary, and the promisedincreasein his income must have been attractiveto him,thoughhe was the least mercenary of men. His resignation must have caused a minorsensationin certain in he circles Tokyo. Everyonehe metin the street, tellsus, looked at himstrangely, someeven asked him whyhe had done such and a thing. In his retort, whichhe publishedin the newspaperthat had hiredhim,he insiststhat teachingat a university as much is if a " trade" as writing a newspaper; it werenot,he demands for to know,whyis it that we see professors askingforraisesin their S6seki had a deep-rooteddislike of anythingthat smacked seemed ofofficialdom, perhapsto himthe ImperialUniversity and to possess too much of the characterof an official institution. docSome years later,in 1911, he angrily rejectedthe honorary
46
17 48
salaries?
48
Komiya, Natsume Soseki, II, 9247. Zenshui, XVIII, 446. Zenshui, XIV, 403.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
torate that the Ministryof Education had awarded him. He apparentlywished to show publicly his contemptfor all such recognition.What is perhaps more important, marks of official arrogantin had been unforgivably he feltthat the government he askingwhether wishedto first himthe degreewithout granting be so honored.49 the from motiveforhis resignation But afterall, the compelling was his desire to write. He had already proved to university himself that he could writeworksof fiction.He was a mature behindhim. Perhaps he with years of preparation man of forty powersthanhe openlyadmitted. of was moreconfident his creative
II.
THE NOVELS
50
Wagahai Wa Neko De Aru
-c-h .;
The first chapterof Wagahai Wa Neko De Aru [I Am a Cat] appeared in January,1905, in Hototogisu A 1 1'k a. " When the firstchapter of my Neko appeared in Hototogisu," writes to Soseki," it was my intention stop there. But I was encouraged to continuewith it, and so I wroteon, until it became as long as it is. . . . I wrote simplybecause I wanted to write,and it nothingexcept that I had then reachedthe stage when signifies I wanted to writesuch a thing." It was a great success and it fame. Strictly him immediate speaking, is not a novel brought but a series of episodes, quite unequal in merit,loosely strung it together.As a whole,therefore, cannot be regardedas a truly seriouswork. As the title suggests,the narratoris a cat, owned by Mr.
51
XX, 563-67. 9 Zenshui, " Not all of S6seki's novels are discussed here. My purpose is merelyto indicate aspects of S6seki's developmentas a novelist what I believe to be the most significant of and to provide a basis forthe interpretation his intentions.Kojin is the last novel discussed. Kokoro and Michikusa are mentionedonly in so far as they are relevant of to our understanding the novels that precede them. For an examinationof Kokoro and its relationshipwith the earlier novels, see my article, "The Implications of S6seki's Kokoro," MN XIV (1958-59).356-70. A few translated passages from Mon and Kojin appear both thereand in this article. These two novels,however,are much more fullydiscussed here. 1 Zenshui, XX, 509.
167
human tell the storywears thin aftera while,and one beginsto withit foralmost wonderwhya man of Soseki'staste preservered fivehundredpages. Perhaps the Japanesewere then starvedfor volume piece of social satire; at any rate, the first an intelligent printings 1914 and had sold by ofNeko 53had goneintothirty-five 40,000 copies.54 approximately all Since Mr. Kushami's cat is the narrator, the scenes in the novel take place eitherin the master'shouse or in the immediate neighborhood.The cat observesMr. Kushami's personalhabits about them;forexample: and makescomments
by I seldom my master.Theytell me thathe is a teacher trade. As see up and he the soonas he comesback from school, shutshimself in his study are the of members the household under hardly ever comesout. The other pleasedto have scholar.He is of course impression he is a tremendous that to that he them think But actually is notthehardworker he is believed so. himtaking be. I have on occasion up creptquietly to thestudyand caught a nap. Whilenapping, sometimes he droolsoverhis book. He has a weak lemon-yellowish to it. He is a big tinge stomach, his facehas a sickly and
Kushani i/4}M.52
The rather obvious device of having a non-
eater nevertheless.Aftera huge meal he drinks some Takajasutaze,55then retiresto his study and opens a book. He becomes sleepy aftertwo or three pages. He drools over his book. This is his nightlyschedule. I am only a I cat, but sometimes findmyselfthinking: " Well, the life of a teacher certainlyseemseasy. If ever I am borna human,I musttryto become a teacher. Why, if all one has to do is sleep, then surelyeven a cat can teach." Of than being morestrenuous course,if you ask him,he'll tell you there'snothing and loudlyabout a teacher. Every timea friend dropsin, he complainsbitterly of the difficulties his profession.56
and we watch Mr. Sometimesthe cat is altogetherforgotten, Kushami's dealings with his friendsand unpleasant neighbors through our own eyes.
-. e., " sneeze." The originaledition was published in three volumes. XX, 568. 64Zenshui, 66 a Z -'rA - - . Apparently a popular medicine at the time. [Takaproductof diastase was patented by Takamine J6kichij Diastase. This modified * (1854-1922), hence the name. See Who's Who in "Hakushi" in Great Japan , Vol. V (Tokyo, 1930), p. 48 (English text), p. 37 (Japanese text); tZ *k Eil* (Tokyo, 1941), pp. 528, 586, under " Takadiastase" also Gairaigo jiten $g*1iu and " Diastase." Ed.]
52
A pun on I
56
_rf
168
EDWIN McCLELLAN
timid Kushami-i. e., himself-as an inwardly Soseki portrays haughty a thathe presents satisfactorily man whofondly imagines None and his to exterior his wife, children, his plebeianneighbors. in of ofthemtakeshimseriously, course. His neighbors particular for are inclinedto treathim withcontempt, theythinkof him as almostas poor as themselves.They become a mereschoolteacher, a the allies of Kushami's chiefenemyof the neighborhood, gross, by newlyrichfinancier the name of Kaneda I, who seems to power and success. They, with of thema personification worldly the connivanceof Mr. Kaneda, make poor Kushami's daily life outside tricksas gathering to miserable resorting such childish by insult: old-fashioned his house and shoutingan incongruously " Inthe badgerof Imadoyaki4,P! "Badger! Badger! You're deed,welleducatedthoughMr. Kushami is, he is unable to grasp has some sort the exact nature of the insultwhich,one gathers, understoodonly by the lower classes. of legendarysignificance to He rushes out, nevertheless, admonishthem. He findsthat they have somehowall disappeared and goes back to his house in angryfrustration. Mr. Kaneda's daughteris being courtedby a young intimate of Kushami,Kangetsu .J1. Kangetsu is at the graduateschool, a endlesslygrinding glass ball in an attemptto reduce it to the rightdegreeof convexity.The task may take him ten years,but a he mustsucceed,forwithout Ph. D. he willnot winthe approval so ofMr. Kaneda, who does not mindscholars longas theypossess fails,however,and at the doctor'sdegree. Kangetsu's courtship and the end of thenovel,we findhimgivingup his glass-grinding his a marrying girlfrom hometown. is businessman a familiartype to us now but The insensitive in was a relativelynew phenomenon Japan at the time Soseki That Soseki was satirizingmodern Japanese wrote his novel. man of recentlyacquired wealth societywherea coarse-grained such as Kaneda could attainan almostunassailablesocial position to is obvious. What is perhapsmoreinteresting us is that so early in this century,researchwork for the doctor's degree had its ridiculous aspectsin the eyes of a Japanesesatirist. an is A moresubtlydrawnfigure Dokusen 4R{10, acquaintance
169
of Kushami. He wears a beard similarto that of a goat, and the conservacat calls him " Mr. Philosopher." He is a professional is tive, and so articulateand convincing he in his role that we and dedicatedman. But we eventumistakehimfora sincere first lover ally find out fromMeitei A;S, a pleasant and frivolous of the finearts,that Dokusen is a mountebank.The revelation comes as a shock to Kushami, at whose house Dokusen has speech in defenseof the old made a shortbut powerful recently ways:
But and is civilization dynamic progressive. It maywellbe that Western livesin to by constructed menwhoare destined live their it is a civilization in one however, does not seek comfort civilization, In frustration. Japanese lies civilization from of changeoutside oneself.Its greatdifference Western For fundamentally. excannotbe changed things in its tenetthatexternal ample,we do not,as do thoseof the West,tryto changethe relationship becausewe findthat it is not entirely simply and children parents between the peace of mindby accepting factthatthe to pleasing us. We tryto find we cannotbe changed.Similarly, and children parents between relationship lords and wives,between husbands between have acceptedthe relationship Why,we viewnature samuraiand commoners. and retainers, between and because country itself the same way. If we cannotvisit a neighboring in we to of instead trying movethem, tryto planourlives there mountains, are the on the assumption that theywillneverbe moved. We tryto cultivate I be cannot moved, shall says," Thoughthe mountains stateof mindwhich The essenceof what I am sayinghas been graspedby the be satisfied." and Zennist theConfucianist.57
This is satire of a very high order. At any rate, Mr. Kushami taken in. " The mastersat and listened,"the cat is completely or comments." He did not even say that he understood that he he guestdeparted, returned did not understand. Whenthestrange to his study. He sat still,his book unopened. He seemed to be deep in thought." a thereis, unfortunately,certainvanity Aside from otherfaults, detectablein Neko. In Soseki's depictionof Kushami,or himself, he seems to be saying: " See how frankI am about myself. I am gullible, pompous,and lazy. Of course,you willsee that in my ability to laugh at myself,I am unlike other professors."In novel he wroteten years later, Michikusa, the autobiographical
57
Ibid.,p. 291.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
one sees none of this vanity. It is morethan likelyhe sensed its on presencein Neko, forthe novel finishes a note of pity witha touch of disgustin it. The last episode ends withthe departure of Kushami's friends, in who have spent the afternoon cheerful and aimlessconversation:
It is finallyevening;the shortautumn day is over. The firein the brazier lying in has gone out. Mingled with the ashes are the corpses of cigarettes, great confusion.Jollythoughthe companyhas been, it must at last have had its fillof entertainment. Mr. Dokusen is the firstto get up, saying: " It is late. I think I'll go." Then one by one the rest depart, saying: "Well, I thinkIll be goingtoo." The roomis suddenlylonely,like a theatreafterthe audience has left. His wife sits The master finishes dinnerand goes into his study. his sewing. The childrenare asleep, lyingside by side. The maid has gone to the public bath. carefree people, and you will hear a Knock on the heartsof these seemingly sound that is somehowsad. Mr. Dokusen, even though he appears to have grasped the essence of the universe,must sometimestread the earth. Mr. Meitei may be cheerful, the world he lives in is not like the worldhe sees but in paintings.Mr. Kangetsu has stoppedgrinding glass ball and has brought his back a wife fromhis native province. This was the reasonable and proper thingforhim to do, but what a bore it would be if one had always to do the reasonableand properthing.... The master's bad stomach will kill him sooner or later. Old man Kaneda has already died fromgreed. Death is the fate of all things,and if one finds thingto do is nothingusefulto do in life,then perhaps the most intelligent to die early.58
And the cat does die shortly afterwards. drinks master's He his beer in the kitchen,then steps out in a drunkenstupor and drowns. His last words are: "Lord have mercy on my soul, have mercyon my soul. I am grateful, am grateful." I Botchan #IJ tAA in Botchan was written 1906. It is told in the first person.and its languageis the vigorous, everyday speechof Tokyo. The style has a certaincrudenesswhich,thoughfullyintended,limitsthe range of expressionand preventsthe novel fromhaving much to depth. Soseki was here trying develop a stylewhichwas free and in his quest fornaturalnessand simplicity, fromornateness,
58 Ibid.,
pp. 461-62.
171
a deviceofmakingthe protagonist, not very he chose the familiar youngman, tell the tale. thoughwell-bred intelligent Botchan is by no means an artisticfailure,and it is not surprisingthat it still remainsone of the most famousof Japanese novels. But it is too simplein execution.We are willingenough to grantthat as a tale of naivete Botchan is successful.Simple to men, however,are never as interesting read about as compliartfulness a is cated ones,and there ofnecessity certaindispleasing simplenovel. an writing intentionally in a man ofS6seki'ssubtlety Botchan is not unlikesome of Evelyn Waugh's early novelsis A HandfulofDust, forexample-in that the protagonist unable world around him. He is descended to cope with the scheming froma line of hatamotoV,* (shogunalretainers),and possesses to theideal samuraivirtues a fault. He knowshe is not intelligent, but he is not ashamed of this fact; he has no respectformoney never has any; he hates wilinessso much that he and therefore it cannot recognize in others;he despisesphysicalcowardiceand is nonplussedto findthat it is almost held to be a virtueby his that loyal to the few friends and contemporaries; he is intensely he has. None ofthesequalitiesis of any use to him in the modern rankwould that his hereditary the world,and without protection he have given him had he been born beforethe Restoration, is and failure. doomed to live the rest of his lifein disappointment of in The novel is, therefore, a sense an indictment modern society. But it is doubtfulthat Soseki would have admiredthe youngman verymuch in the role of an arroganthatamoto. For the latter then would have been unbearablystupid and, with behis two swords,ratherdangerous. He invitesour sympathy cause he is a failureand because he is an anachronism.I do not mean to belittlehis virtues; what I am saying is that S6seki asks us to pityratherthan admirehim. The youngman is leftan orphanearly in the novel. He does the death of his parentsverymuch,however, not seem to regret fortheyhad neverloved him.
The old man nevermade a pet of me. Motheralwaystook my elderbrother's side. My brotherhad an unpleasantlypale skin and liked to imitate female Every time the old man saw me, he would say: " This fellow impersonators.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
will never come to any good." Mother always said: " He is so rough. What will become of him?" True, I will never amount to anything. Look at me now. No wonder they were worriedabout my future. All you can say in my favoris that I've neverbeen to prison.59
The only person that likes him is Kiyo M, an aged womanretainer thefamily. loves himforhis honesty of She and simplicity, and the onlywishshe has is that theywillbe able to live together in a house with an imposingoutside gate. She is old-fashioned and for reasons known only to herself, convinced that her is Botchan will eventuallybe a success. With the six hundred yen that his brother gives him aftertheir parents'death,he gets a diplomain mathematics froma private college of doubtfulrepute. He is offered post at a high school a in Shikokuand leaves Kiyo behindin Tokyo.
the She stood on the platform and looked at me through trainwindow. In a small voice she said: " Perhaps we'll never see each other again. Please take good care of yourself."Her eyes were filledwith tears. I didn't cry. But I almost did. The train began to move, and I waited until I thoughtI was safe beforeI stuck my head out of the windowand looked back. But she was still standingthere. Somehow,she looked terribly small.60
He finds the high school little to his liking. The boys are maliciousand rude,and he finds likeableonly one of the masters, a roughfellowfroma warlikeclan. The headmasteris a skilled exponent double-talk of and maintainsorderin the schoolmostly through abilityto confuseutterlythe more honestmembers his ofthe staff.Our heronicknames him" Badger." The mostdangerous man on the staff, is however, the seniormaster, who owes his exaltedpositionto the factthathe is a university graduate. Much to Botchan's disgust,he always wears a red shirtand is in the habit of smokinga meerschaum pipe, whichhe wipes constantly with a colored silk handkerchief. The last item is particularly galling to the hero,who believes,in true samurai fashion,that " in such effeminacy taste is unforgivable. Redshirt,"as Botchan calls him,is fondof quotingGorkiand such of whomBotchanhas never heard and carries with him the latest issue of Teikoku Bungaku, a smart " little magazine" of those times. He has a
59
Zenshuz, 235. H,
6' Ibid.,p. 244.
173
man Friday, who teaches art. The latteris a Tokyo townsman and shocks Botchan by telling him so when they firstmeet. Botchan considersit a disgrace that such a spinelessaesthete the great city and fears should have been allowed to represent that the barbariansof Shikoku will have been given the wrong contactwithhim. impression Tokyo through of and his only Botchan findslifein the small town veryboring, and occaentertainment his daily bath in the local hot springs is in sional visits to the few restaurants town. The latter are not very respectable,however,and when the studentssee him one shabby establishment, evening eating noodles in a particularly gossipbegins. The matteris alluded to, albeit veryobliquely,by Redshirtin a staffmeeting.
" It would be true to say that schoolmasters are membersof the upper that they should always seek enjoymentof classes. It is wrong,therefore, theircharacters. They are the materialsort. To do so would adverselyaffect or human,nevertheless, they must have entertainment they would not be and able to toleratelife in a small,provincialplace like this. They should,thereof or fore,go fishing, read good literature, composepoetrywhether the old or the new school. Whatever they decide to do, they must find relaxation in 61 those thingswhich are loftyand spiritual."
Redshirt Botchanis furious.He remembers discussing overhearing in honeyed tones with his artist frienda lady by the strange, that name of " Madonna." He wrongly imagines foreign-sounding for words,have it is a name that they,in theirfondness foreign given their favoritegeisha. He gets up and shouts angrilyat Redshirt: "Tell me, what is so spiritual about going to see Madonna?" instance,his suspicions But wrongas he was in this particular the are provedto have been rightafterall. When his onlyfriend, of the wild clansman,is given noticethrough machinations Redand the two of them waylay Redshirtand his shirt,he resigns, man Friday as theyare leavinga brothel.They beginby arguing, but Botchan and his friendare no match forthe othertwo in a and they battle of words. Their only recourseto justice is force, give Redshirtand the teacherof art a severebeating.
6"Ibid., p. 299.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
Botchan and his friend leave the provincial townthe next day. They neversee each otheragain. The novel ends withBotchan's return Tokyo. to
I did not botherto go to an inn when I reachedTokyo. Carryingmy suitcase, I went straightto whereKiyo was living. " Kiyo," I said as I walked in, "I've come home." She cried and said: " Botchan, you've come home at last." I was very happy too, and so I blurted out: " I'll never go to the provincesagain. Kiyo, you and I will have a house of our own." Later, someone got me a job as an assistant engineeron the metropolitan lines. My salary was twenty-five yen a month,and the rent was six yen. Kiyo seemed satisfied, even though there was no outside gate to our house. But the poor soul died of pneumonialast February. She called me the day beforeshe died and said: " Please, as a favor,bury me in your familytemple. I'll be happy there,waiting for you to come." That's why her grave is in Yogen-ji g at Kobinata J 13*.62
Kusamakura $t Kusamakura[PillowofGrass]appearedin 1906. Thoughutterly fromNeko or Botchan in style and purpose, it still different belongsto the experimental phase of Soseki's career. He wrote no other novel like it. It is a work almost totally devoid of passion,a conscious attempt express to man's deep-rooted yearning forlifewithoutemotionalinvolvements.It is a stylistic tour de forceand in somewaysthemostbeautiful workthat Sosekiwrote. He called it " a novel in the mannerof a haiku" and said that his purposein writing was " to leave an impression beauty it of in the reader's mind."63 Kusamakura has a fleeting, magical qualityabout it and seemsto be expressing mood ratherthan a a series of connectedideas. We see the mountainvillage and its people as thoughthrougha gentlemist. We do not want to see them more clearly,for to do so would mean a returnto harsh reality, the worldof passion and pain. But the worldof Kusato makura has its own reality. In a sense the narrator,a Tokyo is painterwho visitsthe villagein the mountains, seekinga world real than the one he has just left. But that is moreprofoundly because of its very passionlessness, the world that he seeks is closerto the sensesthan to the mindor the heart. So in Kusamakura that which is hiddenfromus in our daily
82
Ibid., pp. 371-72.
68
Zenshut, XX, 457.
175
lives suddenlyappearsto us in the form pinetreesseen through of the spring rain,so fine thatit is like mist,or the villagehandymran withhis packhorsewhomwe see onlyfora moment the mounon tain path, fortheyare soon hiddenby the curtainof rain. Most of the descriptive passages or dialogues,when consideredseparately,seemat first quite purposeless and sometimes evenfrivolous; but each of themhas a place in the whole schemeof the novel, and together they do leave a cumulativeimpression haunting of beauty in the reader'smind. The villagerssay that the younglady of the hotel is mad. She has recentlyreturned, the painter learns, froman unsuccessful marriageand now lives withher father, who is moreof a retired gentleman than a hotelkeeper. Miss Nami M is a mysterious elusivecreature, who is understood onlyby the rectorof the Zen temple. There is a streakof theatricality her,but the painter in sees that it is one of her ways of showing her independence.She too desiresa lifewithout is sometimes almostbrutally passion. She frank, but she is onlytrying findherself to through disregard for convention.In none of the scenes is her character fullyrevealed, however,and it would be doing Saseki a great injusticeto summarizeexplicitly of whatis reallythe totaleffect a seriesofdelicate suggestions. Her remoteness in keepingwiththe tone of the novel;forthe is is painter, who is the narrator, an equally remote personand finds herinteresting onlybecause she sharesthisqualitywithhim. She is gentlymocking her conversations in withhim,but he does not mind;in theirveryimpersonal world,thereis no meanness. Even in her one act of charityin the novel, she maintainsa certain aloofness. One day the painter,whilelyinghidden behind some the village, sees her speakingto a bushes on a hill overlooking shabbilydressed man. They have obviouslymet in secret,and is the painter'scuriosity aroused. He sees her givingthe man her purse. They then part. She walks towardsthe bushes:
" " "Maitre! Maitre! she called twice. " Well, well,"I thought, so she has seenme." " Whatis it?" I said,as I lookedat heroverthebushes.My hat fellon the grass. " Whatareyoudoing sucha place?" in
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
" I was lyinghere,composingpoetry." " Don't be dishonest. You saw what happened just now, didn't you?" " Justnow? Justnow? Oh, you mean that. Yes, I saw a little." She laughed. " Why only a little? You should have tried to see more than a little." " Well, to tell the truth, did see quite a bit." I " Justas I thought.Come here,won't you? Come out of the bushes." Meekly,I steppedout. " Did you want to stay there?" " No, I was thinking goingback to the hotel." of " Let's go back together then." Meekly, I went back to pick up my hat and my painting equipment. I then joined Miss Nami, and began to walk with her. " Did you get any paintingdone?" "No.." "It would seem that you haven't painted at all since your arrival." "That is so." "Isn't it ratherdisappointing have come all this way to paint and then to not paint a singlepicture?" " I'm not in the least disappointed." " Really? Why not? " " What difference does it make whetherone paints or one doesn't?" " You are joking,"she said. She then laughed. " What an easygoingperson you are." " If one can't be easygoinghere,what's the point of comingto a place like this?" " One should be easygoingno matterwhereone goes. Otherwise, what's the point of living? For example,I am not at all ashamed of having been seen back there." " There is no need foryou to be ashamed." " Perhaps not. The man you saw with me-what do you thinkhe is?" " Well now, let me see. I don't suppose he is terribly rich." She laughed. " You are quite right. Quite a fortuneteller, aren't you? He says he is so poor that he can't remainin Japan. He came to borrowmoney fromme." "Is that so. Where did he come from?" "From the castle town." "He certainly came a long way. And whereis he going fromhere?" "Manchuria, apparently." "XWhat does he intendto do there?" "Do? Find some moneyperhaps,or die perhaps-who knows?" I raised my eyes, and glanced quicklyat her face. Aroundher mouth,now firmly closed,I saw a trace of a smileabout to disappear. I was nonplussed. " That man is my husband." Her remark,like a sudden flash of lightning, caught me unawares. I was really surprised.I certainlywas not expectingto be told such a thing,and she, on her part, could not have intendedat firstto tell me so much about herself.
177
"Surprised, aren't you? " said the woman. "Yes, a little." "As a matterof fact,he is not my husband any more. We were divorced." "I see. And then-? " "That's all thereis to tell." house standing on the hill with the tangerine "I see. That white-walled trees-it's very impressive.It's nicely situated too. Who owns it?" "My elder brother.Let's stop thereon our way back." "For any particularreason?" there." "Yes. I want to leave something "I will come with you then." We came to the path leading up to the house. Below us was the village. A hundredyards or so up the hill,we reachedthe outer gate. From therewe did not go to the frontdoor but went straightinto the garden. She marched on as thoughshe owned the house. I followedwithouthesitation. The garden faced the south. I noticed threeor fourshuro trees. Immediatelybelow the mud wall stretchedthe tangerineorchard. The womansat on the edge of the verandahand said, " What a lovelyview. Come and have a look." " Yes, it is nice." It was quiet behind the slidingdoors,and there was no sign of life in the house. She seemed not to care. She sat still and relaxed, looking at the did she really have a tangerinetrees. I was baffled. I wonderedto myself, reason for cominghere? There was nothingleft for us to say, so we silentlygazed at the orchard below us. The warm noonday sun shone down on the whole face of the hill. The tangerineleaves seemed to fillour eyes with their brilliance;even their in undersideswere shimmering the sunlight. Then fromthe shed behind the house, a cock began to crow. "Oh dear, it must be noon," she said. "I had entirelyforgottenmy errand....1 64
withthe Zen priesttoo has the same The painter'sconversation unreal quality. It is as thoughthe persons are only secondary beauty and calm. What they say and do to the surrounding creatures who cannot for reallydo not matter, theyare ephemeral that envelopsthem. The painterand the the affect greateternity sippingtea. It is night. The priestsit in a roomin the rectory, priestlooks towardsthe gardenand says:
" Look at the shadow of that pine tree." " It is beautiful." " Is that all? " Yes."
84
III, 148-52. Zenshui,
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" But it is morethan beautiful.It does not mind if the wind blows." I drinkthe rest of the tea and put the cup down carefully.I stand up. "I'll accompany you to the gate," he says, and calls the young novice. "Ry6nen! Ry6nen! The guest is leaving!" we As we come out of the rectory, hear the cooingof the pigeons. " There is nothingso lovable as pigeons. When I clap my hands, they all come to me. Would you like to see? " of than ever. The numberlessflowers the magnolia The moon is brighter tree rise layer afterlayer towardsthe sky. In the silenceof the springnight, the priestclaps his hands. The sound is carriedaway by the breeze. He says, "Aren't theygoingto come down? Surely they will." Ry6nen looks at me and grinsslightly.The priestmust thinkthat pigeons life,I thinkto myself. can see at night. What a carefree We part at the gate. I look back and see the shadows, one large and one small, on the stone pavement. Slowly,as the two walk towards the rectory, the shadows fade away.65
The last scene takes place in the railwaystationof the nearest war is on, and Nami's cousinhas big town. The Russo-Japanese been conscripted.They have come to see him off. The young man's possible fate on the continentarouses no emotionin the woman'sheart. But as the trainbeginsto move, the face of her husbandunexpectedly appears out of a window. He looks at her with regretand sorrow. She sees him, and her eyes betraythe at suddenpitythat she feels. For a moment least,herpassionless leaves the world worldis goneand thereis pain. Thus the novelist to and does not return it. of Kusamakura, that he Shortlyafterthe novel appeared,he wroteto a friend in novels, merelyhaiku-like could neverfindsatisfaction writing he forto do so wouldbe unmanly.He wouldlike to write, said, as were a matterof lifeand death.66 thoughwriting Nowaki We Nowaaki[AutumnWind] appeared in Januaryof 1907. It is a certainly lessernovel than Kusamaklura.But it is far closerin spiritto the later worksof S6seki than are its threepredecessors. the He has herebegun to describeseriously tragedyof the world aroundhim.
88
"5Ibid., pp. 135-36. Zenshu, XVIH, 388-89.
179
of Nowaki givesan impression awkwardness.I In construction, here thinkthat Soseki's difficulty is purelytechnical. The writer does not yet knowexactlyhow to suggestthe problemsinherent in the novel; instead, he states them, thus giving Nowaki an also is that he has unwelcomedidactic tone. One's impression nor in neither himself the reader. It is perhapsa truism confidence is, a to say that the more confident writer the less he seems to what he is saying. care about the reader's abilityto understand at At any rate,it would seem that in fiction least, clarityis not always a virtue. Perhaps for this reason, a good play is often than a good novel,forthe playwright, exciting moreintellectually than can moreeasily avoid explicitness if he is at all competent, the novelist. An English writerliving in the same period and possessing and greatgifts wouldprobablynot have made Soseki'sexperience the mistakethat Soseki made in Nowaki. But S6seki foundno of worthy consciousemulaor Japanesepredecessor contemporary tion. Every timehe wrotea new kind of novel,he had to create in a styleproperto the genre, a sense in whichveryfewEnglish have had to do. Whenhe wroteKusamakura, and Frenchwriters tone he knew fromthe starthow to establishthe rightstylistic Nowaki,he chose forthe wholenovel. But whenhe began writing a stylewhichwas too heavy and whichlefttoo littleto the imagination;and once having done so, he had to continuewithit for the restof the work. There are threeprincipalcharactersin Nowaki: Shirai I3JI two are poor,and and Nakano @P . The first Takayanagi iAiIJ, the last, rich. This ratherobvious contrastis again a sign of Soseki's uneasiness,and thoughthe charactersare by no means crudelydrawn,they never become fullyalive. They are almost as as uninteresting the creationsof a sociologicalnovelist,which was not. But he could neverwritea totallybad Soseki certainly novel,forthe simplereason that he was too shrewdan observer an of society and too well-disciplined academic to rest satisfied and withsuperficialities; if the threemen in Nowaki are uncomenough close to beingtypes,theyare at least complicated fortably to deservesome seriousconsideration.
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man Shirai,the oldest of the three,is an university-educated who, because of his convictionthat the scholaris society'smost of valuable asset, is foundtoo outspokenby the authorities one gives up teaching highschoolafteranother. He finally provincial to in disgustand returns Tokyo to findsomeothermeansoflivelihood. He becomes a lowly paid editorialwriterfor a magazine againstwhat he believesto be the grossly his and continues fight What makes S6seki's outlookof his contemporaries. materialistic is of portrayal thisman sympathetic that thoughthereis a touch withoutmalice or envy; there of the fanaticin him,he is entirely in and his detestationof is no self-interest his desireforreform, but from his not the rich,forexample,springs from own poverty, have in his beliefthat the richand the powerful, theirsmugness, of the aspirations Japanesesociety. He all but destroyed spiritual is friendless-evenhis wiferegardshim as a fanaticwith an infor he penchant martyrdom-but is quiteprepared comprehensible and never allows forhis principles to pay the price of loneliness or of even the compensation self-pity bitterness. himself Takayanagi, a young man recentlygraduated fromthe uniis versity, also poor and sharesShirai'shatredof the rich. But his envy. He is ashamed of his povertyand confrom hatredsprings has no money. He indemnsthe richsimplybecause he himself and dulgesin self-pity believesthat ifit werenot forthe necessity of he of earninghis livingas a hack translator textbooks, would writea greatnovel. There is decencyin the youngman,however, to in and it is manifested his attachment Shirai. Shirai'spoverty attractsthe youngman, and very soon the latter begins to first of see the nobility the other. Takayanagi has been too corrupted he his to by hisownbitterness have any principles; finds salvation, in therefore, his loyaltyto Shirai. In one of the best scenes in the novel, Takayanagi discovers and Shirai. They meet by chance betweenhimself the difference outside the great walls of Baron Iwasaki's mansion and take a walk. The youngman beginsto tell the otherof his misfortunes. Finally, Shirai says:
" Perhaps you think you are the only lonely person in the world. But I am lonely too. There is, however,nobilityin being lonely."
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Takayanagi failed to understand the other'smeaning. " Did you understand? asked Mr. Shirai. " " Nobility? Why?" " Unless you understandwhat I mean, it will be impossiblefor you to go on living alone. You believe yourselfsuperiorto others,and you are lonely because others do not recognizeyour superiority-isn'tthat so? But surely, if your qualities were of the kind that would be easily recognized, they would not be worthmuch. A man who is understoodby geisha and rickshawmen can't amount to very much. It is only when one thinks of oneself as the equal of geisha and rickshawmen that one becomes angryand agitatedwhen they show contempt.If one is no betterthan they are, one's workwill be no better than something that they mightwrite. It is because one is superior to such people that one is able to write somethingworthwhile.And when they are showna thingthat is good, they will despise it, naturally." "I am not worriedabout geisha and rickshawmen, sir." "What does it matter who they are? What I say holds equally true of your fellow graduates. Why, if all universitygraduates were alike, then surelythey would all become famousor they would all be nonentities.You, I suppose, are confident that only you, among all the graduates, will have a name that will be remembered.You must then have decided that thereis indeed a great difference between yourselfand the others,despite the fact that they are university of men too. Isn't it ratherinconsistent you, therefore, to grumble about your talents not being recognizedby them, when you have already decided that you are betterthan they?" " Is it because you believe all this, sir, that you work so hard? Do you " want your name to be remembered? " It is a little different with me. What I just said applies to you only. that you wanted to leave a I spoke as I did because it was my impression great workto posterity." " Please tell me, if you don't mind,whyyou workso hard. I want to know." " I have no trust in such a thingas reputation, and so I don't care what that I work for the good happens to my name. It is formy own satisfaction of the world. I may become infamous,my name may become odious to others-why, I may even end up mad. But what can I do about it? I work if like this because if I don't, I will be dissatisfied.And I say to myself, this then it is the only true way forme. is the only way I can findsatisfaction, What can a man do but followhis own way to truth?Man is a moralcreature, and so the most noble thing he can do is to follow the true way as he knows it. And if a man walks along his path to truth,why, even the gods will have to step aside to let him pass. Who cares about Iwasaki's walls?" And he laughed.67
Nakano, on the otherhand, is rich. He is also moregenerous and pleasanter than his friend Takayanagi. But despite his he pleasantness, is a limitedhuman being,forhe does not know what suffering We have no liking for Takayanagi, but he is.
67
Zenshui,III, 367-69.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
moves us more,perhapsbecause no matterwhat it may do to a man, thereis something strangely ennoblingin the mere act of suffering. Nakano is never as mean as Takayanagi, and he is sincerein his desireto help his friend.But Takayanagi resents him, not only because of his wealth, but also because of his of and loneliness. inability understand to reallythemisery poverty Early in the novel, Nakano comes across Takayanagi sitting dejectedlyon a park bench. Nakano takes him to a restaurant and treatshimto a European lunch. Takayanagi says:
" You are a fortunate fellow. You have nothingto be dejected about." He had pushed away his plate with the half-finished steak on it. He was now smokinga cigarette. He looked at his friend. His friendwas busily eating. He made a quick, negative gesturewith his righthand, expressinghis disagreement. "So, I have nothing to be dejected about. And having no cause for dejection, am a sortof fatuousfellow, that it? " he said. I is Takayanagi's lips moved slightly, thoughhe was about to say something. as But he remainedsilent. The other continued: " I also was at the university threeyears, remember?You know very for well that I have read not a few philosophicaland literaryworks. Whatever your impression me may be, I thinkI am aware of the miserythat exists of in the world." "Yes, you've read about it," said Takayanagi in the manner of a man lookingdown at the valley fromthe mountaintop.68
Nakano theninsiststhat he too has muchto worry about. But Takayanagi remains skeptical,for he knows that Nakano is a is happyman who,forthe sake ofhis friend, trying unsuccessfully to disguisehis happiness. That Nakano cannot really sympathizewith Takayanagi becomes clear whenhe discusseshim withhis prettyfiancee. This scene,incidentally, full of passages the like of whichone does is not findin his laternovels. The authorinserts own comments his atwhenever can, in a self-conscious ratherold-fashioned and he mood of the scene; forexample: the temptat increasing romantic " Love is earnest.It is also deep,because it is earnest.But love is thatlie deep also a game. Being a game,it floats.The onlythings and yetfloatare the weeds at the bottomof the sea and youthful love." 69
'8 Ibid., pp. 267-68.
"9Ibid., p. 349.
183
But the dialogue,as always,is good, and it bringsout beautifully essentialselfishness two richand happypeople in love. the of
game in the beautifully These spoilt yet good people play at theirprofound decorated room. Outside the room, the cold autumn sky stretchesover the world.Underit suffer Shirai and otherslike him. Under it the Takayanagis Mr. live theirlonelylives. But these two youngpeople are good people. "You were with Mr. Takayanagi at the concert the other day, weren't you? " says the girl. " Yes. I didn't mean to go with him, but I bumped into him on my way to the concert,so I asked him to join me. He was standing sadly outside the zoo, looking at the leaves that had fallen fromthe cherrytrees. I felt rathersorryfor him." "It was good of you to ask him. Is he ill?" serious." "I did noticethat he coughed. I shouldn'tthinkthat it's anything "But he looks so pale." "The fellowis so neurotic,he drives himselfill. When I try to comfort him,he becomes sarcastic. He's become very odd of late." "That's too bad. What is the matterwith him?" "Perhaps it's disappointment love." in "Who can tell? He chooses to be alone, and regardsthe whole world as his enemy. There is nothingI can do." " No one has told me if it is. Perhaps we ought to findhim a wife. That mightdo him good." " Well, why don't you?" " That's easier said than done. His wife would have a ratherhard time with him,he's so difficult." " But if he gets married, may improve." he "Perhaps, but it's in his nature to be pessimistic. His illness is chronic I melancholia, think." She laughed. " How did he get this illness?" " I don't know. Perhaps he inheritedit. Or perhaps somethinghappened whenhe was a child... ." 70
disTakayanagi,as a matterof fact,is trulyill and eventually froman advanced case of tuberculosis. coversthat he is suffering The doctoradvises himto leave Tokyo and go to a warmer place. Nakano forceshim to accept a hundredyen. Takayanagi takes the money only on the conditionthat Nakano will accept the of manuscript the novel that he willwritewhilehe is away. It is a theatrical gestureon Takayanagi's part,but he must retainhis pride. He visits Shirai to tell him that he is leaving Tokyo. As he entersthe livingroom,he findsthat thereis anothervisitor. He
7bid., pp. 350-51.
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When Takayanagi discoversthat Shiraicannot is a moneylender. producesthe moneythat Nakano pay back the loan, he suddenly and gives it to the moneylender.Shirai has a has given him will take. Takaby manuscript his side,a workthat no publisher yanagibegs to be givenit. The novel ends as he leaves the house underhis arm. He willgiveit to Nakano. withShirai'smanuscript and one canis The last scene,therefore, rathermelodramatic, to not but feelthat what Soseki was trying suggestheredeserved morecarefultreatment. for Takayanagi's quixotic act has a great deal of significance that the great novel he was him,forit is his way of admitting going to writehas never been more than a wishfuldream. He has come to realize his own emptinessand cannot bear to live triesto redeem isolation. He, therefore, any longerin his terrible not by himself sacrificing only his selfishambition,but also his his slenderhope of prolonging life. SanshiroEP"[9 part Sanshir5,whichappeared in 1908, is regardedas the first G the othertwo parts being Sorekara e ;61 [And of a trilogy, Then-] and Mon P'3[The Gate]. It belongs withoutquestion career,for its construction to the latter half of Soseki's writing shows none of the faults we have seen in Nowaki. There is no stylisticbreak betweenthe dialogue and the narrative;Soseki's prose flowsalong with great ease and is free of the particular mannerisms presentin his earlierworks. One findshere no selfno consciousartistry, obvious attemptat dramaticeffect. dull is however, an extremely work. It has almostno Sanshir5, uneventful.In all his later novels,the plot and is exasperatingly reactionsof the charactersto situationsare a little too passive, theyseem to knowthat they and even whentheyreactviolently, are doingso in vain. The shadowof doom hangsover all of them, and thereis nothingthey can do in this life to escape it. It is that only the acutenessof theirsuffering gives themsignificance. possess is their The one heroicquality that Soseki's protagonists us and capacity forsuffering, his novels interest only so long as thiscapacity has magnitude.
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of the Sanshir6, maincharacter the novel,is too youngto move us, however. He is stilltoo fullof hope to know that pain is not but a permanentconditionof man's life. Sanshiro momentary to is reallylittlemorethan an introduction the novels that will love is no more of follow,as the disillusionment Sanshiro'sfirst Sanshironever apstep towardsgreatersuffering. than the first pears again in S6seki's works,but we know that he is the kind of youth for whom life holds nothingbut profounddisappointas ment. Viewed therefore the story of a youth whose future of would be like that of the more matureprotagonists the later novels,Sanshirohas some purpose. But by itself,it seems to be withoutmuch significance. The novel beginswith Sanshiroon a train en route to Tokyo. He has just graduatedfroma provincialcollege and is goingto He the greatcity to studyat the university. is an awkward,shy of youth,who has no inkling whatlifein Tokyo willbe like. with a man much On the train he entersinto a conversation manner,Sanolder than himself.Despite the man's indifferent deepens when they shiro is attractedto him. The relationship meetagain by chance in Tokyo. The olderman's name is Hirota WM,and he teaches at a collegein Tokyo. Though theirfriendship is not the centralthemeof the novel,the readerguessesthat it is Hirota that Sanshirowill eventuallyturnto forsolace. is In Kokoro ib [The Heart], a similarfriendship treated in of thereis a suggestion homodetail. It has been said that greater homosexuallove and what sexualityhere. But what constitutes on does not is a questionso dependent whatwe mean by the term " homosexual that it would be futileto attemptan answer. I " of doubt that Soseki would have admittedthe legitimacy such a of question. What is relevantto our understanding the relationfor ship is that the love of Sensei 3tL41 the namelessyoungman in Kokoro, and of Hirota forSanshiro,springsfrompity,while of a from vague recognition their men springs that ofthe younger drawn to own ultimatefate. Sensei and Hirota are irresistibly theiryouthful companionsbecause they see in the latterthe terto rible sensitivity pain that they themselveshave been cursed with. The older man and the youngerman of course share the
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loneliness;they recognizein each of same characteristic extreme othera certainalienationfromthe worldaroundthemand come seekingprotectionand understanding. instinctively, together acquaintanceSanshiromeetsMineko iAZ+. Througha family and whosesophistication beautyawe him. She is a passionategirl, who is in searchof a man who will lead her out of her emotional lover that but confusion, he is too awkwardto be the masterful she needs. In the end Mineko marriesa suave gentlemansome Yojiro J1Z1, who is yearsolderthan herself.Sanshiro'sfriend, thanhe is, tellshimthat he has been a foolto thinkthat shrewder Mineko would marrya man herown age.
" Why? I'll tell you. Compare young men and women in their early twenties. Women, you will find, are far superior. They will always make foolsof men who are no older than themselves. Even a woman doesn't want to marry someone she doesn't respect. Of course, conceited women are an exceptionto this rule. As for them, they can only marrymen they despise or remain single. You agree, don't you, that daughtersof rich men and so on are often that way. Many of them do marry and live despising their husbands. Miss Mineko is much nicerthan that. Anyonewho wants to court a her has to be aware of the fact that she won't even thinkof marrying man she doesn'tadmire. That's whythe likes of you and me have no rightto hope to marryher."71
Sanshirogoes to see Hirota. Shortlybeforethis conversation, He knows by this time that he has lost Mineko. They begin to that many talk about marriage.Hirota is a bachelorand remarks to findit difficult marry. Sanshiroasks: men forvariousreasons
" What kind of men?" " Well, forexample-," he began to say, then became silent. He continued to puffat his cigarette. " Here's a man, a certain fellowI know. His father on died early,and he grew up relyingentirely his mother. Then she became ill. Just beforeshe died, she called him to her bedside and told him to go to Mr. X forhelp afterher death. The boy had neverheard of this man. He asked her why he should go to him rather than someone else. She said nothing. He asked again. Finally, in a faint voice she said that Mr. X was of his real father.-It's only a story, course,but let's assume that such a man exists. Wouldn't you say that he would quite naturallyhave little faith in " marriage? "I doubt that there are many such men." "No, therearen'tmany,but theydo exist."
71Zenshfi, 290-91. V,
187
"But sir,you are not one of them?" He laughed. " You have a mother, believe." 1 " Yes, sir." "And your father?" "He is dead." "My own mother died the year after the promulgationof the constitution."72
This is the onlypassage in the novel that givesus a hintof the tragedyof Hirota's life. One cannot but feel that Soseki would novel had he made Hirota, not a have written more interesting Sanshir6,the principal character,for this short dialogue gives Hirota a depth which Sanshiro,because of his innocence,does not possess. so a Justas Sanshirois onlypotentially tragicfigure, is Soseki a at thispoint onlypotentially tragicwriter.Nowaki is a richer executed. It would thoughit is morecrudely novel than Sanshiro, seem that S6seki was not yet able to combine restraintand of of naturalness stylewithrichness content. in man's cravingforcompanionship the big city,the The young love, the girl'skindnessand nostalgicqualityof his first strangely and pride,the sympathy her inevitablecruelty, her helplessness feelsforthe quiet youngman-all these that Hirota immediately are beautifullyand delicatelyexpressed;but for all its polish, Sanshir6failsto move us. Sorekara Zc
A yearlater,Sorekara[And Then-] appeared. Its protagonist, Daisuke f1t/, is a maturerand more complicatedfigurethan more interesting intrinsically Sanshiro. The novel is therefore than its predecessor.Its one great fault is that its brooding, withoutrelief. deeply analytical tone is maintainedthroughout in starthowever, that nothing It has its own kind of perfection, or accidental is allowed to mar its realism. lingly unnatural by Soseki does manage to hold the reader'sinterest Furthermore, dismind. Despite his lifelong the sheerpowerof his disciplined
7 Ibid.,pp. 278-79.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
there is no doubt that without like of the scholarlyprofession, behindhim,he could never those years of readingand reflection a as have written intelligent novel as Sorekara. His great conto tribution the Japanesenovel as a wholewas the unashamedly to characterthat he introduced what was traditionally reflective a popular art form. of Daisuke is withoutdoubt a symbol of the disillusionment after youngJapanesewho have reachedtheirmaturity intelligent the Russo-JapaneseWar. Japan has now attained her goal of modern power, and the as world recognition an independent, has now been replaced by the struggle strugglefor recognition for survival. Industrial expansion resultingfromthe war has and and thus selfishness introduceda new kind of insecurity, into Japanesesociety. The ethical tenetsof the society, cruelty, have not changedto meet the new needs of the people. however, in can Men, therefore, live contentedly this state of sharp incononly if they are stupid or hypocritical.Soseki's point is sistency most in this and honestmen that suffer that it is the intelligent kind of society. There is nothing that Daisuke can do to preventthe increasing of alienation of himselffromhis father,a successfulfinancier samuraistock who was born some years beforethe Restoration. Nor can he preventthe final quarrel between himselfand his man, who,thougha tolerantand not unintelligent elder brother thing. Daisuke's need to do the unconventional cannotunderstand and lives alone in a house withan elderly Daisuke is now thirty on He maid and a youngman-servant. livesin idleness, a monthly gives him. Daisuke is well allowance that his fathergrudgingly in on awareofhis ownunreasonableness insisting his independence for on and at the same timerelying his father support. It is proof streakin Daisuke remains of Soseki'shonesty that the courageous most of Sorekara, hiddenuntilneartheend ofthenovel. Through is the protagonist an almost despicablefigure. The lonely and idle life that Daisuke leads inevitablymakes More throughboredomthan anythingelse, him self-centered. despite the fact that he Daisuke has become a hypochondriac, proud. has an unusuallyrobustphysiqueof whichhe is childishly
189
does not preventhim frombeing a very His slightneuroticism and he does not allow the discomman, however, self-contained forts othersto upset his generalequanimity.The novel opens of with Daisuke wakingfroma night'ssleep:
a on He lookedby his pillowand saw lying the floor doublecamellia.He during night.To the falling the distinctly soundof thisflower remembered the downfrom ball like his ear it had sounded a rubber thathad beenthrown was then himself thatthesound exaggerated abovehim.He had assured ceiling handoverhis he by the quietof the night.Nevertheless, had put his right to heartand feltthesteady, encouraging before pulse going sleep.73
paper has been placed by his bedside. He glances The morning it through and thengets up and goes to the bathroom:
and his brushed teeth.Theywerestrong even,and they Therehe carefully to sourceof pleasureto him. He stripped the waist and werea constant skin motion.His fine-textured in wipedhis chestand shoulders a massaging oil he as to seemed glow, though had rubbed intoit and thenwipedit off.... did which notneedthehelpof oil to be neat. his He thencombed blackhair, his lip covering upper in tasteful and too His moustache lay neatly obediently, cheeks. his as to He fashion. continued stareintothemirror he stroked plump up wouldwhenmaking her face.74 He movedhis handsas a woman
or, He staves offennui gossipingwith his man-servant when he visits his father'shouse, with his sister-in-law.He visits the theatre as often as possible and occasionallygoes to a geisha house. He pretendsto himselfthat his way of life is the only possibleone fora civilizedman. man, and even he himself at Outwardly least, he is a frivolous cannot last does not realize that this life withoutcommitment of is forever.His irresponsibility largelyan expression rebellion alienated his against his upbringing.His fatherhas unwittingly son by being the strictConfucianparent with ideals impossibly out of keepingwiththe modernworldand withhis own private outdatedor not,the old man's code of ethics practices. Whether and has stood himin good stead,however, he has neverhad reason its to doubt its utilityand therefore validity. He failsto underhe stand his youngerson, whose shrewdness has always underhouse,his father estimated. WheneverDaisuke visitsthe family lecturesto him. He says on one occasion:
7"Zenshii,VI, 5.
7'
Ibid., p. 6.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
" A man shouldn't always think of himself. There is society to think of, and thereis one's country. One cannot be fullysatisfiedunless one tries to do something other people. Surely,even you can find no satisfactio,n for in livingas idly as you do. It's different with the lower classes, of course. But how can a man of your backgroundand education be contentto live in idleness? One enjoys the benefit whateverone has learnt only when one puts of it into practice.... You don't have to go into business if you don't like it. There is no reason to suppose that the only way to be of service to Japan is to make money. . . . I will continueto supportyou. Afterall, I may die quite soon, and I won't be able to take any of my moneywith me. So don't worryabout your monthlyallowance. But bestir yourself and do something. Do whateveryou wish to do for the good of your country.You are already thirty, aren't you? " 75
That the old man's notionof patriotism strangely coincideswith his self-interest a thoughtthat has oftenoccurredto Daisuke. is But he sits and listensobediently, he dares not openlyoppose for his father, withoutwhose financialassistance he cannot live as comfortably he likes. He does not dislikehis father he feels as but littlesympathy him. for " Daisuke thought thosemen of the past who felt, of wept,and became excitedforselfish reasonsand yet managed,through their ignorance, convince to themselves thattheywerebeingcompletely altruistic and who,because of this conviction, were able to bend othersto theirwill. He envied them."76 That Daisuke also deludes himself, see in his conversation we withHiraoka *IA. The latteris an old university friend who has recently returned withhis wifeMichiyo E-Tft from provincial a city. His firmhas firedhim-the reader gathers that he was caughtembezzling office the funds-and he is now withoutwork. He is bitter and desperatelyafraid of poverty. They meet in Tokyo for the first time in threeyears, and each sees that the otherhas changed. Daisuke's personality becomemore aloof has and cold and Hiraoka's more twisted. Hiraoka cannot hide his envyofDaisuke's security, hisenvysoonturns ill-concealed and to angerwhen he sensesDaisuke's contemptforthose who struggle so hard to survive. Daisuke becomesdefensive triesto justify and his kindoflife. He is a littletoo glib perhaps, but he is not being totallyinsincere:
76
Ibid.,pp. 32-33.
Ibid.,p. 198.
the fault of the world around us.
. .
191
"You ask me why I don't work. That I don't is not my fault. It is really
. Look at Japan. She is the kind of
country that can't surviveunless she borrowsmoneyfromthe West. In spite of this,she triesto play the role of a first-class power; she tries to forceher way into the companyof first-class powers. . . . She is like a frogtryingto be as big as a cow. Of course,she will soon burst. This struggle affects you and me, and everybodyelse. Because of the pressureof competition with the West, the Japanesehave no time to relax and thinkand do something worthwhile. They are broughtup in an atmosphereof tension and frugality and then are made to engage in furious activity. No wondertheyare all neurotics. Talk to them,you will findthey are all fools. They thinkof nothingexcept themselvesand their immediateneeds. Look all over Japan, and you won't findone square inch that is bright withhope. It is dark everywhere. Standing in the middle of this darkness,what can I, alone, say or do that will be of use? "77
Daisuke knowsthat he and Hiraoka will neverreturn their to old friendship, he does not feelmuch sorrow: but
He knew that he and Hiraoka had finallybecome separated. Every time he met him,he feltas if he were speakingto him froma great distance. But in truthhe felt this way about everybodyhe met. He thought," Presentday society is no more than an aggregate of isolated human beings. The ground under us may be continuous,but the houses we build on it are separated. And the people who live in themhave become separatedfromone another. What is civilization but somethingthat makes of men isolated, helplesscreatures? 78
It is Michiyo that destroysDaisuke's protectivecoatinigof aloofness.He had loved her beforeher marriageto Hiraoka but had acted as mediin his foolish desireto play the dutiful friend, ator betweenHiraoka and Michiyo. Michiyo,whose motherand was in no positionto brother had shortly beforedied of typhoid, reject Hiraoka's suit. Though she was in love withDaisuke, she was forcedto marryHiraoka. When Daisuke meetsher again in Tokyo, he discoversthat he stillloves her. His love is now fortified pity forher and regret by forhis past stupidity.The strainof her unhappymarriageand her health the recentdeath of her only child have undermined breakdown.She behaves her and brought to thevergeofa nervous towardsDaisuke, but he sees that she is also withgreatrestraint withhim and that she has neverloved her husband. He in love
77
Ibid.,pp. 82-83.
78Ibid., p. 112.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
realizes what a terriblething it was that he did to her. Like that his life admits to himself Takayanagi in Nowaki, he finally thus far has been purposelessand cowardly. One day, when Mishiyo visits him, he confesseshis love to her with touching to simplicity:" You are verynecessary me." There is nothing theycan do but tell Hiraoka the truthabout themselves.There will be a scandal, followedby ostracism. But Daisuke knowsthat any kind of life withMichiyowill be better of than a continuation his previouslovelessexistence.Because of and cynicism, courageousdecisionmoves his his earlierfrivolity us all the more.
He saw what the futureheld forhim and preparedhimselffor the coming struggle. First, there would be his father to contend with, then his elder and brother and his sister-in-law, afterthem Hiraoka. When his battles with them were over, there would still be that great machine-likething called or whichtook absolutelyno noticeof a person'sfreedom his sentiments. society, To him, society now seemed a dark monstrousthing. " I will fightthem all," he thought.79
a He writes le-tter Hiraoka, askinghim to come to his house. to A few days later, Hiraoka appears, and explains that he could Michiyo. There is a not come soonerbecause he has been nursing time in the book beautifultouch of ironyhere,forit is the first for that Hiraoka shows he has not entirelylost his affection us Michiyo'ssudden illnessreminds that Michiyo. Furthermore, Daisuke is helpless even afterhis acceptance of responsibility, forit is Hiraoka,not he, who can take care of her. Daisuke asks Hiraoka to give Michiyo her freedom. After Hiraoka's initialangerhas abated, Daisuke says quietly:
" You have never loved Michiyo." " So? " " Yes, I know,it's not my place to say so, but I must. What reallymatters now is that you don't love her." " Anidyou are blameless?" " I love Michiyo." " What righthave you to love anotherman's wife?" " It's too late now to say that. By law, you own her. But she is a human being; you can't possess her as you would a piece of furniture.You can't hope to own her heart. You can't tell her whom to love and when to love.
791 bid.,p.
228.
193
A liusband's rightdoesn't stretchthat far. It was your duty as a husband to see to it that she loved no one else." " All right,"said Hiraoka; he seemed to be tryingdesperatelyto control his emotion: " let's say that you are right in assuming that I have never loved AMichiyo." His fistswere clenched. Daisuke waited for him to finish. Iliraoka then said unexpectedly: " Do you remember what happened three years ago?" " It was threeyears ago that you marriedMichiyo." " Yes. Do you remember everything well?" Daisuke's mind was suddenlyfilledwith memories. They seemed to burn like a torchin the night. " It was you that offered act as mediatorbetweenme and Michiyo." to " Only afteryou had confessed me your desireto marryher." to " I haven't forgotten.I am still gratefulto you for your goodwillthen." For a momentHiraoka seemed to be lost in thought. Then he said: " You and I had walked throughUeno and were walking down towards Yanaka. It had been rainingand the road was muddy. We talked all the way fromthe museum, and just as we reached that bridge,you wept for me. Daisuke was silent. as "Never have I felt so gratefulfor anyone's friendship I did then. I was so happy that night, I couldn't go to sleep. The moon was out, I remember.I stayed awake until it had disappeared." As thoughin a dream Daisuke said, "I was pleased too." Hiraoka would not let Daisuke say any more. He cried out, " Why did you weep like that for me? Why did you promise to act as mediator? If you were going to do a thinglike this, why didn't you ignore me that night? What did I ever do to you, that you should do such a terrible thingto me? "'80
Characteristically, Daisuke apologizes not for tryingto take Michiyoaway from Hiraoka, but forhavingbeen so stupidas to and notionoffriendship override allowhis sentimental artificial to admitsdefeat. He agrees to let his love forher. Hiraoka finally Michiyocome to Daisuke, but only aftershe has recovered from her present illness. Until then, he cannot permit Daisuke to see her.
Daisuke jumped up fromhis seat as thoughhe had felt a sudden electric shock. " Now I know! You intend to let me see her aftershe is dead! That's a cruel thingto do!" terrible, Daisuke went around the table, and grabbingHiraoka's shoulderwith his righthand. began to shake him. " Terrible! Terrible!"
8
Ibid.,pp. 260-62.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
breaths.81
Hiraoka saw the look of crazed fear in Daisuke's eyes. He stood up with Daisuke's hand still on his shoulder. " You know that I would neverdo such a thing,"he said, placing his hand on Daisuke's. They looked at each other,as though the devil had possessed themboth. "You must calm down,"Hiraoka said. "I am calm," Daisuke said, but his words were utteredin short,panting
We too are not very sure that Hiraoka means what he says. Soon after,Daisuke's fatherreceives a letter fromHiraoka him officially informing of Daisuke's requestto be givenMichiyo. WhetherHiraoka has written the letteras an act of vengeance Soseki does not tell us. The or merelyas a necessaryformality, to father furious, he has been trying inducehis son to marry for is landowner.He has almost thedaughter an important of provincial that he wants the marriageto take place beconvincedhimself of of cause the girlis a distantconnection a past benefactor his. son to Daisuke to and sends his first At any rate, he is furious, findout if all that Hiraoka says is true.
" Pointingto Hiraoka's letterwhichwas now lying on the table, Daisuke's elder brotherasked in a low voice: "Is it all true?" "Yes, it is," Daisuke answeredsimply. The fan in his brother'shand suddenlybecame still. He looked shocked. For a while, the two brotherswere silent. Then the elder brother said incredulously: " Whatevermade you do such a stupid thing? Daisuke remainedsilent. " " You could have marriedany girlyou wanted," said his brother. Daisuke still refusedto speak. The brotherpersisted: " Afterall, you are not an innocentchild. You've been around. What was the point of spending all that money in that worldlyway of yours,if you " were going to end up doing such a gauche thing? Daisuke lacked the strengthand the will to begin explaininghimselfat he this stage. For until very recently had thoughtexactly as his brotherdid. " Your sister-in-law been cryingover you." has " Is that so? " said Daisuke. His words might have been uttered in a dream. " Father is furious." There was no responsefromDaisuke. He gazed at his brotheras though froma distance. to "I have always found it difficult understandyou. But I did not let
81Ibid., p. 265.
195
that me, thatbother thinking someday you wouldmakesenseto me. Now I I knowI've been mistaken. have no choicebut to admitthat you are in so to me. Thereis nothing dangerous thisworld incomprehensible totally willdo or what be people.One can never surewhatthey as incomprehensible sinceyoucan tellyourself Of you theyare thinking. course, aren'tbothered, that what you thinkand what you do is yourown business.But what Surely, evenyou mustbe aware and aboutyourfather's mysocialposition? " honor? of thisthing calledfamily fell But thesewords on deafears.... In his heartDaisukewas confident The onlypersonthat thing.He was satisfied. that he had done the right was his wouldunderstand satisfaction Michiyo....82
His brother then tells him that since he has shownno inclinahe thereis nothing tion to apologizeor to regrethis foolishness, anger. Daisuke willbe disowned. can do to checktheirfather's
"I understand," answered Daisukesimply. in "You're a fool,"said his brother a loud voice. Daisuke did not raise his bowedhead. " " You'rean idiot," you fellow used talkative said hisbrother. Sucha glib, you to be. Now,at a time likethis, behavelikea deafmute.You don'tseem name. Whatwas the goodof all that to to carewhathappens yourfather's " education received? you for was quietexcept the the from table. The room He pickedup theletter and soundof theletter beingfolded.He put it back in the envelope placed it in his pocket. now." Daisuke toneofvoice: " I am going Thistimehe spokein a normal bowedin politefarewell. hall.83 as for " I alsowillnotseeyouagain," saidhisbrother he left thefront
in whileafter brother's his Daisuke remains the roomfora brief thensuddenlygets up and leaves the house,tellinghis departure, hot servantthat he is goingto look fora job. It is oppressively outside,and he beginsto feelthat the wholeworldaroundhim is the window burning.He jumps onto a tram. He gazes through to see nothingbut the color of at the street,and his eyes seem brilliantred. He resolvesto remainon the tram until the hot, sensationin his head has dissipated. burning Thus the novel ends. We do not know what will become of Daisuke and Michiyo. Indeed, we do not even knowthat he will see her again. Nor are we sure that the world will ever stop for burning Daisuke.
82
Ibid., pp. 270-71.
83
Ibid., p. 272.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
Mon WP and less Mon [The Gate]is thelast ofthetrilogy was written sad Sorekara.It is an infinitely novel,fullof thana yearafter is Sosuke c theprotagonist,a farhumbler gentle compassion. thanDaisuke. He is older more figure and therefore sympathetic the He against injustice andlessrebellious. has ceasedto struggle of and the unkindness fate. He willneverbe able to of others for by however, he is imprisoned the attainpeace in thisworld, he of memory the wrong has doneand by his love and pityfor hiswife. in at he It was while was a student theuniversity Kyotothat WhatOyone$Xs* was to Yasui %#, a closefriend. he betrayed Yasui, Sosekidoesnotsay. But we guessthatshe was his wife. his her Yasui,Sosukenotonlyruined own By taking awayfrom also. Theybothhadto leavetheuniversity but career, hisfriend's becausehe was askedby their before completing studies-S6suke to the university go, and Yasui becausehe could not bear to in remain Kyotoany longer. in After Sosukeand Oyone yearsof wandering theprovinces, their native to city.Theyare nowin their havereturned Tokyo, house. in and thirties. Theyarechildless livequietly a dingy early in which pays him Sosukehas a lowlyposition the civilservice to Theirlife to poverty. just enough enablethem livein genteel for nothopeor wishto live differently, Theydo is uneventful. thatthelittle thatremains happiness theyhave cometo realize theywonder Sometimes company. to them all in each other's is has goneto who,theyhave heard, whathas becomeof Yasui, his but Manchuria; theydo not mention name,foreach knows thatto do so wouldbring painto theother. from effort protect to themselves Theyaredullpeople.In their to insensitive everythe worldaround them, theyhave become to suffering. except eachother's thing " Theyhad notalwaysbeendisinterested thelivesofothers in on was in thisworld.Theirdisinterest forced themby society, and them intoa smallcorner, thenhad coldly which pushed had
197
in lives,theytriedto findconsolation depth."84 breadthin their monotonous. Sosuke goes extremely Their lives are therefore and returnsin the evening. Oyone sits to workin the morning in the house all day, waitingforhim to come back. Their dinner thereis littletheycan talk about since conversation desultory; is and fewinterests.They are hardlya fitting theyhave no friends subject fora novel; but Mon is, to my mind,the warmestof all Soseki's novels. This may be truebecause of all his protagonists, S6suke is the most appealing. Kokoro may on the whole be a but thereis an unpleasantstreakofselfishness moremovingwork, Sensei, which sometimesrepels and coldness in its protagonist, us and whichis not presentin Sosuke. Sensei proteststhat he loves his wife,but S6seki puts no lifeinto Sensei's love nor into his wife. Oyone has far greaterrealityand depth than the wife in Kokoro,and the love betweenher and S6suke,forall its quietness, bringsher,and thus her husband,far closerto the reader's heart. The coldness in Sensei has been broughtabout by K's violentdeath. His betrayalis far more cruel than Sosuke's, not As Sensei's effect. a result in intention but certainly, in its ultimate of by is humanity at least in part destroyed his consciousness the fromguilt too, but his of enormity his crime. Sosuke suffers has suffering in a sense made up forhis betrayalof Yasui. The Sosuke's love forOyone merefactthat Yasui is stillalive permits him. fromdestroying his to remainintactand prevents loneliness of forgetful the past, and because of They can neverbe entirely towards loses his gentleness this, Sosuke sometimesunwittingly Oyone.
like those upon whomthe sun has nevershone They lived huddled together and who have learned to feel warmthonly in each other's arms. Sometimes became almost unbearable,Oyone would say: when theirsuffering " But there's nothingwe can do about it." And S6suke would say: " We'll try to bear it." but they seemed and patience,they understood; The meaningof resignation hardly ever to feel that emotionwhich we call hope. They rarelyspoke of the past. Indeed, they seemed to have tacitly agreed never to talk about to say consolingly her husband: it. Oyone would sometimes 8 Ibid., p. 407.
turned its back on them.
. .
. And finding that they had lost
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
" I'm sure something nice will happen to us eventually. I'm sure life isn't meant to be always unhappy." Sosuke would then feelthat fate had borrowed his wife's voice and was mockinghim. He would remain silent and smile bitterly.If his wife happened to say more,unaware of her husband's smile, he would say sharply: " What righthave we to hope? " Oyone would then realize the effect that her words had had on her husband and become silent. They would gaze at each other and findthat they had once more returned that dark cave of to theirpast which they themselveshad dug.85
It is not self-pity pityforeach otherthat givesmeaningto but their lives, thoughit adds to theirsuffering. One day, Sosuke returns from visitto theirlandlordand tellsOyone ofthe cheera fulness his household. Withoutintending hurtOyone's feelof to ings, he stupidlyremarks: " Of course,it isn't simplybecause they have money. They have childrentoo. Why, even a poor about." household wouldbe cheerful longas therewerechildren so Oyone is deeply hurt but says nothinguntil late that evening whentheyare lyingin bed.
Seeing that her husband was still awake, Oyone began to speak to him: " You said that it's lonely withoutchildren, didn't you? " of Sosuke could remember sayingsomething the sort. But he had not meant to remindOyone particularly theirown unhappycondition. It was difficult of for him to thinkof a suitable reply. " I was not talkingabout us," he said. " But it's because you are always so lonely that you couldn't help saying what you said today. Isn't that so? " Sosuke had to admit to himselfthat therewas some truthin what Oyone had said. But forher sake he could not openlysay so. Remindinghimself that she had only recentlybeen ill, he said jokingly: " Lonely? Of course I am lonely!" But he could not thinkof anything to humorous.He felthelpless. He said simply: say that would be appropriately " It's all right. You musn't worry." Oyone remainedsilent. S6suke then tried to change the subject: " Therewas a fireagain last night, wasn't there?" Oyone thensaid suddenly, as thoughin great pain: " I am terribly sorry." She seemed to want to say more,but she became quiet again.86
But it is Sosuke that must endure greaterpain. Oyone is a woman, and her husband's love gives her all the securityand
85 Ibid.,pp. 306-307 Il Ibid.,pp. 397-98.
199
happiness that she in her humilityexpects fromlife. She will for never know the kind of lonelinessthat Sosuke suffers, his needs are greaterthan hers. Besides, Oyone's relianceon Sosuke needed is a greatstrainon him. He mustprovideall the strength by the two,and he fearsthat unlesshe findssome sourceoutside he himself, will soon have none left. Finally in desperation, he for turnsto religion possiblecomfort.He must conquerhis sense if ofguilt, loneliness, helplessness he and Oyoneare to survive. and and his He takes a shortleave from office goes to a Zen temple in Kamakura. He tellsOyone that he is goingto the resorttown for a rest and she believes him. There he stays for a few days meditation.But to and triessincerely findpeace ofmindthrough he has neverbeen a religious man, and it is now too late forhim secretsof Zen. He honestly to begin to penetratethe profound froma stay at confesses the old masterhis inabilityto benefit to the templeand leaves.
He had come to the gate and had asked to have it opened. The bar was on the other side and when he knocked,no one came. He heard a voice " Knockingwilldo no good. Open it yourself."He stood thereand wondered how he could open it. He thoughtclearly of a plan, but he could not find . the strength put it into effect. . . He looked behindhim at the path that to had led him to the gate. He lacked the courage to go back. He then looked at the great gate which would never open for him. He was never meant to pass through Nor was he meant to be contentuntil he was allowed to do it. beings who must stand by the so. He was, then, one of those unfortunate gate, unable to move, and patientlywait forthe day to end.87
saying:
to He returns Oyone,who is disappointed see that the holiday to his in Kamakura has not improved appearance. he his One Sunday not longafter return, goes to the local public the weather. They have bath and overhears two men discussing sing and agree that the song was still each heard a nightingale ratherawkward and unpractised. Sosuke, when he gets home, She looks at the remembers tell Oyone about the nightingales. to sun streaming through in the glass windowand says cheerfully, " How nice! Springhas finallycome." The novel comes to an end as Sosuke replies," Yes, but it will soon be winteragain."
87
Ibid., pp. 475-76.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
Kojin lIA
Soseki began writing Kojin [Passers-by]in 1912 and finished it in the following year. It is undoubtedly one of his most ambitiousworks.Had he takencare overit, it mightverywellhave been a greatnovel,but it unfortunately lacks tightness and has a tendency meander. Looseness of construction the one great to is faultof most of S6seki's novels,forwhichthereare perhapstwo explanations.One is that he wrotetoo quickly;the otheris that in his attempt to achieve as much realism as possible in his writings, was apt to forget he that inessential details,thoughthey mightadd to the realism, mightalso disruptthe continuity the of narrative.It is significant that Kusamakura,the least realisticof his famousnovels,is also the most tightly written.At any rate, lacks unityand is not as effective it shouldbe. as Ko3jin in The novelis ambitious thatman's isolationis dealt withhere on a far greaterscale than in any of the precedingnovels. It represents, think,S6seki's last attemptto get at the heart of I the problem.The themeof Kokoro is isolationtoo, but therethe mood is that of acceptance-not perhaps on the part of Sensei, on but certainly thepartofSoseki. The deathof Sensei in Kokoro symbolizes Soseki'sfinaladmissionof the insolubility the prooof lem. Thereis no escape from he isolation, is saying, exceptthrough death. In Kojin, however,the protagonist claims that thereare two other avenues of escape: one is madness and the other is
religion.88 S6suke in Mon nor Ichir6 -.0
but it. Sosekirespected religion could neverunderstand Neither

in Ko3jin therefore attain faith.
S6sekiwouldnot have been honesthad he allowedhis protagonists to become religious. It simplywould not have been convincing had he triedto depict a state of mindwhichwas totallyalien to him. The same may be said of insanity. For Soseki, therefore, faithand madnessare onlytheoretically possiblemeansof escape; death is the only real one. In Kojin, however,he does not yet admit that there are in fact no alternativesto death, and the
88
Zenshit,VIII, 388.
201
readeris not told whichof the threeavenues fate will choose for Ichiro. True, thereis in Ichira a streakof madness,but his madnessis it one's suffering; is ofthe kindthat does ofthekindthatincreases but not induce forgetfulness, sharpensone's sense of isolation. his Ichiro'smadnessstemsfrom too clear visionof the realitiesof man'slife. The narratorof Kojin is Jir6= 1S, Ichiro's youngerbrother. Jir6'seyes,is hardlya sympathetic Ichiro,as we see himthrough figure.It is only towardsthe end of the novel that we begin to that we have judged Ichir6too harshly. realize,withJiro, big The first scene of the novel takes place in a small seaside villagenear the castle townof Wakayama, whereIchiro,his wife Nao St, Jir6,and their motherare spending a short holiday. Ichir6 asks Jirato go out fora walk withhim. They come to the groundsof a great temple,and thereIchiro suddenlyasks Jiro denies he whether is in love withNao. Jir6hotlyand truthfully that he is, and Ichira apologizes. Then Ichiro makes an extraNao request: he wantsJiroto findout forhim whether ordinary himself is enoughto say: is chaste. Jiro shocked.He thenrecovers
" Test her chastity! I suggestyou forget you ever said such a thing." " Why?" " Why? It's idiotic,that's why! " What's so idioticabout the idea?" " All right, then. It's not idiotic. Let's say it's unnecessary." " I am askingyou because it is necessary." quiet where we were. I remainedsilent for a while. It was unexpectedly to There was not one worshipper be seen. I looked at the desertedscene and as I thoughtof us sittingalone in the cornerof the grounds,I felt a certain
" How do you proposeI test her chastityanyway?" " I want you and Nao to go to Wakayama and spend a nightthere." " " I said impatiently, What nonsense! My brotherthen became silent. the last trailinglight of the I, of course, said no more. The sea reflected reddishsun, whichwould soon disappearbeyondthe farhorizon. "So you don't want to go, eh? " "No, I don't," I said withouthesitation. " You know that I would have else foryou." done anything " All right, won't insist. But I will suspect you forthe rest of my life."89 I
89Ibid., pp. 148-44.
eeriness.
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EDWIN McCLELLAN
Finally,thetwobrothers reacha compromise. Jirowillaccompany Nao on a day's tripto Wakayama and willtryto discover how she feelsabout herhusband. The readercannottellwhether notIchiroreallydoubtsNao's or faithfulness. She is a subtle woman,whose reactionto Ichiro's coldnessis difficult fathom. She and Ichira can neverbecome to close, forneitherof them is willingto break throughthe other's remoteness.Nao senses Ichiro's suspicionsand yet she does not seem to care. She cannot enjoy married life as it is but she does not tryto make it any happier. She has immensepride and in orderto retainit, she is subtlycruelto Ichiro. Againsther kind of cruelty Ichiro has no defense, it takes the formof extreme for passivity. Later in the novel,he confesses a friend: to " 'I hit her once but she remainedcalm. I hit her again but she stillremained calm. I hit herforthe thirdtime,thinking that she would fight back, but I was wrong. The more I hit her,the moreladylikeshe became.... Was it not cruelof her to use her husband's anger as a means of showingher own superiority? I tell you, women are far more cruel than we are, despite our physical violence. Couldn't she at least have said something then?' " 90 Nao and Jirago to Wakayama the following day. Though she is fondenoughof herbrother-in-law, is slightly she contemptuous of him. She knows that Jirois afraid of his elder brotherand that he has been made uneasy by his brother'ssuspicionsconhis towardsher. She is supposednot to knowwhy cerning feelings she and Jirahave come to Wakayama, but she knows verywell that theirsis not an innocentsight-seeing trip. In a privateroomin a restaurant, asks Nao to Jiroawkwardly she not to take him be kinderto her husband. At first pretends seriously, thereis no need to maintainhercool exterior but before Jiro,and she finally breaks down in tears. It is not Jiro'swords that have made hercry;she is simplygivingreleaseto her feeling of lonelinesswhich has accumulated throughouther years of marriage. Jir6asks, " Tell me honestly, When she regainsher composure,
90 Ibid., p. 884.
203
or are you fondof my brother do you dislikehim?" She does not answer his question. Instead, she asks in turn, "Why should you want to ask me a questionlike that? You don't thinkthat I am fond of some other man, do you? "'91 The significantthing is that she neversays she is fondof herhusband. We know that she does not preferanotherman to Ichir6. But we also learn that he was not loved. that Ichiro was not wrongin thinking a While they are sittingin the restaurant, big stormbreaks. They are told that theycannotgo back to the villagewherethey are staying. They are forcedto spend the night at a hotel in Wakayama. Anothernovelistmighthave introduceda seductionscene at this point, but not Soseki. What happens in the hotel room is muchsubtler. S6seki does not even tell us that Jir6is temptedto Jir6is trulyvirtuous seduce Nao. We are leftto guess whether of he or whether is merelyfrightened his brother.And we are not sure that Nao would have resistedhad Jir6made advances. They are lyingin the dark room,waitingto go to sleep.
in The darksky that I had just seen seemedto be raging my head. I werestaying and my hotel the imagined three-storied where brother mother of sea. Then I beganto think mysisteraroundin the angry beingwhirled to in sleeping thesameroom.True,we had been forced staybecause in-law to how I shouldexplainmyself my brother. but of the storm, I wondered I him how AndI wondered I wouldmollify after had mademyexcuses.But that at excitement theadventure I a pleasurable at thesametime, felt certain the aboutthe wind, rain, and my sister-in-law I weresharing.And I forgot was of But and my thewaves, mother, mybrother. thisfeeling pleasure soon fear....92 by replaced a nameless
Despite the fact that Jir6had no consciouswish to betrayhis he brother, has a vague sense of guilt. It is this sense of guilton Ichiro's suspicion. For Ichir6 justifies Jir6'spart that ultimately Jira has said or done; his is suspiciousnot because of anything of of his from knowledge the untrustworthiness suspicionsprings wife,is all mankind. Nao too, thoughshe is not an unfaithful of contemptuous Jiro because of his virtuousbehavior. If she were completelychaste, she would never have noticed it. Her
9"Ibid., p. 164. 92 Ibid.,p. 176.
204
EDWIN McCLELLAN
last words to Jir6 that night are: "In the last resort,what cowardsmost men are." as It may be thoughtthat the plot of Ko3jin, it has so farbeen quality and melodramatic described here,has a certaincontrived quite awfulabout to about it. But Soseki is trying say something Ichiro,he is sayingthat the humannaturein thisnovel: through about any man is not that only thingwe can say withcertainty he is good or bad, loyal or disloyal,but that he is alone. This is conclusion precisely whatS6sekisays in Kokoro. It is a frightening arriveat. It and othersthat Ichir6 and Sensei about themselves situations;how extreme is no wonderthenthat Soseki introduces else can he have convincedthe reader of the realityof the fear that thesemen feel? afterthe storm,Nao and Jiroare able to leave The morning Wakayama. Ichiro receivesthemcoldly. When he and Jiroare alone, he asks him: " Well, what did you learnabout Nao's character?" Jiroanswersabruptly: " Nothing." He realizesimmedicruel to his ately, and too late, that he has been unnecessarily brother. " My brother and I did not speak. We looked at each otherin silence. It was painfulfor me to sit therethus. When I think pain must my brother's about it now,I realizehow much greater have been than mine. Then he said, his voice shakinga little: ' Jir6,I am your brother.I did not expect such a cold reply you 'I" 93 from great to They soon return Tokyo. They all live in theirfather's house. Tension mounts withinthe family,and Jiro decides to leave his home and live in a boardinghouse. Even his mother welcomeshis decision,for she hopes that Ichiro's conditionwill improvewith Jirogone. Jir6visits Ichir6 in the latter's study and informs that he is movingout. him
" When do you intendto go? " asked my brother. " I hope to leave this comingSaturday," I replied. " Alone?" he asked. I was dumbfounded this strange remark,and I gazed blankly at my by brother'sface for a while. I did not know what to say. I could not decide 9aIbid.,p. 190.
9205
a or he sarcastic whether was becoming he whether was beingintentionally mad. little was his but to beensarcastic me before, normally sarcasm no He had often than of expression a man whosemindwas farkeener morethanthenatural it, not around him. I had learnt to resent forI knewthathe thatof others hit occasion, remark me very his by no meant harm it. But on thatparticular hard. looked me and gave a giggle.Therewas a touchofhysteria at My brother in it. " Of courseyou are goingalone,"he said. " There'sno need foryou to withyou." takeanyone " You'requiteright. wantto liveby myself, so merely thatI maybreathe I air somefresh fora change." " I should a breath fresh too. But there no placefor in all me is air of like
Tokyo whereI can get it." 94
Jiro gets steadilyworse,untilin desperation 1chir6'scondition colleague-they teach at the same college-to induce asks 1chir6's him to go away for a holiday with him. The friendagrees and away fromTokyo. Jirosecretly finally succeedsin takingJchir6 him a letterif possible,so that he asks Ichir6's friendto write This the frienddoes, is may learn how his brother progressing. and the last part of the novel is told in his words. and they wander Ichiro findsit impossibleto relax anywhere, man is place to place. The friend a placid and sympathetic from out to and triessincerely help Jchir6 of his unhappystate. Ichiro and the friend in is less inhibited his companythan he was before, ever did. comesto knowhimfarbetterthan his family
because nothinghe does appears said. He suffers This is what yourbrother to him as either an end or a means. He is perpetuallyuneasy and cannot relax. He cannot sleep and so gets out of bed. But when he is awake, he cannot stay still, so he begins to walk. As he walks, he findsthat he has to he begin running.Once he has begun runninig, cannot stop. To have to keep on runningis bad enough,but he feels compelledto increase his speed with every step he takes. When he imagineswhat the end of all this will be, he is so frightened that he breaks out in a cold sweat. And the fear becomes unbearable. I was surprisedwhen I heard your brother'sexplanation. I myselfhave uneasinessof this kind. And so, thoughI could comprehend neverexperienced what he was saying,I could feelno sympathyforhim. I was like a man who tries to imagine what it is like to have a splittingheadache though he has never had one. I tried to think for a while. And my wanderingmind hit 9'Ibid., pp. 263-64.
206
EDWIN McCLELLAN
upon this thing called " man's fate "; it was a rathervague concept in my mind, but I was happy to have found somethingconsolingto say to your brother. " This uneasiness of yours is no more than the uneasiness that all men experience.All you have to do is to realizethat thereis no need foryou alone to worryso much about it. What I mean to say is that it is our fate to life." wanderblindlythrough Not only weremy wordsvague in meaningbut they lacked sincerity.Your glance; that was all my remarks brothergave me one shrewd,contemptuous deserved. He then said: " You know,our uneasinesscomes fromthis thingcalled scientific progress. Science does not know whereto stop and does not permitus to stop either. From walking to rickshaws,fromrickshawsto horsedrawncabs, fromcabs to trains, from trains to automobiles,from automobiles to airships, from airshipsto airplanes-when will we ever be allowed to stop and rest? Where will it finally take us? It is reallyfrightening." " Yes, it is frightening,"said. I Your brothersmiled. " You say so, but you don't really mean it. You aren't really frightened. This fear that you say you feel,it is only of the theoreticalkind. My fear fromyours. I feel it in my heart. It is an alive, pulsatingkind is different of fear."95
triesto convinceIchiro of the On anotheroccasion the friend has never felt a necessityforreligiousfaith,thoughhe himself need forit.
" Try not to thinkof yourself the centerof life," I said to your brother. as and you will become more relaxed." "Forget yourself " What, then,do you suggestI relyon instead?" " The gods," I said. " What are they?" he asked.... If I remember the correctly, conversation continuedas follows: " Since the world does not move in accordance with your wishes,"I said, " you have no choicebut to admit that thereis some will outsideof yourself at work." " I do admit that." " And don't you thinkthat this will is much greaterthan you? " " It probablyis since I am always the loser. But most men I see are more defeat at their evil than I, more ugly, more faithless. Why should I suffer hands? The fact is, I do. That's why I become angry." " But you are talking about the rivalrythat exists between men. I am much greater." talkingabout something " What exactlyis this vague thingthat you are talking about?" " If it doesn't exist,then you won't be saved." " All right. Let's assume that it exists."
9"Ibid., pp. 372-73.
9207
"Leave everything its care; let it guide your life. When one is on a in rickshaw,one falls asleep, trustingthe rickshawman to lead one safely to wherever one wants to go." " I know of no god that I can trustas much as I can a rickshaw man. You reallyfeel the same way as I do, don't you? This sermonyou've been giving me, you don't believe any of it. You've made it up simplyformy benefit." " Really? You make no attemptto assert your own self?" "Quite so." My uneasiness increased as your brothercontinued to press me. But it was too late for me to try to change the course of the conversation. Then your brother suddenlyraised his hand and slapped my face. As you know, I am a ratherinsensitive person. I have therefore managed to live so far withoutquarrelingwith anyone or giving anyone cause to be angry with me. Possibly because I was placid, my parents never laid their hands on me when I was a child or, needless to say, when I had passed my childhood. I had been slapped for the firsttime in my life, therefore, and I could not help the sudden anger that I felt. "What do you thinkyou'redoing?" I said. "See? " your brothersaid. I could not quite understand meaning. his " Rather violent,aren't you? " I said. " See? You have no faith in the gods, have you? You do become angry, after all. A little thing like a slap upsets your equilibrium. Where's your " self-possession? I said nothing.Indeed, I could not thinkof anything say. Your brother to then suddenly stood up. My ears were filledwith the heavy sound of his feetas he ran down the stairs.96
" You are wrong."
There is reallynothing thatlchir6'sfriend do or say to help can him,forhe cannotanswerthe questionthatIchiroasks ofhimone day as they are walkingdown a mountain: " What is it that bringsyour heart and my heart together?And what is it that finally parts them?" The question is ultimately unanswerable, and herein the key to lchiro'ssuffering. lies The friend ends his lettersaying: " At the timeI began writing thisletter[somedays ago], your brother was fast asleep. And as I am about to come to the end of it,he is once morein deep sleep. . . . There is somewhere me in if the feeling thathe wouldbe fortunate he wereneverto awaken. But at the same time,I feel that it would be terribly sad if his 97 sleep wereto last forever."
'I bid.,pp. 392-95.
97
Ibid.,p. 422.
208
EDWIN McCLELLAN
Ko3jinmay not be the most perfectly constructed Soseki's of novels. It is, nevertheless, workof greatsignificance, it cona for tains the mostfullyarticulated statement Soseki'smain theme, of man's isolation. Indeed, Soseki does not develop the themeany further. AlthoughSensei's suicide in Korkoromay in a sense be regardedas an answerto the despairing questionposed in Kojin, thereis littlemore that he can say. Soseki's lonelyprotagonist, whomwe first in encounter Nowaki,98 reachesthe peak of despair in Kojin, and in Kokoro, kills himself.No wonder,then, that the mood of Michikusa, Soseki's last completednovel, is that of resignation. There is despairin Michikusa,but whereasIchir6 we cannotaccept his fate,Kenzo does. And so in Michiklusa, find ourselvesonce morein the bleak worldof Mon.
of '8But even in Neko and Botchan, there is a strong undercurrent pathos, and both Kushami and Botchan are essentiallylonely figures.

An Introduction To Sōseki

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Harvard-Yenching Institute

' Ibid., pp. 416-18.

' Zenshul, XX, 530.

(or yobi-mon *{)f9,

18 Zenshut, XV, 243.

Komiya, Natsume Soseki, I, 254.

Zenshuj, 479. XX,

Natsume Kyoko, op. cit., pp. 13-14.

Natsume Ky5ko, 29. p.

with a book. Kenz6

who lived in a tiny room whichfaced the north

had not been washed fordays.34

Their faces looked as though they

Zenshtz, IX, 399-400.

XI, 10. Zenshui,

" Ibid., pp. 3-4. Zenshii,XIII, 121.

Komiya, Natsume Soseki, II, 112-13. XIV, 363-64. Zenshut,

40Ibid., p. 373. XX, 422-23. 42 Ibid., pp. 425-426.

Wagahai Wa Neko De Aru

The rather obvious device of having a non-

6' Ibid.,p. 244.

Ibid., pp. 371-72.

Zenshut, XX, 457.

III, 148-52. Zenshui,

"5Ibid., pp. 135-36. Zenshu, XVIH, 388-89.

Ibid., pp. 270-71.

turned its back on them.

. And finding that they had lost

Ibid., pp. 475-76.

but it. Sosekirespected religion could neverunderstand Neither

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