Chapter 7: Cell communication and

signaling 1

Dr. Ivonne Bejarano

 Signaling and cell function

Cells detect what's going on around them, and they respond to that information
from their neighbors and environment.

This information travels as signals, stimulus, ligands (e.g. chemical, physical).

Cells communicate using signals produced by a sending cell and released into
the extracellular space, where they reach other cells.

Only cells with specific receptors for a signal will receive the information and
respond- target cells.

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 In large multicellular organisms, signals reach target cells by diffusion or by
circulation in the blood.

Types of signals:

1. Autocrine: signals that bind receptors located on the same cell.

* tumor cells make and respond to signals that stimulate cell division.

2. Juxtacrine: signals bind receptors in cells that are in contact with the
sending cell.
* cells during development, in groups and
changing to become specialized.

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 3. Paracrine: signals that bind to receptors on nearby cells.
* inflammation, skin cut.

Hormones are signals transported by the bloodstream to bind receptors on

distant cells (endocrine).

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 Cells respond to signals in a series of steps called the “signal transduction
pathway”.

The signal transduction pathway is the interaction of a signal and a receptor,

and the amplification of the signal via a series of steps within the cell, which
cause a response in the function of the cell.

The signal transduction pathway has 3 major components:

1. the signal
2. the receptor
3. the response

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 The response can be:

A short term change.

* e.g. the activation/inactivation of enzymes

A long term change.

* e.g. regulation of proteins that turn the expression of genes on or off.

In a cell, there is often interactions between different pathways-“crosstalk”.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-dbRterutHY

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 SUMMARY

• Cells receive signals from the physical environment and from other cells.

• Autocrine signals affect the cells that make them, paracrine signals affect
nearby cells.

• A signal transduction pathway involves the interaction of a signal and a

receptor, and the amplification of the signal via a series of steps within the
cell. The effects are seen on the function of the cell.

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 Signal receptors and cellular response

Receptor proteins have very specific binding sites for chemical

signals/ligands.

Group activity…..

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 Receptors can change their shape when they bind to ligands.

Some chemicals are similar to some ligands

and bind to the receptors instead of the normal
ligand. For example:

- Agonists: bind to receptors and activate them.

- Inhibitors/Antagonists: bind to receptors, but

do not activate them.
* e.g. caffeine blocks adenosine binding-no sleep.

* Natural and artificial agonists and inhibitors are

used in medicine.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOfquPE1cnU
(from 2:07-4:00)
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 There are different types of signals based on where the receptors are located:

1. Small, nonpolar ligands- cross the plasma membrane by simple diffusion

- bind intracellular receptors (in the cytoplasm or
nucleus).

For example: Cortisol - The binding causes the receptor to change its shape,
which allows the signal to enter the nucleus and cause
an effect.
* e.g. initiate DNA transcription.

* If the receptor is bound to a chaperone, it is released

when binding occurs.

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 2. Large, polar ligands- bind to membrane receptors
(located in the plasma membrane).

For example:
The insulin molecule is hydrophilic (does not cross the
plasma membrane), so the signal is transmitted.

Plasma membrane receptors include:

1. Ion channels

2. Protein kinases

3. G protein-linked receptors

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 Ion channel receptors: gated integral proteins that allow ions to enter/leave a cell.

Example: when we contract a muscle. Acetylcholine in muscle cells:

• 2 acetylcholine bind to a sodium ion channel, opening it.

• Na ions enter the muscle cell, which causes the muscle cell to contract.

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 Protein kinase receptors:
Catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP (phosphorylation)
Change in conformation and activity.

Example: when we eat. Insulin receptors in liver cells.

2 molecules of insulin bind to the receptor and change receptor’s conformation.

The receptor gains phosphate groups, and catalyzes phosphorylation of a
cytoplasmic protein (insulin response substrates).

Response: Cells in the liver and skeletal muscles start absorbing excess
glucose and converting it to glycogen.

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 G protein-linked receptors:

G proteins move across membrane.

Signal binds the receptor, change its shape, and expose binding sites to G-proteins.

G proteins have 3 subunits:

• one subunit binds to G-protein-receptors, activates phosphorylation.
• the GTP-subunit separates to move until find an effector protein.

- The effector protein cause a change in cell function.

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 SUMMARY

• Cells respond to signals (ligands) only if they have specific receptor proteins
that bind those signals.

• Receptors may be located in the cytoplasm or nucleus, or in the plasma

membrane of target cells.

• Some signals diffuse through the membrane and meet their receptors in the
cytoplasm.

• Other signals bind receptors in the plasma membrane, such as ion channels,
protein kinases, and G-protein-receptors.

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 Cell’s response travels through the cell

A weak signal can be amplified and distributed by a

series of steps, to cause multiple responses in the
target cell.- This is a “cascade response”

For example: Cells division- Growth Factors

Protein Kinase cascade
• A growth factor molecule binds a protein-kinase-
receptor.
• The receptor exposes the active sites to
phosphorylate
• Phosphorylation activates the Ras G-proteins, that
in turn activate other proteins… until the signal
reaches the nucleus
• The energy source is GTP.
• GDP deactivates Ras proteins.

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 • Direct signal transduction: the response occurs at the plasma membrane
and is caused by the receptor itself.

• Indirect signal transduction: the receptor receives the signal, but cell’s
response is mediated by second messengers.

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 Second messengers:

• The second messenger is released into the

cytoplasm after signal binds to receptor.

• Second messengers rapidly affect many processes in

the cell.

How are second messengers formed?

1. From ATP- cAMP (cyclic AMP):

• ATP form cAMP.

• The enzyme that catalyzes cAMP formation
is located on the cytoplasmic side of the
plasma membrane.

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 Second messengers can also be derived from lipids:

- Some phospholipids in the plasma membrane can be hydrolyzed by to form

second messengers (IP3, DAG).

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 SUMMARY

• Direct signal transduction is a function of the receptor itself and

occurs at the plasma membrane.

• A receptor can activate a signal transduction pathway such as a

protein kinase cascade directly, amplifying the response to receptor
binding.

• Indirect transduction involves second messengers.

• Second messengers include cAMP, IP3, and DAG.

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Chapter 7: Cell communication and
signaling 2

Dr. Ivonne Bejarano

 How do cells change in response to signals?

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 Cells change in response to signals
Effects of signals:
• Is a key step in response of nervous
• Opening ion channels system cells (e.g. the sense of smell).

• Odorant molecules bind to receptors

in the nose, a G protein is activated,
which activates an effector protein.

• The effector protein send second

messenger (cAMP) to open ion
channels for Na+ and Ca2+ and send
signals to the brain.

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 Effects of signals: When we have low sugar levels in our
body, epinephrine activate/deactivate
enzymes.
• Changing enzyme activity
• G-protein receptor in liver cells activate
effector protein, and second messenger
cAMP forms.

• cAMP change the activity of 2 enzymes

to increase sugar levels:

• Inhibits Glycogen synthase- no more

glucose will be stored as glycogen.

• Activates Phosphorylase kinase- to

transform glycogen to glucose.

https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=uA7-
31Cxc2I
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 Effects of signals:

• Differential gene transcription Hydrophobic hormones bind to

receptors in the cytoplasm and
enter the nucleus to
activate/inactivate transcription
of DNA.

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How do cells communicate directly?

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 How do cells communicate directly?
Cells can communicate through specialized cell junctions.
• Gap junctions in animals:

Channels between adjacent cells traversed by

proteins called connexons.

Connexons of two cells come together to form a

channel.

Good for the pass of hormones and second

messengers.

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 How do cells communicate directly?
• Plasmodesmata in plants:

Pores that span plasma membrane and cell walls.

A tubule, derived from the ER, fills the space in the

plasmodesmata channel so only small metabolites
and ions can pass.

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 SUMMARY

• Adjacent animal cells can communicate through pores in their plasma

membrane called gap junctions.

• Proteins called connexons form thin channels between two adjacent

animal cells allowing signalling molecules and ions to pass.

• Plasmodesmata are pores that traverse the plasma membrane and

cell walls of plant cells.

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