POLITICAL SCIENCE MID SEMESTER NOTES

P.S. – definition aims and scope

Political and P.S. - POLIS Greek word- city state
ARISTOTLE father of ps. “Man is by nature a political animal and he, who by
nature and not by mere accident is without state is either above humanity or
or below it.” --- he who is unable to live in society or who has no need bc he is
sufficient for himself is either a GOD or an ANIMAL.
COMPULSION TO LIVE IN SOCIETY- man cant do everything himself.
DEFINITIONS-
TRADITIONAL DEFS..
PAUL JANET- PS is that part of social sc which treats the foundation of the
state and the principles of govt.
GILCHRIST- A study of state and govt.
MODERN DEFS..
LASSWELL & KAPLAN- PS as an empirical discipline, the study of the shaping
and sharing of power.
GARNER- PS begins and ends w/ state.
LEACOCK- PS deals w/ govt.

LIBERAL VIEW OF POLITICS-

Product of renaissance and reformation in EU… indiv is centre of the study of
politics… ps required to solve conflicts amng competing indivs and maintain
order coop and harmony.
MODERN LIBERALS—stress on serving common good of the community and
secure justice and welfare to all. Est unity stability.

MARXIAN VIEW –
In 20th century.. stress upon the innate goodness and sociality of man. Doesn’t
find ant basic conflict in man’s self interest and social int. STATE COMES INTO
BEING WHEN SOCIETY IS CHARACTERIZED BY CLASS CONFLICT. Politics cant end
struggle of economic disparity.. ultimate goal of oppressed ppl is to achieve a
classless society… by revolutionary struggle..
MODERN VIEW-
3 ELEMENTS OF POLITICS- POWER, CONFLICT AND CONSENSUS
1- POLITICS AS POWER AND INFLUENCE
Morganthau – POLITICS IS STRUGGLE FOR POWER.
LASSWELL AND KAPLAN- concept of power is thee most fundamental in
ps.
ROBER A DAHL- politics arises when there are people living in
associations, whenever they are in conflicts and whenever they are
subject to power, rulership and authority.
2- POLITICS AS CONFLICT AND CONTROVERSY
QUINCY WRIGHT – POLITICS EXISTS ONLY WHEN ENDS OR MEANS ARE
CONTROVERSIAL.
KARL MARX- CONFLICT AS CCENTRE OF POLITICS.
3- POLITICS AS COOP AND CONSENSUS
Human interests clash and coincide. Smtimes basics are agreed on and
specifics are subject to argument, smtimes even basics are argued upon.
ROBERT A DAHL and ors. There is consensus amng grps and indivs bc the
interests are acknowledged and accommodated.

SCOPE OF PS
1- STUDY OF BOTH STATE AND GOVT.
GARRIS, BLUNTSCHLI- PS for state only
LEACOCK- more importance to govt than state => only govt.
LASKI, GILCHRIST, GETTELL- both state and govt
We cant separate the two. State is agency under which govt
functions..State is imaginaty and it is the govt that gives it a pratical
shape. COMPLEMENTARY… ONE CANT EXXIST W/OUT OTHER.
2- STUDY OF ASSICIAITONS AND INSTITUTIONS
 Created for convenience of administration. Useful to nation and have
utility iin society. Many types of A&I- supreme one controls all. Like
extensions of the govt and state . => included in ps
3- STUDY OF NATIONAL AND INTN PROBLEMS AND POLITICAL STUDY OOF
MAN
Earlier polis—city state=> less population.. limited scope..
NOW, meaning is broad.. population inc. politics not just city state govt.
but also nat. and intn. Problems… bc world is connected now.
PS now also inc study of man…
HERMAN HELLER- ‘ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOCIAL SCIENCES’=> “character of
ps in all its parts is determined by its basic pre supposition regarding
man.”
LASKI AND BURGES followed same thought..
4- STUDY OF PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE DEV. OF STATE
Studies the changing standards, origin and dev. of state. Also future to
improving organizations and activities in light of changing times.
Attempts to explain dev of state by studying past, present and future…
throws light on structure of state. Gives suggestions for iimproving it. To
meet the changing demands of society.
MEANING OF STATE CHANGED TODAY.. MEANS WELFARE STATE NOW..
=> ITS SCOPE ALSO WIDENED- FNCS INC. SO HAS ITS POWERS AND
SCOPE.. HARDLY ANY FIELD OF LIFE WHICH IT DOESN’T REGULATE..

APPROACHES-- way of looking and explaining a particular thing. Criteria for

selecting prob. Obtaining the data and seeking answers..
COMPARATIVE APPROACH—
Aristotle studied 158 constitutions. Compared them and derived answers to
the questions.,. MONTESQUIEU, BRYCE etc. also used it.
To find out causes resp or the political happening we must compare various
events recorded in world history…. Reach general conclusion by tracing similar
results to similar causes and events…
LIMITATION – I t is liable to errors as general principles, condns and
circumstances (temperament of ppl, genius of ppl, eco and social condns,
moral and ethical and legal standards of ppl)change time to time.
HISTORICAL APPROACH—
Origin of p. org can be traced in world history. =. Necessary to seek help of
history to learn abt origin and dev of a pol. Inst. PRESENT IS THE GIFT OF THE
PAST.
Proper understanding of subj. study of ppl… link up past w present systems.
Studying past we can plan for future and avoid making same mistakes made
back in time. GARNER CALLS THIS METHOD A PARTICULAR FORM OF
COMPARATIVE APPROACH…
LIMITAITION- Historical investigator may be influenced by his religious, political
beliefs, racial prejudices, philosophical doctrines consciously unconsciously…
Historian mix up history w personal beliefs-----HISTORICISM (David Easton)
LEGAL APPROACH
Study pol w/ legal and judicial institutions that are created by state for
maintaining law and order... basis- state exists for creation and enforcement of
law. Study mixed up w/ legal processes and insts, bc of their
interdependence.Main sources- constitution, codde of law, office manuals of
rules and regulations, judicial decrees.
INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH
Emphasis on insts.=> legislative executive judiciary
And informal insts. Like pol parties, pressure grps..
ALSO CALLED STRUCTURAL APPROACH…. Importance to functions and study
oof govt rather than indivs in society… main focus insts. rather ppl
PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH
Speculative, deductive nature… start w certain assumptions and determine
insts which best realize them.. ‘’what ought to be’’ is thought upon and
answered.. construct ideal state on basis of assumptions.. helps in
distinguishing good/bad… evaluation of a laden study and theory
LIMITATIONS- User smtimes forgets facts- imagination runs wild.. possess
academic value only.. no practical value… takes into account only bigger pic
ignoring smaller ones.. ignores behaviour of ppl and sociological
environments….
SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH
Sate- social organism.. social element of kinship, race, religion have influence
on behviour of ppl….. pol behaviour understood in social contract… popularity
of this approach -> new subject of study political sociology…
PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH
Study pol through laws of psy. Govt when faming laws-> reaction of ppl…
public opinion… importance to habits, instincts, emotions…psy. Reflected in
pol roles played by ppl… not free from flaws- as the study is only one sided…
apply w care..
ECONOMIC APPROACH
PLATO, ARISTOTLE- importance to eco factors in forming of pol. Ideology and
politics… pol. Strength and influence of a nation – eco condn of the nation….
SYSTEM’S APPROACH
LUDWIG VON BERTANLLANFY developed it… every system – own structure and
sub-structures… helps to understand national and intn politics… new approach
to compare pol systems of countries…
INPUT-OUTPUT APPROACH
Consequence of system’s approach…. Forces that help in decision making –
input… response to the demands – decisions of authority---output…
BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
GRAHAM WALLS AND AURTHUR BENTLEY
Motives, feelings, beliefs actions objectives… studied attempt to make
empirical component of ps more scientific bby studying behaviour of pppl at all
lvls… within/ without pol. Likes and dislikes, reactions and responses…

RELATION BW POL SC. AND SOCIOLOGY

Closely related…
SOCIOLOGY- parental science of all social sciences… PS branch of it….
SOCIOLOGY deals w society, origin, dev and structure.. aims to study its aim
and achievements… describes social traditions, customs, bbeliefs, deals w
origin and advancement of human race…..culture..
Pol scientist must be a sociologist and vice versa… every phenomenon has
socio and pol. Aspect… analysis of pol parties cant be divorced from their social
classes… GARNER- PS DEALS W ONLY ONE FORM OF HUMAN
ASSOCIATION..SSOCIOLOGY- ALL FORMS.. PS STARTS W ASSUMPTION THAT
MAN IS A POL. BEING, DOESN’T EXPLAIN AS SOCIO. DOES AS TO HOW AND
WHY HE BECAME A POL. ANIMAL…
POL SCIENCE AND LAW
Intertwined… Law is also the means by which government itself is structured,
regulated and controlled. The relation between politics and law has both a
progressive function and a safeguarding function. similar to a "checks and
balances" mechanism …. all legal institutes are a partial reflection of individual
or collective political decisions at a certain time and in a certain environment,
which have assumed a legal form and nature. Legal insts. Limit and direct
politics..

THEORIES OF STATE—
DIVINE ORIGIN THEORY
Rulers of past – pol dominance of authority and power… mandated that they
represented state as based on the divine right as god created state… state
isn’t human creation and king is the representative of god on earth.. appointed
by god himself….
OLDEST THEORY AMNG ALL ….
MACLVER- MAGIC MAN WAS PRIEST AND KING.
MAHABHARATA- GOD APPOINTED MANU TO RULE AND PROTECT PEOPLE.
JAMES- ‘THE LAW OF FREE MONARCHIES’-
kings are justly called god…. They exercise power similar to that of god but
on earth…
and are accountable to god only...
ppl cant question him for right/wrong done by him….. resistance to king is
sin.
Hereditary right is indispensable..
Supported by religious ppl only…. Nullified for being unhistorical, irrational and
unscientific…
FORCE THEORY
Scientific. Application evident in historical events…
HERBERT SPENCER- SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST proves and upholds this.
Dangerous theory.. endangers peace, harmony of the world – greatest states
created by blood and iron… directs =. to prepare for war Destruction and
killing…
In middle ages- state was based on force and injustice.
Individualistics and anarchists- state is an evil bc of their desire for indiv.
Freedom.
PATRIARCHAL THEORY
Traces its origin back to primitive society… evaluation of state started from-
tribe and not family.. verified by anthropologists… more sociological than
political…. Explained origin of family and not of the state. Element of kinship-
makes origin of state… family is oldest of all human insts. Imp role in evolution
of state.
ARISTOTLE- STATE IS THE NATURAL EXPANSION OF FAMILY.
LEACOCK- 1ST HOUSEHOLD, THEN PATRIARCHAL FAMILY, THEN TRIBE OR
PERSONS OF KINDERED DECENT AND FAMILY NATION… SO EMERGED THE
SOCIAL SERIES CREATED ON THIS BASIS.
SIR HENRY MAINE- supported patriarchal theory..
State is extension of family… head of state is father and people consist of his
children..
PATRIARCHAL THEORY- 3 PRINCIPLE FEATURES-
MALE KINSHIP, PERMANENT MARRIAGE, PATERNAL AUTHORITY
MATRIARCHAL THEORY-
“MATERNITY IS A FACT, PATERNITY IS A FICTION.”
Acc to this. In primitive society – matriarchal grps or hordes existed..kinship
could be traced thu mother only as there was no common male head…
MATRIARCHAL SYSTEM PRIOR TO PAT. SYSTEM… there was no permanent inst
on marriage.. polyandry was the permanent form of marriage… => kinship
traced through women and not men…

SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY

Theory that typically addresses the questions of the origin of society and the
legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual.
ppl consented to either tacitly or openly to surrender some of their freedoms
and submit to the authority of a ruler /magistrate in exchange for protection of
their remaining rights…. Question of realtion bw natural and legal rights….. ->
open aspect of social contract theory…
THOMAS HOBBES- ‘LEVIATHAN’
JOHN LOCKE- ‘SECOND TREATISE OF GOVT’
ROUSSEAU- SOCIAL CONTRACT
Assumption- man lived originally in a state of nature before formation of pol.
Orgs. Here he was subjected to only natural laws prescribed by nature itself.
HOBBES JOHN LOCKE JEAN JACQUES
ROUSSEAU
State of war, savage Life in STATE OF MAN IS BORN FREE
state, everyone NATURE was peaceful AND EVERYWHERE HE
enemy... to avoid fear and easy. Freedom and IS IN CHAINS
and danger of this tranquility. Equality. But State of nature life-
terrible situation – men freedom wasn’t innocent honest and
agreed to setup an licensed. Men bound happy..inc population
authority… by natural laws, but and dawn of reasoning-
In STATE OF NATURE- absence of agency to man became selfish and
no govt , men only interpret and mine and thine thinking
thought of self interest implement so common started… est of private
and no regard for authority agreed upon. proverty and hence
 others 2contracts- poor and riches…
interests….continuous social(peaceful life Quarrels and compelled
conficts.. harmony etc) and men to giveup their
STATE OF NATURE- political natural rights…
CHAOS, VILOENCE AND contract(authority est Contract and creation of
WARS but with limited and civil society…In the
Solitary, poor, nasty, specific for enforcing contract, every one
brutish and short lives law ONLY) needs to surrender all
his rights to the
community. Thus, the
community becomes
sovereign.

EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
All the five theories were analyzed before regarding ‘The Origin of the State’ is
inadequate, incomplete, defective and speculative.
Dr. Garner has aptly stated, “the state is neither the hand work of God; nor
the result of superior physical force; nor the creation of resolution of
convention, nor a mere expansion of family. The state is not a mere artificial
creation but an institution or natural growth of historical evolution.”
J W Burgers reported that “state has a continuous development of human
society out of a grossly imperfect beginning through crude but improving
forms of manifestation towards a perfect and universal organization of
mankind”.
According to Leacock “the state is a growth, an evolution, the result of a
gradual process running through out all the known history of men and
receiving into remote and unknown past”.
Imp factors-
NATURAL INSTINCT
KINSHIP
RELIGION
PROPERTY AND DEFENSE
FORCE
POL. CONSCIOUSNESS

KAUTILYA’S SAPTANGA THEORY

ARTHASHASTRA isn’t a theoretical treatise on ps. Doesn’t directly concern itself
ques of origin of state. Essesntial book on art of administration. Only a passing
reference to the origin of state.
Acc to kautilya, state originated when ppl got weary of the logic of fish
(matayanyaya) acc to which bigger fish swallows smaller ones. Ppl themselves
elected MANU as their king. State originated to fulfil the desire of peaceful
society. Kings resp to ensure it.
KAUTILYA APPEARS TO BE A SUPPORTER OF SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY.
He imagined original state to be one of total anarchy, might is right prevailed.
State organism not a mere mechanical inst. Kautilya – 1st contractualist of india
Like hobbes and loocke and rousseau in west.
He also believed in divine origin theory.
According to Kautilya, an area cannot be a state unless there are not people
and rulers to control that state. According to him state is an area which
consists many cities. It not only produces things for living but also protects its
people from danger and animals. Others things like fertile land, food, wood,
jungles for elephants, pastures for animals are also available there. For water it
depends not only on rain but it have many sources of water. For trade there
are a lot of goods. There live decent and high character people.
According to Kautilya, a state consists of different cities, people, and different
sects of people, military, treasury and tax-system.
Saptanga theory
The state is defined for the first time in the Arthashastra of Kautilya as
consisting of seven elements.
Swamin— the King, Amatya—the Minister, Janapada—the Land, and the
People, Durga—the Fortress, Kosha—the Treasury, Danda—the Army and
Mitra—the Allies. This entire set-up of the kingdom was described as
Saptanga theory in ancient India.
King in all cases belonged to the noble and royal family who possessed
qualities of both head and heart. Amatya or the minister refers to all the
officials involved in the functioning of the government. Janapada implies the
land and the people and, according to Kautilya, must be fertile. Durga’ in the
ancient India means fort, which is considered an extremely important element.
Usually, forts were constructed on the borders of the territory. Kautilya, in fact,
divided these forts into water, hill, desert and forest forts. The fifth element is
Kosha or the treasury. Kautilya opined that a king must amass wealth to
promote the welfare of the people and also maintain his army.
Danda referred to the armed forces to protect the state from aggressions and
maintain law and order within the state.
Mitra- friend / allies. Dependable. A king’s immediate neighbour becomes an
enemy and an enemy’s enemy becomes a friend of the king.
KAUTILYAS VIEWS ON LAW AND JUSTICE
Dharmashastra- guide for justice.
If conflict bw sacred law and law in practice, king must give a judgement with
reason.
QUALITIES OF A JUDGE- high calibre, self restraint, balance and well versed w
basic principles of laws. Familiarize with people. Not be corrupt and greedy.
Kautilya emphasized on eye witnesses- must be a person of integrity and
character, shd be given protection from injury and insult. Wife’s brother, co
parteners, debtors, enemies, etc cant be allowed as eye witness.
Wide range of punishments for every crime committed.
2 courts- DHARMASTEYA- CIVIL COURT AND KANTAKASODHANA- CRIMINAL
COURT.

Essential Elements of State: The state is an association distinguished by

A. territorial limits
B. inclusiveness within those limits
C. the power in its officers to exercise force and the fear of force as
instruments of policy
D. the possession by its officers of ultimate legal authority.
Each state is built up from a number of perceptible elements which we may
call the essential elements of the state.
1. Population 2. Territory 3. Government 4. Sovereignty

SOVEREIGNTY AND THEORIES

Superanus latin word--- supreme. => . Thus, sovereignty denotes supremacy
or supreme powers of the state, the origin of the concept of sovereignty are
closely linked with the nature, the history of state. in every system of
government there must be some absolute power of final decision exercised by
some person or body recognized both as competent to decide and as able to
enforce the decision.
Herold.J.Laski ‘The sovereign is legally supreme over any individual or group
and possesses a supreme coercive power.
Bodin, ‘Sovereignty is the supreme power over citizens and subjects,
unrestrained by law.
Essential Characteristics:
Sovereignty is (A-UI-PIE)
• absolute and Unlimited
• Universal
• Inalienable
• Permanent
• Indivisible
• Exclusive.
Kinds of Sovereignty: (TAct Legal PoP DeDe)
 • Titular and Actual Sovereignty
• Legal Sovereignty
• Political Sovereignty
• Popular Sovereignty
• De-jure and De-facto Sovereignty

MONISTIC THEORY
JOHN AUSTIN gave the theory. Observed – legal sovereignty and command
theory of law. The state, for Austin, was a legal order in which the specific
authority is ultimate source of power. This authority, which issues the
commands that are habitually obeyed but which is itself immune to the
commands of others, is the sovereign power in the state. Its authority is
unlimited. In this theory he asserts that moral character of the law is
irrelevant. What matters is its effectiveness.
The law is the command of the sovereign, expressing his wish backed by
sanctions.
JOHN AUSTIN AND HANS KELSON are leading exponents of logical positivism
advocating study of actual legal systems and avoids the search for independent
justifications in terms of natural law.
Their school argues that sovereignty rests in a determinate person or body of
persons and law emanates from this body. This concern is only with law and
not with politics.
PLURALISTIC THEORY
Developed by J NEILLE FIGGIS, LASKI, LINDSAY, DUGUIT, EARNEST BARKER,
MARY PARKER FOLLETT, KRABBE.
Interdependence of states in modern world and internal complexity of
advanced industrial states make sovereignty untenable. State one of the many
insts for securing multifarious interests of ppl. Arbiter over conflicting claims of
diff assocciations... It repudiated the exclusive and absolute claim of the state
to an individual’s allegiance.
LAW
WOODROW WILSON - “law is that portion of the established thought and
habit which has gained distinct and formal recognition in the shape of
uniform rules backed by the authority and power of the government”.
John Austin : Law is a command issued from a Sovereign power to an inferior
and enforced by coercion.
State – a legal inst. => study of basic concept of pol theory shd begin with the
idea of law. A state is differentiated from other states by its coercive power-
that issues in the form of law. Govt and its branches work by the direction of
law. The will of state is interpreted through law itself. VEHICLE OF
SOVEREIGNTY. Func of state is to enforce law in a just manner. Without it –
chaos and confusion. CENTRAL IDEA OF LAW IS CONTROL.